Definition Organizational Behaviour

7/22/2019 Definition Organizational Behaviour

1/22

An organization is a collection of people who work together toachieve individual and organizational goals

DefinitionOrganizationalbehaviour, is

Organizational Behavior (OB) is the study and application of knowledge about howpeople, individuals, and groups act in organizations. It does this by taking a systemapproach. That is, it interprets peopleorganization relationships in ter!s of the wholeperson, whole group, whole organization, and whole social syste!. Its purpose is tobuild better relationships by achieving hu!an ob"ectives, organizational ob"ectives, andsocial ob"ectives.

http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/leader/leadob.html

Organizational behaviorstudies organizations from

multiple viewpoints and levels, including behavior within theorganization and in relation to other organizations.

Micro organizational behavior refers to individual and groupdynamics in an organizational setting.

Macro organizational theorystudies whole organizations andindustries, including how they adapt, and the strategies, structures, andcontingencies that guide them.

https://www.boundless.com/management/organizational-theory/why-study-organizational-theory/what-is-organizational-behavior/

OB highlights four central characteristics of the field:

It is firmly grounded in the scientific method

It studies individuals, groups, and organizations.

It is interdisciplinary in nature.

It is used as the basis for enhancing orgainsationaleffectiveness and individual wellbeing.

!he study of OB involves: "onsideration of the interaction among the formal structure

#organizational conte$t in which the process ofmanagement takes place%

!he technology employed and the methods of carrying out

work

!he behaviour of people
http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/sat1.htmlhttp://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/sat1.htmlhttp://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/leader/leadob.htmlhttps://www.boundless.com/management/organizational-theory/why-study-organizational-theory/what-is-organizational-behavior/#Organizational_Behaviorhttps://www.boundless.com/management/organizational-theory/why-study-organizational-theory/what-is-organizational-behavior/#behaviorhttps://www.boundless.com/management/organizational-theory/why-study-organizational-theory/what-is-organizational-behavior/#theoryhttps://www.boundless.com/management/organizational-theory/why-study-organizational-theory/what-is-organizational-behavior/https://www.boundless.com/management/organizational-theory/why-study-organizational-theory/what-is-organizational-behavior/http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/sat1.htmlhttp://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/sat1.htmlhttp://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/leader/leadob.htmlhttps://www.boundless.com/management/organizational-theory/why-study-organizational-theory/what-is-organizational-behavior/#Organizational_Behaviorhttps://www.boundless.com/management/organizational-theory/why-study-organizational-theory/what-is-organizational-behavior/#behaviorhttps://www.boundless.com/management/organizational-theory/why-study-organizational-theory/what-is-organizational-behavior/#theoryhttps://www.boundless.com/management/organizational-theory/why-study-organizational-theory/what-is-organizational-behavior/https://www.boundless.com/management/organizational-theory/why-study-organizational-theory/what-is-organizational-behavior/


2/22

!he process of management

!he e$ternal environment

Interrelated dimensions influencing behaviour:

!he Individual & working environment should satisfyindividual needs as well as attainment of organizationalgoals

!he 'roup formal and informal. (nderstanding of groups

complements a knowledge of individual behaviour.

!he Organisation & impact of organization structure and

design, and patterns of management, on behaviour.

!he )nvironment & technological and scientific

development, economic activity, and governmental actions.

http://www.slideshare.net/clickmyemail/intro-to-ob-ppt

Providesa set of tools that allow:

People to understand, analyze, and describe behavior in organizations

Managers to improve, enhance, or change work behaviors so that

individuals, groups and the whole organization can achieve their goals

Generalisationsabout humanbehaviour:

> happy workers are productive workers.> Individuals are most productive when the boss is friendly, reliable and

unassuming.

> behaviour of good leaders is consistent irrespective of the situations they face.

> Interviews are effective selection devices. > Everybody likes a challenging job

> People will have to be bullied/intimidated to make them to do their jobs.

> Money motivates all. >

>People are more concerned about their own salaries than others.

>Members of effective groups do not quarrel among themselves.

A Short Historyof OrganizationalBehavior

The Greek philosopher Plato wrote about the essence of leadership. Aristotle

addressed the topic of persuasive communication. The writings of the Chinese

philosopher Confucius in 500 BC are beginning to influence contemporary

thinking about ethics and leadership. The writings of 16th century Italian

philosopher Niccol Machiavelli laid the foundation for contemporary work on
http://www.slideshare.net/clickmyemail/intro-to-ob-ppthttp://www.slideshare.net/clickmyemail/intro-to-ob-ppt


3/22

organizational power and politics.

