Developing the reflective teacher

Journal of Advanced Nursing, 1997, 25, 1138–1143

Developing the reflective teacher

Judith M. Scanlan RN PhD

Assistant Professor, Special Projects Coordinator and PhD candidate

and Wanda M. Chernomas RN PhD

Assistant Professor, Faculty of Nursing, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada

Accepted for publication 28 May 1996

SCANLAN J.M. & CHERNOMAS W.M. (1997) Journal of Advanced Nursing 25,1138–1143Developing the reflective teacherThe conceptual issues and research findings surrounding the meaning and useof reflection are examined in this paper and serve as a foundation for discussingsignificant assumptions and beliefs regarding the use of reflection in nursingeducation. The strengths and limitations of reflection are discussed. The paperlinks current knowledge about reflection to the development of reflectivethinking and its use by nurse educators and suggests strategies to enhance thisdevelopment.

ceptual issues regarding reflection, critically examineINTRODUCTION

assumptions and beliefs about how reflection is used innursing education, and suggest strategies for becoming aMany nurse educators are products of educational pro-

grammes in which reflective strategies have not been ident- more deliberate reflective teacher.ified explicitly. As a result, their understanding ofreflection is likely to be based on their experiences with

Reflection in educationstudents and their reading of the literature rather than theirown conscious experiences with reflection. An ability to The process of reflection is used in education in a wide

range of professional fields on the premise that it facilitatesreflect evolves out of our experiences both as a professionaland a person. Reflection, however, can be used more delib- understanding of the self within the dimensions of practice

and encourages critical thinking skills in the student.erately if we realize the meaning and impact of reflectionon our personal and professional development. Teachers Intuitively, reflection is appealing to nurse educators and

we use it in a variety of ways. For example, in clinicalmust communicate their understanding of nursing to neo-phyte practitioners. How do we tap into our own knowl- courses students are required to keep a reflective journal

which documents their retrospective thinking about prac-edge and experiences and find ways to make themmeaningful to students? tice. In the educational literature, Zeichner (1994) com-

ments on the di�erences in thinking about reflection andAs the development of expertise is predicated on anindividual’s personal experiences, the ability to reflect on the di�culties in implementing reflection. He statesone’s teaching facilitates the development of expertise in

everyone, no matter what his or her ideological orientation, hasteaching. Although several authors have written about thejumped on the bandwagon at this point, and has committed hisuse of reflection with students, the nursing literature isor her energies to furthering some version of reflective teachingsilent on how teachers become reflective (Allen et al. 1989,practiceCallister 1993, Cameron & Mitchell 1993, Heinrich 1992,

(Zeichner 1994 pp. 9–10).Newell 1992). The purposes of this paper are to raise con-

Are we as nurse educators jumping on the reflectionbandwagon without clearly understanding the basic issuesCorrespondence: Assistant Professor Judith M. Scanlan, Faculty ofrelated to conceptual meaning(s) in the use of reflection?Nursing, 246 Bison Building, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB,

Canada R3T 2N2 Historically, in nursing education we have had the

1138 © 1997 Blackwell Science Ltd


tendency to adopt strategies to fix problems that we per-Stage process

ceive in nursing practice on the assumption that theseapproaches ultimately will enhance nursing practice. For One way of conceptualizing reflection is as a stage process.

The stages of reflection are conceptualized from threeexample, nursing process, behavioural objectives and pro-cess recordings were remedies in the past. Is reflection the (Schon 1987) to seven stages (Meizrow 1981). In examining

reflection from the perspective of stages, three stages seempanacea for nursing education programmes in the 1990s?If we are to use reflection e�ectively, we as teachers need to be most useful for nursing education. In this view, the

first stage of reflection is awareness. Atkins & Murphyto understand the conceptual issues and the assumptionsunderpinning reflection and its limitations. (1993) suggest that this awareness is in response to

uncomfortable feelings or thoughts. These thoughts or feel-ings may arise from surprise or a unique situation in which

