Definitions and IDs• regent• Spanish Armada• Huguenots• St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre• “Paris is worth a Mass” • Oliver Cromwell• interregnum• regicide

Questions / Imperatives• What were the issues in the “religious wars”

following the Reformation? Be able to give examples by pointing to Spain, France, England or the Germanic regions.

• How do civilized societies justify war? (Class discussion)

Overview• the early 16th century experienced rapid

changes– rises in population and prices– Reformation– Overseas discoveries– Resistance of new Monarchs– Increasing interference in local affairs– The questioning of the Pope’s authority– Power of the nobility was dwindling– The poor unsuccessfully revolted against their social

superiors– Struggle between Catholicism and Protestantism

Warfare• warfare was changing– gunpowder was now central, no longer

something to be used occasionally– castles could no longer defend against explosives– towns built heavy walls to try to protect their citizens– the traditional cavalry charge was replaced by ranks of

infantry, this being perfected by the Spaniards– often the best-disciplined armies won (like football)– sizes of armies grew and taxes needed to support them– social distinctions were reduced: a young man could rise in

the ranks though the officer corp. was still reserved for nobility

– the order of command that we understand today…

What caused the wars?

Spanish Netherlands• Philip II had inherited the Netherlands from his father• Luther’s works and Dutch translations of the bible• Philip’s interference in religion provoked violence in 1566– Protestant mobs assaulted Catholics; sacked churches – Spanish troops were used to suppress heresy and treason– Protestants were hanged in public

• William of Orange - symbol of resistance• Spaniards headed north in 1574 to rectify the situation and

were stopped 25 miles from Amsterdam by the opening of the dikes

• After 2 more years of fighting Philip’s troops mutinied and rioted in Antwerp and 16 of the 17 provinces united behind William of Orange to drive out the Spaniards

Philip and Elizabeth

• Philip II of Spain was the most powerful monarch in Europe during the second half of the 16th century (r 1556-1598)– obsessed with the two enemies of the Church – Protestants and

Muslims– Philip’s policy toward England was also ineffective

• Protestant Queen Elizabeth came to the Throne in 1558• English sailors and explorers tried to take some of Philip’s wealth

in the New World• In 1585, Elizabeth helped the Dutch in their rebellion against Spain

and this may have been the straw that broke the camel’s back• Philip hit England with one mighty blow

– the Spanish Armada 1588

France

• Under 16th-century rulers, the administration of France grew in size– More money needed– King sold offices (positions within the bureaucracy)– Pope gave France’s King the right to appoint all its bishops

and abbots– In the mid-16th Century, Francis spent money on France to

have the wonders of the Italian Renaissance; • Henry II married Catherine de Medici

Problems in France

• By 1550s, Calvinism widespread among peasants and towns of southern and southwestern France• Guises (a powerful family) assumed the leadership of

Catholics• Bourbons, countered by supporting the Calvinists

• 1559 saw the death of King Henry II • Same time, first national synod of the Protestant Huguenots

(French Protestants - Hueges was political leader in Geneva)• Henry’s three sons ruled over the next 30 years• all were ineffective and the real power lay with their mother,

Catherine de Medici

The Three Henrys

–Henry III (later to become King)–cousin Henry of Navarre (the Protestant

Bourbon)–Henry of Guise (a Catholic relative)

• fighting in France began 1562; lasted more than 3 decades

• killing, torturing, burning of bodies, defilement of Cath. Churches

• Catherine turned to the Catholics for help and later switched to the Calvinists…and back again

Wedding and death

• 1572, Margaret married Henry of Navarre (Protestant)

• summer of 1572, Catherine welcomed Gaspard de Coligny, leader of the Huguenots (Protestants) into the court

• Catholic anxiety and fear arose and Charles IX who was King, now of age might be influenced by Coligny

• Coligny was accused of plotting to kill the Queen and her children and so it was decided that he should be assassinated

St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre

• Margaret’s marriage took place on August 18, 1572• Coligny was shot on August 22, but did not die• Charles to prove himself…August 24: THE MASSACRE