In 1776, Adam Smith advocated a new form of organizational structure based on

the division of labour. One hundred years later, German sociologist Max Weber

wrote about rational organizations and initiated discussion of charismatic

leadership.

Soon after, Frederick Winslow Taylor introduced the systematic use of goal

setting and rewards to motivate employees. In the 1920s, Australian-born

Harvard professor Elton Mayo and his colleagues conducted productivity studies

at Western Electric's Hawthorne plant in the United States. They discovered the

importance of formal and informal group dynamics in the work place, resulting in

a dramatic shift towards the human relations school of thought.

Though it traces its roots back to Max Weber and earlier, organizational studies

is generally considered to have begun as an academic discipline with the adventof scientific management in the 1890s, with Taylorism representing the peak of

this movement. Proponents of scientific management held that rationalizing the

organization with precise sets of instructions and time-motion studies would lead

to increased productivity. Studies of different compensation systems were carried

out.

After the First World War, the focus of organizational studies shifted to analysis

of how human factors and psychology affected organizations, a transformation

propelled by the identification of the Hawthorne Effect . This Human Relations

Movement focused on teams , motivation , and the actualization of the goals of

individuals within organizations. Prominent early scholars included Chester

Barnard , Henri Fayol , Frederick Herzberg , Abraham Maslow , David

McClelland , and Victor Vroom.

The Second World War further shifted the field, as the invention of large-scale

logistics and operations research led to a renewed interest in rationalist

approaches to the study of organizations. Interest grew in theory and methods

native to the sciences, including systems theory, the study of organizations with a

complexity theory perspective and complexity strategy. Influential work was done

by Herbert Alexander Simon and James G. March and the so-called "

Carnegie School & quot; of organizational behavior

In the 1960s and 1970s, the field was strongly influenced by social psychology

and the emphasis in academic study was on quantitative research . An explosion

of theorizing, much of it at Stanford University and Carnegie Mellon, produced

Bounded Rationality , Informal Organization , Contingency Theory , Resource

Dependence , Institutional Theory , and Organizational Ecology theories, among


4/22

many others. Starting in the 1980s, cultural explanations of organizations and

change became an important part of study. Qualitative methods of study became

more acceptable, informed by anthropology , psychology and sociology . A

leading scholar was Karl Weick

FrederickWinslowTaylor FrederickWinslowTaylor (18561915)was the first person

who attempted to study human behavior at work using a systematic approach.

Taylor studied human characteristics, social environment, task, physical

environment, capacity, speed, durability, cost and their interaction with each

other. His overall objective was to reduce and/or remove human variability

Taylor worked to achieve his goal of making work behaviors stable and

predictable so that maximum output could be achieved. He relied strongly upon

monetary incentive systems, believing that humans are primarily motivated by

money. He faced some strong criticism, including being accused of tellingmanagers to treat workers as machines without minds, but his work was very

productive and laid many foundation principles for modern management studies

Four Principles of Scientific Management

1. Study the way employees perform their tasks, gather informal job knowledge

that employees possess, and experiment with ways of improving the way tasks

are performed.

2. Codify the new methods of performing tasks into written rules and standard

operating procedures.3. Carefully select employees so that they possess skills and abilities that match

the needs of the task, and train them to perform the task according to the

established rules and procedures.

4. Establish an acceptable level of performance for a task, and then develop a

pay system that provides a reward for performance above the acceptable level.

The HawthorneStudiesHawthorne Works of the Western Electric Company near

Chicago; 1924-1932 these studies mark the starting point of the field of

Organisational Behaviour Initiated as an attempt to investigate how

characteristics of the work setting affect employee fatigue and performance (i.e.,

lighting). Found that productivity increased regardless of whether illumination

was raised or lowered.

Started in 1924 to examine the relationship between light intensity and

employee productivity a test group and a control group were used the test

group initially did not show any increase or decrease in output in proportion to the


5/22

increase/decrease in illumination. The control group with unchanged illumination

increased output by the same amount overall by the test group. Subsequent

phases brought the level of light down to moonlight intensity: the workers could

barely see what they were doing, but productivity increased. The results baffled

the researchers. Obviously, something besides the level of illumination was

causing the change in productivity the complex human variable.