REFLECTION — CONCEPTUAL ISSUESthe individual’s knowledge is insu�cient to explain whatis happening. However, one might add to this the presenceThere is consensus that there is lack of clarity in the litera-

ture with regard to the definition of reflection. Some of exciting or positive feelings or thoughts, for example,curiosity, that also could stimulate further exploration. Itauthors conclude that the di�erences are primarily related

to how the terminology is used, the details by which may be more useful to think of this conceptualization asthe first stage of reflection that one would encounter inreflection are described, and the extent to which reflective

processes are arranged in hierarchical order (Atkins & practice. In a situation in which reflection is part of class-room learning, it is su�cient to think of the first stage ofMurphy 1993). Conceptually, reflection has been linked to

other mental processes such as ponder, examine, scrutin- reflection as awareness of thoughts and feelings about asituation/experience. Awareness is the cornerstone ofize and ruminate (Kompf & Bond 1995). Furthermore,

these authors contend that reflection may be viewed as reflection. Without awareness, reflection cannot occur.In the second stage of reflection, the individual criticallya mental process in which intelligent people engage,

often without understanding what is occurring. They analyses the situation, bringing to bear his/her existingknowledge (Atkins & Murphy 1993). It is helpful to thinkassert that in terms of reflection’s relationship to critical

thinking, reflection is believed to be an aspect of the of this stage when using reflection as the opportunity toassist the student in the application of new knowledge socritical thinking process.

Schon (1983, 1987) has made a major contribution to s/he has the chance to think about how the experiencesrelate to and/or expand previous practices. Crucial to thisthe literature in describing the importance of reflection in

the development of professional knowledge and expertise. stage are the skills for critical analysis, including self-awareness, description, critical analysis, synthesis andSchon (1983) eschews the ‘high ground’ of the technical-

rational approach in the development of professional evaluation (Atkins & Murphy 1993). As can be seen fromthese descriptors, part of the di�culty with understandingknowledge and practice. He contends that the rigorous

application of scientific theory and technique is instru- reflection is that the words used to describe both theprocess and the skills are often the same.mental problem solving that ignores the ‘swampy low-

lands’ of practice in which the crucial problems of In the final stage of reflection, the individual developsa new perspective of the situation, transformed by theprofessional practice are imbedded. Germane to the devel-

opment of professional expertise is the use of reflection analysis and/or application of new information to theexperience (Atkins & Murphy 1993). As a result of theso that the practitioner can get in touch with the tacit

knowledge inherent in practice. process of reflection, learning occurs in the form of a�ect-ive and/or cognitive changes and possibly behaviouralSchon (1983, 1987) makes a temporal di�erentiation

between the reflection that occurs during practice, ‘reflec- changes. One might question if a new perspective is alwaysthe best way to characterize the outcome of reflection.tion-in-practice’, and reflection which occurs in thinking

back on practice, ‘reflection-on-practice’. While the former Reflection may reinforce a particular feeling or practiceabout which the individual is thinking. As a result, thethinking facilitates reshaping of practice during practice,

the latter enables the practitioner to think about how the individual may continue to act in the same manner.Nonetheless, one could argue that learning has taken place.experience may have contributed to an intended or unin-

tended outcome. The use of reflection in clinical practicefits with Schon’s description of reflection-in-action,

Illustrationwhereas reflection in the classroom is congruent withreflection-on-action and is a useful way of thinking about The process of reflection can be illustrated in a model (see

Figure 1). Although this model depicts reflection in athe goal of reflection in the university setting.linear fashion, it is important to remember that in realityit is an integrated, cyclical process (Allen et al. 1989,Atkins & Murphy 1993, Callister 1993).

1139© 1997 Blackwell Science Ltd, Journal of Advanced Nursing, 25, 1138–1143

J.M. Scanlan and W.M. Chernomas

Awareness � Critical analysis � Learning generally accepted in the literature, and indeed in practice,reflection is not without its di�culties. Newell (1992) pro-(Present) (Connects present (Future)

with the past & future) vides a cogent argument about the di�culties related tousing a strategy that relies on memory. Using information

Figure 1. Reflective processprocessing theory, he describes the problems related torecall and retrieval of accurate descriptions of experiences.Notwithstanding the di�culties related to accuracy ofOften an individual may be aware of a particular event

and/or feeling. However, unless there is critical analysis the retrieval process, Newell contends that the precisionof recounting the experience is of secondary importance.which reviews and links the experience to either the past

or the future, reflection has not occurred. He posits that the act of reflection in and of itself with theconcomitant process of self-awareness is the critical factorin the contribution of reflection to the development of

ASSUMPTIONS AND BELIEFS IN NURSINGprofessional expertise.