• LATER, Catholic Guises formed Catholic League using Henry III• 1584, this League allied w/ Catholic Spain’s Philip II • when the Armada was defeated, the League lost Philip’s support• Henry III ordered assassination of Henry of Guise• Guise was assassinated and within a few months so was Henry III• Henry of Navarre, the Bourbon, inherited the throne as Henry IV• “Paris is worth a Mass”• He set forth a policy of limited toleration; The Edict of Nantes in

1598 allowed Huguenots freedom of public worship on Protestant estates, but not within 5 leagues of Paris

Thirty-Years War1618-1648

• Holy Roman Empire lacked central authority & unifying institutions• small scale fighting repeatedly after 1550s; always inspired by religion• Thirty Years War began in the Kingdom of Bohemia in 1618 and

continued for 30 years• every major ruler in Europe became involved in the war• How did it start?– 1609, Emperor Rudolf II promised toleration for Protestants– His cousin Ferdinand, a pious Catholic, succeeded him in 1617,

and he refused to honor Rudolf’s promise• the wars killed more than 1/3 of Germany’s population• The Peace of Westphalia

Civil Wars of England• Queen Elizabeth died in 1603 and was

succeeded by her cousin, a Stuart, James of Scotland

• James reigned from 1603-1625 and trouble began for him immediately at the first meeting of Parliament under his reign

• Puritans hoped to change the Anglican Church by legislation• Puritans began to dominate Parliament proceedings• James sought union with Scotland and England & they blocked it• The confrontations in Parliament grew worse during the 1620s

and James had some members sent to prison• In 1625, James was succeeded by his son Charles I (1625-1649)

and hostilities intensified

Charles I

• Charles faced challenge w/Parliament (1628-29) • Ended with the Petition of Right– Demanded end to imprisonment w/o cause – Demanded end to taxation w/o consent of Parliament– Demanded end to martial law in peacetime– Demanded end to quartering of troops among citizens

• Charles agreed, but then broke his word• When threatened with Scots, Charles needed to raise an army• CIVIL WAR• the Parliament of 1640 was dominated by Puritan John Pym• at this time, the Puritans were preparing to reform the Church• Oliver Cromwell (ID) was one of the leading members of the

House

Regicide!• Cromwell persuaded the House of Commons in 1645

to reorganize the army• The new army became unbeatable and a year later,

Charles surrendered• The next two years were chaotic• The Independents abolished the House of Lords and

removed all Presbyterians from the House of Commons, leaving behind a rump parliament (a remnant of what had been)…less than 100 men, about 1/5 of the original membership

• Charles was executed by his subjects in 1649,which horrified Europe and most of England

Oliver Cromwell• Oliver Cromwell was now the master of England• Cromwell fought for 2 overriding causes– religious freedom & constitutional government

• Cromwell dissolved Parliament• During the last 5 years of his life, Cromwell tried to lay down a

constitutional structure for his government• To stop opposition, he banned newspapers and enlisted spies• Parliament of 1656 offered him crown of England, but he refused• When he died, his son Richard was no match for the opposition • Charles II who had been living in exile returned to lead England• the period of interregnen (between reigns) was at an end • Cromwell’s chief successes had been in foreign policy, reasserting

England’s importance in international affairs and strengthening the navy

Back to the ROYALS• Charles II’s reign was ineffective• King could not interfere in parliament• Charles II’s brother James II followed; James was an open Catholic• Would he try to restore Catholicism?• James became King in 1685 and encouraged Catholicism • Protestant ruler of the United Provinces, William III invaded

England and took over the throne (James and his family fled to Catholic France)

• William was a nephew of James II, the son of James’ sister who married William II of the United Provinces

• William’s wife Mary was a daughter of James II from his first wife• Parliament declared William and Mary joint monarchs,

reigning until William’s death in 1702

DISCUSSION QUESTION: To what degree did these “religious wars”

deal with religion?