Mary ParkerFollett

Management must consider the human side Employees should be involved in job

analysis Person with the knowledge should be in control of the work process

regardless of position Cross-functioning teams used to accomplish projects

DouglasMcGregor:Theory X and Theory Y

Theory X

Average employee is lazy, dislikes work, and will try to do as little as possibleManagers task is to supervise closely and control employees through reward

and punishment

Theory Y

Employees will do what is good for the organization when committed Managers

task is create a work setting that encourages commitment to organizational goals

and provides opportunities for employees to be exercise initiative

http://www.slideshare.net/saransuriyan/organisational-behaviour-ppt

ATTITUDE

The attitude is the evaluative statements or judgments concerning objects,

people, or events. ore precisely attitudes can be de!ined as a persistent

tendency to !eel and behave in a particular way toward some object which may

include events or individuals as well.

Attitude can be characterized in three ways: "irst, they tend to persist unless something is done to change them. #econd, attitudes can !all anywhere along a continuum !rom very !avorable

to very un!avorable.

Third, attitudes are directed toward some object about which a person has

!eelings $sometimes called %a!!ect&' and belie!s.

Components of Attitudes
http://www.slideshare.net/saransuriyan/organisational-behaviour-ppthttp://www.slideshare.net/saransuriyan/organisational-behaviour-ppt


6/22

The three basic components o! attitude are (ognitive, )!!ective and

*ehavioural part.

Cognitive Component of Attitude re!ers to opinion or belie! part o!

attitude. +hen you !orm your opinion or judgment on the basis o! available

in!ormation and decide whether you have a !avorable or un!avorable opinion

on that, it the cognitive part o! attitude we are talking about.

e: y supervisor gave a promotion to a coworker who deserved it less than

me. y supervisor is un!air.

Affective Component of Attitudere!ers to the emotional aspect o!

attitude. This is perhaps the most o!ten re!erred part o! attitude and decides

mostly the desirable or undesirable aspect attitude.

e: dislike my supervisor

Behaviora Component of Attitude re!ers to the behavioral part o!

attitude. ! we have a positive attitude !or a particular object, it is likely to be

translated into a particular type o! behavior, such as buying or procuring that

object.

e: m looking !or other work0 ve complained about my supervisor to anyone

who would listen.

!ormation of Attitude

1ow attitudes are !ormed2 1ow do you develop your attitude2 3ssentially

attitudes are the outward mani!estation o! your inner values and belie!s. Thesedevelop over time. )s you grow you watch the signi!icant people around you

behaving in a particular way0 you are being told to cherish certain things over

others and you learn !rom your teachers and peers and come to value certain

thins over other, thus !orming your value system. These in turn give rise to

development o! your attitudes.

Attitudes hep predict wor" behavior#The !ollowing eample might

help to illustrate it. )!ter introducing a particular policy, it is !ound !rom an

attitude survey, that the workers are not too happy about it. 4uring the

subse5uent week it is !ound that the attendance o! the employees drops sharply

!rom the previous standard. 1ere management may conclude that a negativeattitude toward new work rules led to increased absenteeism.

Attitudes hep peope to adapt to their wor" environment# )n

understanding o! attitudes is also important because attitudes help the

employees to get adjusted to their work. ! the management can success!ully

develop a- positive attitude among the employees, they will be better adjusted

to their work.


7/22


8/22

,ome of the possibe ways of changing attitudes are described beow#

-roviding .ew Information##ometimes a dramatic change in attitude is

possible only by providing relevant and ade5uate in!ormation to the person

concerned. #canty and incomplete in!ormation can be a major reason !or

brewing negative !eeling and attitudes.

Use of !ear. )ttitudes can be changed through the use o! !ear. 9eople might

resort to change their work habit !or the !ear o! !ear o! unpleasant

conse5uences. 1owever, the degree o! the arousal o! !ear will have to be taken

into consideration as well.

/esoving Discrepancies:+henever %people !ace %a dilemma or con!licting

situation they !eel con!used in choosing a particular course o! action. ;ike in

the case where one is to choose !rom& between two alternative courses o!

action, it is o!ten become di!!icult !or him to decide which is right !or him.

3ven when he chooses one over the other, he might still !eel con!used. ! some

one helps him in pointing out the positive points in !avour o! the chosen course

o! action, he person might resolve the his dilemma.

Infuence of friends and peers) very e!!ective way o! changing ones

attitude is through his !riends and colleagues. Their opinion and

recommendation !or something o!ten proves to be more important. ! !or

eample, they are all praise !or a particular policy introduced in the work place,chances are high that an individual will slowly accept that even when he had

initial reservations !or that.

Co%opting. ! you want to change the attitude o! some body who belongs to a

di!!erent group, it is o!ten becomes very e!!ective i! you can include him in

your own group. ;ike in the case o! the union leader who are all the time

vehemently against any management decision, can be the person who takes

active initiative in implementing a new policy when he had participated in that

decision making process himsel!.