EDUCATIONAlthough Newell (1992) may be correct in discounting

inaccurate recall, the impact of inaccurate memory onIt is useful to begin the process of thinking about the usesof reflection by generating a list of assumptions and beliefs reflection needs further consideration and testing. Even

with the issue of self-awareness, people are known toabout how reflection is used in nursing education. Thesebeliefs and assumptions arise out of our own experiences deceive themselves at times. What impact does this have

on the ability to face negative critique of the self whenwith reflection and interpretation of the literature onreflection. We think they provide a helpful context to being reflective? To what extent do memory and psycho-

logical defensive processes a�ect reflective thinking andconsider the use of reflection in nursing education.the ability to learn?

1 Reflection is a mental process that we all use in3 Encouraging the ability to reflect in studentsour everyday lives. However, reflection can be

further developed for a specific professional improves learningpurpose

We tend to believe this statement. However, the ability ofreflection to improve students’ learning has not beenWhile people probably use reflection in their everyday

lives, it is likely they think they are being reflective when tested. For the most part, the literature on reflection isanecdotal. A recent review of the literature illustrates thatat times they are not. Much of this is related to the concep-

tual ‘muddle’ that was discussed earlier in the paper with there are only three studies in nursing which have exam-ined the concept of reflection (Kelly & Young 1996). Arespect to other mental processes that are associated with

reflection. Generally in nursing education we are referring review of the educational literature suggests that reflectiveresearch in education is also limited.to an awareness of thoughts or feelings that are critically

analysed through conscious e�orts of the individual and, In general student learning may be improved throughthe use of reflection. However, even when students reflectas a result, a new way of thinking about the phenomenon

occurs. If we can become more aware of what reflection on their experiences as learners, they will learn di�erentthings because they will choose di�erent parts of theentails then we should be able to label more accurately

mental processes as reflection and further develop others’ experience as significant. This suggests that when a teacherencourages reflective thinking there are limitations in pre-reflective skills for professional purposes.dicting what the students will learn. For example, oneauthor found that when asked about the most significant

2 Reflection is always good and develops thinkingnew learning in a class, for the most part students ident-

practitionersified di�erent content that had been particularly salientto them.The underlying assumption of reflection is its e�cacy as

a valuable learning strategy in which new knowledge isenhanced when it is consciously linked to past experi-

4 Students who keep journals will becomeences (Saylor 1990). Reflection is useful for pulling into

reflective practitionersconsciousness intuitive knowledge, making it less mys-terious and more apparent (Saylor 1990). Furthermore, In the past five to 10 years reflective journals have become

de rigueur in nursing education programmes. They areSaylor contends that reflection enables students to solveunknown and unique problems. In doing this the student believed to provide evidence of a student’s ability to think

critically about a situation. However, we do not know howis aware of his/her practice and, consequently, reflectionfacilitates self-evaluation. this translates into later practice. It is incumbent upon

nurse educators to examine reflection from a researchWhile this belief about the usefulness of reflection is

1140 © 1997 Blackwell Science Ltd, Journal of Advanced Nursing, 25, 1138–1143


perspective. What does journalling do for student to each other. Often a more di�cult issue for universityteachers is whether attending to the teaching enterprise isthinking? Our assumption is that it develops reflective

practitioners. Kelly and Young state: a priority in our work lives. If it is, we need to set asidetime to develop our teaching, especially if it is a strategy

for reflection to be most successful, educational experienceswhich is also going to benefit students and ultimately,

should actively prepare students to use reflective techniques thatfuture nursing practice.

can be transferred to practice(Kelly & Young 1996 p. 15).

1 Engaging in personal reflective activities on aThis sounds reasonable. However, we have to ask our-

regular basisselves which techniques serve that purpose. This too needsfurther study. It is essential that nurse educators think about how to make

more conscious intuitive and unconscious knowing andAnother issue which is related to the use of student jour-nals is how do we get at the process of reflection? Much meaning of our activities either in the classroom or in the

clinical setting. How many of us have kept reflective jour-of what we examine in journals is the end result of thestudents’ thinking and therefore we have to make highly nals about our teaching or about our personal lives? How

many of us have taken time using other strategies to reviewinferential judgements about how the student arrived atthat thought or conclusion. In reading students’ journals what has happened in a teaching situation, thought about

how it compares with other teaching situations, and thenwe also make the assumption that their thinking is trans-ferred to action in nursing practice. Our assumptions need considered what it means? In our experiences both of these

strategies are helpful in understanding our approaches toto be examined empirically.teaching and improving our teaching skills.