9/22

Using attitude surveys on a regular basis provides managers with valuable

feedback on how employees perceive their working conditions. Managers

present the employee with set statements or questions to obtain specific

information. Individual Responses are then combined and analyzed

Important Attitudes /eated to 0rganisations:

=ob #atis!action > is a set o! !avorable or un!avorable !eelings and

emotions with which employees view their work.

=ob nvolvement - the degrees to which a person identi!ies with a job,

actively participates in it, and considers per!ormance important to sel!-

worth.

?rganizational (ommitment - the degree to which an employee

identi!ies with a particular organizational and its goals and wishes to

maintain membership in the organization.

=?* #)T#")(T?@

A collection of positive and/or negative feelings that an individual holds toward

his or her job

A high level of job satisfaction equals positive attitudes toward the

job and vice versa.

Employee attitudes and job satisfaction are frequently used

interchangeably. Often when people speak of employee attitudes they mean

employee job satisfaction.

A pleasurable emotional state resulting from the appraisal of ones job or job

experiences (Locke, 1976).

An employees cognitive and affective evaluation of his or her job

Determinants of Job Satisfaction:

Personality (the enduring ways a person has of feeling, thinking, andbehaving)

Work Situation (the work itself; coworkers, supervisors, and subordinates;

physical working conditions, and working hours, pay and job security)

Values (intrinsic and extrinsic work values)

Social Influence (coworkers, groups, and culture)


10/22

The Effect of Job Satisfactionon EmployeePerformance

Job Performance

Satisfied workers are more productive AND more productive workers are

more satisfied!

Worker productivity is higher in organizations with more satisfied workers.

Absenteeism

Satisfied employees have fewer avoidable absences.

Turnover

Satisfied employees are less likely to quit.

Organizations take actions to retain high performers and to weed out

lower performers.

Customer Satisfaction

Satisfied workers provide better customer service

Satisfied employees increase customer satisfaction because:

They are more friendly, upbeat, and responsive.

They are less likely to turnover, which helps build long-term customer

relationships

Organizational Citizenship behavior (OCB)

Satisfied employees who feel fairly treated by and are trusting of the

organization are more willing to engage in behaviors that go beyond the

normal expectations of their job.

Workplace Deviance

Dissatisfied workers are more likely to unionize abuse substances, steal,

be tardy, and withdraw

CognitiveDissonance

A state of tension that is produced when an individual experiences conflict

between attitudes and behavior

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Leon Festinger

Any Incompatibility between 2 or more attitudes or between behavior

Internal state that results when individuals notice inconsistency between 2

or more of their attitudes or between their attitudes and their behavior


11/22

Self Perception Theory

Daryl Bem

Asserts that we develop our attitudes by observing our own behavior and

concluding what attitudes must have caused them

http://mbanotesravi.wordpress.com/A8/88/B/organisation-behaviour-attitude/http://www.slideshare.net/srmacalinao/employee-attitude-and-their-e!!ects

http://www.slideshare.net/guruduttreddy/attitudes-8C8DCEDF

93G(39T?@

is the process by which organisms interpret and organize sensation to

produce a meaningful experience of the world (Lindsay & Norman, 1977).

Four Stages:

1. Stimulation

2. Registration

3. Organization

4. Interpretation
http://mbanotesravi.wordpress.com/2012/11/27/organisation-behaviour-attitude/http://www.slideshare.net/srmacalinao/employee-attitude-and-their-effectshttp://www.slideshare.net/guruduttreddy/attitudes-13163469http://mbanotesravi.wordpress.com/2012/11/27/organisation-behaviour-attitude/http://www.slideshare.net/srmacalinao/employee-attitude-and-their-effectshttp://www.slideshare.net/guruduttreddy/attitudes-13163469


12/22

Broadbent (1958) addressed the concept of perceptual vigilance with his filter

model. Broadbent argued that, on the one hand, due to limited capacity, a person

must process information selectively and, therefore, when presented with

information from two different channels (i.e., methods of delivery such as visual

and auditory), an individuals perceptual system processes only that which itbelieves to be most relevant. However, perceptual defense creates an internal

barrier that limits the external stimuli passing through the perception process

when it is not congruent with the persons current beliefs, attitudes, motivation,

etc. This is referred to as selective perception. Selective perception occurs when

an individual limits the processing of external stimuli by selectively interpreting

what he or she sees based on beliefs, experience, or attitudes (Sherif & Cantril,

1945).

Broadbents filter theory has been updated in recent years. A Selectionfor-Action

View suggests that filtering is not just a consequence of capacity limitations, butis driven by goal-directed actions (Allport, 1987, 1993; Neumann, 1987; Van der

Heijden, 1992). The concept is that any action requires the selection of certain

aspects of the environment that are action relevant and, at the same time,

filtering other aspects that are action irrelevant. Therefore, when one is working

toward a goal, one will skip over information that does not support ones plan.

Recent studies of the brain have also led to new models, suggesting multiple

channels of processing (Pashler, 1989) and selective perception as a result of

activation of cortical maps and neural networks (Rizzolatti & Craighero, 1998). In

any case, people are selective in what they perceive and tend to filter information

based on the capacity to absorb new data, combined with preconceived

thoughts.

http://healthadmin.jbpub.com/borkowski/chapterC.pd!

Social Perception

Social perceptionis how an individual sees others and how others perceive an

individual. This is accomplished through various means such as

classifying an individual based on a single characteristic (halo effect),

evaluating a persons characteristics by comparison to others (contrasteffect), perceiving others in ways that really reflect a perceivers own attitudes

and beliefs (projection), judging someone on the basis of ones

perception of the group to which that person belongs (stereotyping),

causing a person to act erroneously based on another persons perception

(pygmalion effect), or controlling another persons perception of

oneself (impression management).
http://healthadmin.jbpub.com/borkowski/chapter3.pdfhttp://healthadmin.jbpub.com/borkowski/chapter3.pdf


13/22

Halo Effect

The halo effect occurs when an individual draws a general impression about

another person based on a single characteristic, such as intelligence, sociability,

or appearance. The perceiver may evaluate the other individual

high on many traits because of his or her belief that the individual is highin one trait. For example, if an employee performs a difficult accounting

task well due to the managers belief of the employees high intelligence,

then the manager may also erroneously perceive the employee as having

competencies in other areas such as management or technology

Opposite to the halo effect is the horn effect, whereby a person evaluates

another as low on many traits because of a belief that the individual

is low on one trait that is assumed to be critical (Thorndike, 1920). A

study on obesity conducted with health professionals and researchers reflects

the horn effect concept. Study participants were asked to complete an Implicit

Associations Test to assess overall implicit weight bias(associating obese people and thin people with good vs bad)

and three ranges of stereotypes: lazymotivated, smartstupid, and valuable

worthless. The study respondents were much quicker to pair fat

with lazy and other negative traits and/or stereotypes (Schwartz,

Chambliss, Brownell, Blair & Billington, 2003).

Projection

Whereas, contrast effect is the perception of an individual based on the

comparison to others, projection is the attribution of ones own attitudes and

beliefs onto others. All of us are guilty of unconsciously projecting our own beliefs

onto others. Sigmund Freud (1894), along with

his daughter Anna Freud (1936), suggested that projection was a defensive

mechanism, where we attribute our own attitudes onto someone

else as a defense against our feelings of anxiety or guilt.

Stereotyping

As such, the term stereotype is defined to mean a conventional image applied to

whole groups of people, and the treatment of groups

according to a fixed set of generalized traits or characteristics.

Although stereotyping can be positive because it allows us to

Contrast Effects

Research has provided evidence that perceptions are also subject to what

is termed perceptual contrast effects. Contrast effectsrelate to an individuals

evaluation of another persons characteristics based on (or affected

by) comparisons with other people who rank higher or lower on the same


14/22

characteristics. In other words, the contrast effect relates to how an individual is

perceived in relation to others around him

or her. The contrast effect not only applies to the perception of attractiveness, but

it has also been shown to influence self-esteem, public selfconsciousness, and

social anxiety (Thornton and Moore, 1993).

Pygmalion Effect

The pygmalion effect, or self-fulfilling prophecy, describes a persons behavior

that is consistent with another individuals perception whether ornot it is accurate.

In other words, once an expectation is made known

by another person, an individual will have the tendency to behave in

ways consistent with the expectation.

. Impression management incorporates

what we do, how we do it, what we say, and how we say it as we try to

influence the perceptions others have of us. Individuals will try to presentthemselves in ways that will lead to positive evaluations by others by highlighting

their achievements and avoiding the disclosure of failures.