For example, keeping a reflective journal was helpful in5 Even though we all reflect in our everyday

assisting one of us to understand the assumptions heldpractices, nurse educators probably understand

with respect to student learning. The question that arosereflection through reading about it and observing

out of this discovery was whether or not the teaching prac-students’ experiences

tices were congruent with the stated beliefs. As a result, aconscientious e�ort was required to ensure that teachingWe suspect that we have made more of a study of students’

experiences than we have of our own. Given our knowl- practices were consistent with the beliefs identified in thejournal. In another instance, registered nurse studentsedge and experiences, if we can understand our own

mental processes in reflection then we can be an excellent were required to select a concept from practice and analyseits meaning. After doing this for a few years and based onresource to the students in learning about reflection.

Becoming more conscious about finding meaning in our students’ informal comments, it was discovered that stud-ents were selecting concepts more from their personalexperiences through reflection, can enhance nurse edu-

cators’ ability to facilitate students’ use and understanding experiences rather than from their nursing practice. Thishad implications for how the assignment was restructured.of reflection.

Therefore, as educators we need to practice reflection in There are some structures within the system that providegood opportunities to reflect on one’s teaching. Annuala planned and systematic manner. The education literature

encourages teachers to model reflective thinking. In order reviews o�er an opportunity to reflect on one’s practiceover the past year. The writing of this report helps to maketo be e�ective role models we need strategies to assist us

to call to consciousness our own reflective thinking. This explicit activities in which we have engaged and the learn-ing that has occurred for each of us. As well it providesreally begs the questions: What does it mean to be a reflec-

tive teacher? How does one become a reflective teacher? an opportunity to reflect on these experiences and theirimplications for subsequent year(s).

DEVELOPING THE REFLECTIVE TEACHERCourse evaluationsCourse evaluations are another occasion for nurse edu-To teach reflectively, we must be reflective ourselves. What

does this mean? This is a fundamental question which cators to think about our teaching and students’ percep-tions of what has transpired in the course(s). Thenurse educators should address. Does being a reflective

teacher mean that we must (i) think about our own teach- information from these evaluations can provide a chancefor us to reflect on its meaning for our teaching. Students’ing, (ii) model reflective thinking strategies in the class-

room or clinical practice or (iii) use specific teaching evaluations are simply data. Our reflections give themmeaning. For example, in teaching first year students aboutstrategies that encourage the students to be reflective? We

think that it means all of these. nursing, students’ frustrations were determined to belinked to their lack of understanding about nursing. WhatMoreover, we need to consider each of these questions

because they are part of reflective activity and are related had been attempted in the class was to link concepts to


J.M. Scanlan and W.M. Chernomas

what their future nursing would be. In reviewing the evalu- together with students to uncover each others’ tacit mean-ings of the experiences. In this collaborative relationship,ations, it became evident that linking the concepts to nurs-

ing was not enough. What was needed was illustrating a students and teachers interact to discover the meaning ofthe situation together. We should consider how we can belink between the concepts and the students’ experiences

so that they could find their own meaning in the relation- facilitators of this kind of relationship. However, this shiftis predicated on an ability to be comfortable in giving upships to nursing practice. When this change was incor-

porated into the course in subsequent years, student control in our relationships with students.Consequently, reflecting on our own style of interactingevaluations dramatically improved.

with students may assist us to understand these relation-ships. In addition, we need to consider what kind of

2 Coaching each other in reflective teachingrelationships are most e�ective with students. If we believethat nurses should work collaboratively with clients, thenIn both formal and informal group situations there are

opportunities in which teachers may engage in reflection. we as educators need to think about how we can modelthis type of relationship with students.Faculty can help each other by asking questions and o�er-

ing alternative explanations for the experience. Personalreflection alone is limited by one’s own understanding and