Workplace Communication

# COMMUNICATION PROCESS

Figure 4-1illustrates the communication process. It shows that the sender

is a person, department, or unit of an organization or system who originates the

message. A sender uses words and symbols to put forth information into a

message for the receiver, the individual(s) receiving the

message. Messages are then received and decoded or interpreted by the

receiver. Decoding is affected by the receivers prior experiences and

frames of reference. Accurate decoding of the message by the receiver is

critical to effective communication. The closer the decoded message gets

to the intent of the sender, the more effective the communication. However,

environmental and personal barriers can hamper the communication

process. Details on barriers are described in a later section. To ensuremessages are received as intended, feedback is a necessary component of

the communication process. The receiver creates feedback to a message

and encodes it before transmitting it back to the sender. The sender receives and

decodes the feedback. Feedback is the destinations reaction

to a message (Certo, 1992). It is an important element of communication since it

allows for information to be shared between the receiver and


15/22

sender in a two-way communication.

Feedback is any information that individuals receive about their behavior.

Feedback can be information related to the productivity of groups

in an organization, or the performance of a particular individual.

# FEEDBACK

Feedback is any information that individuals receive about their behavior.

Feedback can be information related to the productivity of

Feedback 79

Sender

Message Create

Encode

Sender

Message

Receive

Decode

Barriers

Environment

Personal

Feedback

Receive

Decode

Feedback

Create

Encode

Figure 4-1 The Communication Process

Source:McShane, S.L., and Von Glinow, M.A. (2003) Organizational behavior:

Emerging realities for the workplace revo

Descriptive feedback. Feedback that identifies or describes how a

person communicates. For instance, Manager A asks Manager B tocomment on her behavior at a staff meeting. B indicates that A was

specific, clear, and instructive on introducing the staff to the computer database

for managing patient accounts. B provides a descriptive feedback of As behavior

at the staff meeting.

Evaluative feedback. Feedback that provides an assessment of the


16/22

person who communicates. In the above case, if Manager B evaluates Manager

As behavior and concludes that she is instructive and

helpful, and that causes the staff to feel comfortable when going to

A for help or asking questions, then B has provided positive evaluative feedback

of As interaction with the staff.

Prescriptive feedback. Feedback that provides advice about howone should behave or communicate. For example, Manager A asks

Manager B how she could have made changes to better communicate her

message to her staff. B suggests for A to be friendlier and

more cooperative by giving the staff specific times that A is available for help with

the new computer database. This type of advice is

prescriptive feedback.

Task or procedural feedback. Feedback at this level involves issues

of effectiveness and appropriateness. Specific issues that relate to

task feedback include the quantity or quality of a groups output.For instance, are patients satisfied with the new outpatient clinic?

Did the group complete the project on time? Procedural feedback refers to

whether a correct procedure was used appropriately at the

time by the group.

Relational feedback. Feedback that provides information about interpersonal

dynamics within a group. This level of feedback emphasizes how a group gets

along while working together. It is effective

when it is combined with the descriptive and prescriptive forms of

feedback.

Individual feedback. Feedback that focuses on a particular individual in a group.

For example, is an individual in the group knowledgeable? Does he or she have

the skills helpful to this group? What

attitudes does he or she have toward the group as they work together

to accomplish their tasks? Is the individual able to plan and organize

within a schedule that contributes to the groups goal attainment?

Group feedback. Feedback that focuses on how well the group is performing.

Like the questions raised at the individual feedback level,

similar questions are asked for the group. Do team members within

the group have adequate knowledge to complete a task? Have they

developed a communication network to facilitate their objectives?

Feedback can be in the form of questionnaires, surveys, and audio

# COMMUNICATION CHANNELS

Another important component of the communication process is selecting the

appropriate communication channel. It is the means by which


17/22

messages are transmitted. There are two types of channels: verbal and

nonverbal. The various channels of communication and the amount of

information transmitted through each type are illustrated in Figure 4-2.

Verbal Communication

Verbal communication relies on spoken or written words to share information with

others. Dialogue is a form of verbal communication. Itis a discussion or conversation between people. It is a process in which

participants are exposed to new information. The process involves a series of

meetings of organizational members that represent different views

on issues of mutual interest.

Computer-Aided Communication

Electronic mail has revolutionized the way we communicate. E-mail allows

messages to be rapidly created, changed, saved, and sent to many

people at the same time. One can select any part of the message to read

and skip to important parts of the message. E-mail is a preferred channel forcoordinating work and schedules. Messages can be clearly defined through

concrete and specific instructions rather than abstract

words or generalization

Other Computer-Aided Communication

In addition to e-mail technology, other forms of technology have infused

healthcare organizations and directly enhance and impact the communication

process.

Nonverbal Communication

Nonverbal communication is sharing information without using words

to encode messages. There are four basic forms of nonverbal communication:

proxemics, kinesics, facial and eye behavior, and paralanguage

(Nelson & Quick, 2003). Proxemicsis the study of an individuals perception and

use of space

Kinesics refers to body language, which is used to convey meanings

and messages.

BARRIERSTO COMMUNICATION

As illustratedin Figure4-1 (page79), several formsof barrierscan impedethe

communicationprocess.Longest, Rakich, and Darr (2000) classifythesebarriersinto two

categories:environmentaland personal.

Environmentalbarriersare characteristicof the organizationand its environmentalsetting.

Personalbarriersarise fromthe natureof individual


18/22

EnvironmentalBarriers

Examplesof environmentalbarriersincludecompetitionfor attention

and time betweensendersand receivers. Multiple and simultaneousdemandscause

messagesto be incorrectlydecoded.The receiverhearsthe

message,but doesnot understandit. Due to inadequateattentionpaid

to the message,the receiveris not really listening.Listeningis a processthat integratesphysical, emotional, and intellectual inputsinto the quest

for meaningand understanding.

PersonalBarriers

Personalbarriersarise due to an individualsframeof referenceor beliefs

and values. Theyare basedon ones socioeconomicbackgroundand prior

experiencesand shapehowmessagesare encodedand decoded.One may

also consciouslyor unconsciouslyengagein selectiveperceptionor be

influencedby fear or jealously.

Recognizingthat environmentand personalbarriersexist is the first step

to effectivecommunication.By becomingcognizantof their existence,one

can consciouslyminimizetheir impact. However,positiveactionsare

neededto overcomethesebarriers(see Table 4-1).

Longestand coauthors(2000) provideus with several guidelinesfor

overcomingbarriers:

1. Environmentalbarriersare reducedif receiversand sendersensure

that attentionis givento their messagesand that adequatetime is devotedto listeningto

what is being communicated.

2. A managementphilosophythat encouragesthe free flow of communicationis

constructive.

3. Reducingthe numberof links (levels in the organizationalhierarchy

or stepsbetweenthe senderin the healthcareorganizationand the

receiverwho is an external stakeholder)reducesopportunitiesfor

distortion.

4. The power/statusbarrier can be removedby consciouslytailoring

wordsand symbolsso that messagesare understandable;reinforcingwordswith actions

significantlyimprovescommunicationamong

differentpower/statuslevels.

5. Usingmultiplechannelsto reinforcecomplexmessagesdecreasesthe

likelihoodof misunderstanding.

EFFECTIVECOMMUNICATIONFORKNOWLEDGE

MANAGEMENT


19/22

Communicationplays an importantrole in knowledgemanagement.

Employeesare the organizationsbrain cells, and communicationrepresentsthe nervous

systemthat carriesinformationand sharedmeaningto

vital parts of the organizationalbody. Effectivecommunicationbrings

knowledgeinto the organizationand disseminatesit to employeeswho

requirethat information.

The followingsummarizesthesekey elements:

An effectivecommunicatormust have a desire to communicate,

whichis influencedboth by ones personalvaluesand the expectationthat the

communicationwill be receivedin a meaningfulway.

An effectivecommunicatormust have an understandingof how

otherslearn, whichincludesconsiderationof differencesin how

othersperceiveand processinformation(e.g., analytic vs. intuitive,

abstract vs. concrete, verbal vs. written).

The receiverof the messageshouldbe cued as to the purposeof the

message,that is, whetherthe messageis to provideinformation,

elicit a responseor reaction, or arrive at a decision.

STRATEGICCOMMUNICATION

Strategiccommunicationis an intentionalprocessof presentingideasin

a clear, concise, and persuasiveway. A managermust makean intentionaleffort to master

communicationskills and use themstrategically,

that is, consistentlywith the organizationsvalues, mission,and strategy.

To plan strategiccommunication,managersmust developa methodologyfor thinking

throughand effectivelycommunicatingwith superiors,

staff, and peers. Sperryand Whiteman(2003) provideus with a strategiccommunication

plan, whichconsistsof five components.

1. Outcome.The specific result that an individualwantsto achieve.

2. Context. The organizationalimportanceof the communication.

3. Messages.The key informationthat staff need to know.

StrategicCommunication93

47688_CH04_077_110.qxd3/9/05 4:51 PM Page934. Tactical reinforcement.Tacticsor

methodsusedto reinforcethe message.