4 Revisit the process-content curriculum debateknowledge. By talking about our teaching experiences withothers, we can benefit from their insights and perspectives. Are we still too content oriented? In our opinion nursing

curricula are still mired in content. The attempt to incor-Talking about work can be a reflective activity. Informalopportunities may arise in discussion at co�ee and lunch porate reflection as a process into nursing education was

intended, in part, to address the issue of content ladenor we may seek out a colleague, family member or friendwhen we are perplexed with a teaching or student prob- curricula. The knowledge explosion has resulted in adding

content to nursing curricula without any deletion. It islem. By talking to someone, we are forced to bring ourteaching to consciousness as we need to describe the situ- painful to take anything out of nursing courses. This puts

us in a position in which the focus is on delivering contentation. Just by verbalizing our thinking, the other personmay lead us to our own understanding of the issue. with little time to encourage students’ processing of

knowledge during class.Coming together to discuss teaching creates opportunit-ies to share our experiences with others. Research sem- How often have we stood in front of a class whose body

language suggested their minds were elsewhere or theyinars are an acceptable part of our work life. Teachingseminars may do the same thing for teaching that research were bored or overwhelmed with what we were saying?

How many of us have stopped the class to find out whatseminars have done for research. Another alternativewould be to form a discussion group of interested teachers was going on or asked the students what they thought

about what was said. This reflection-in-action is necessarywho could meet regularly to discuss their stories aboutteaching. Through this interchange new understandings of to enable us to move our teaching beyond content to a

more process oriented approach.teaching would emerge. We have so many rich experiencesas teachers it would be useful to find opportunities to sharethem with others so that we can learn from one another.

CONCLUSIONYear end curriculum meetings can be structured as more

than a review of the year’s activities. The challenge is to We must explore the powerful implications of adoptingreflection in nursing education programmes. In this paperthink about how we can move these meetings beyond a

description and brief evaluation of what has occurred in we have identified several areas in which reflection wouldbenefit from research. Conceptual clarity is required tothe courses. An inability to move to more meaningful

issues may perpetuate the status quo and prohibit dis- further a more deliberate use of reflection in nursing edu-cation. The relationship between reflective teaching stra-cussion of broader curricular issues, including teaching.

For example, if students complain about too much group tegies, students’ learning and subsequent use in practiceneeds to be examined empirically. The learning context inwork, rather than see it as a student problem, we might

try reframing it and see it as a broader teaching problem which teachers and students are engaged should be stud-ied for its ability to facilitate reflective thinking. Moreover,and develop strategies across the programme based on this

di�erent understanding. a closer examination of the process of reflection willuncover strengths and limitations in the use of reflectionin nursing education.

3 Recharacterize our interactions with studentsThe use of reflective activities takes time and commit-

ment on the part of the teacher to give meaning to theDoll (1993) contends that we cannot engage in reflectiverelationships with students unless we give up our position relevance of experience in the development of professional

knowledge. Faculty, through their own reflection onas the authoritative knower. He suggests that teachers work

1142 © 1997 Blackwell Science Ltd, Journal of Advanced Nursing, 25, 1138–1143


Doll W. (1993) Challenging Curriculum Icons: A Post-Modern,teaching, can model to students the relevance of reflectionPost Structural Pramble. Southern Council on Collegiateto their learning. Through reflective activities, the teacherEducation for Nursing, Atlanta, Georgia.engages in an ongoing dialogue with the self through

Heinrich K.T. (1992) The intimate dialogue: journal writing bywhich there is increased self-awareness.students. Nurse Educator 17(6), 17–21.Reflection allows the teacher, through this conversation

Kelly E. & Young A. (1996) Models of nursing education for thewith the self, to evaluate his/her own teaching. The dis-

20-first century. In Review of Research in Nursing Educationcovery of self that emerges in this dialogue empowers the (Stevens K.R. ed.), NLN Press, New York, pp. 1–39.individual by synthesizing previous perceptions and Kompf M. & Bond W.R. (1995) Through the looking glass: somelearning and connecting it with what is known. Through criticisms of reflective practice in teaching and teacher edu-reflection the teacher is able to come to a personal under- cation. Paper presented at the American Education Research

Association Annual Meeting, 18–22 April, San Francisco,standing of his/her own practice, developing a frameworkCalifornia.of practice which facilitates further development of

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Developing the reflective teacher