5. Feedback.The way the messageis receivedand its impacton the individual, team,

unit, or organization

FLOWSOF INTRAORGANIZATIONALCOMMUNICATION

Communicationcan flow upward,downward,horizontally, and diagonallywithin

organizations.Upwardcommunicationoccursbetween


20/22

supervisorsand subordinates.Downwardcommunicationprimarily involvespassingon

informationfromsupervisorsto subordinates.Horizontalflow is frommanagerto manager

or fromco-workerto co-worker.

Diagonalflow occursbetweendifferentlevels of differentdepartments.

Longestet al. (2000) providesus with several formsof intraorganizationalcommunication

for healthcareorganizations.UpwardFlow

The purposesof upwardcommunicationflow are to providemanagers

with informationto makedecisions,identify problemareas, collect data

for performanceassessments,determinestaff morale, and reveal employeethoughtsand

feelingsabout the organization.Upwardflow becomesespeciallyimportantwith increased

organizationalcomplexity.

Grievanceprocedure.This allowsemployeesto makean appeal upwardbeyondtheir

immediatesupervisor. It protectsthe individual

fromarbitraryactionby their direct supervisorand encourages

communicationabout complaints.

Opendoor policy. The supervisorsdoor is alwaysopento subordinates.It is an invitation

for subordinatesto comein and talk to the

superiorabout thingsthat troublethem.

94 CHAPTER4 WORKPLACECOMMUNICATION

47688_CH04_077_110.qxd3/9/05 4:51 PM Page94 Counseling,questionnaires,and exit

interviews.The departmentof

humanresourcesin a healthcareorganizationcan facilitate

subordinate-initiatedcommunicationby conductingconfidential

counseling,administeringattitudequestionnaires,and holdingexit

interviewsfor thoseleavingthe organization.Informationgained

fromtheseformsof communicationcan be used to makeimprovements.

Participativedecision-makingtechniques.Throughthe use of informalinvolvementof

subordinatesor formal participationprograms

such as quality improvementteams, unionmanagementcommittees,and suggestion

boxes, participativetechniquescan improve

employeeperformanceand satisfaction.Sinceemployeescan partic

Ombudsperson.The use of an ombudspersonprovidesan outlet for

personswho feel they have beentreatedunfairly.

DownwardFlow

Downwardcommunicationinvolvespassinginformationfromsupervisorsto subordinates.

This includesverbal and nonverbalcommunication,suchas instructionsfor completing

tasks, as well as communications

on a one-to-one basis. Downwardcommunicationsincludemeetingwith


21/22

employees,writtenmemos,newsletters, bulletin boards,proceduralmanuals,and clinical

and administrationinformationsystems.

Horizontal Flow

Upwardand downwardcommunicationsare inadequatefor effectiveorganizational

performance.In complexhealthcareorganizations,horizontal flow or lateral communication

must also occur. The purposeoflateral communicationis the sharingof informationamongpeers at similar levels to keep

organizationalstaff informedof all current practices,

policies, and procedures(Spillanet al., 2002). For example, coordinatingthe continuumof

patient care requirescommunicationamongmultipleunits. Furthermore,committees,task

forces, and cross-functional

project teamsare all useful formsof horizontalcommunication.

DiagonalFlow

The least used channelof communicationin healthcareorganizationsis

diagonalflow. Diagonalflowsare growingin importance.While diagonalflowdoes not

followthe typical hierarchicalchain of command,diagonal

flow is especiallyuseful in health care for efficient communicationand coordinationof

patient care.

COMMUNICATIONNETWORKS

Flowsof communicationcan be combinedinto patternscalled communicationnetworks.

Thesenetworksare interconnectedby communicationchannels. A communicationnetwork

is the interactionpatternbetween

and amonggroupmembers.A networkcreatesstructurefor the group

becauseit controlswho can and shouldtalk to whom(Keyton, 2002).

Groupsgenerally developtwo typesof communicationnetworks:centralizedand

decentralized(Figure4-4).

Decentralizednetworksalloweachgroupmemberto talk to every

other groupmemberwithoutrestrictions. An open, all-channelor decentralizednetworkis

best used for groupdiscussions,decisionmaking,

and problemsolving. The all-channelnetworktendsto be fast and accuratecomparedwith

the centralizednetworksuch as the chain or Y-pattern

networks(Longestet al., 2000). Nevertheless,a decentralizednetwork

can create communicationoverload,in whichtoo muchinformationor

too complexcommunicationmay occur (Keyton,2002). Whena communicationoverloadis

produced,messagesmay conflict with eachother

and result in confusionor disagreement.To reducecommunicationoverload,a facilitator

shouldbe used to monitorgroupdiscussions.

A centralizednetworkrestricts the numberof peoplein the communicationchain. In a group

settingwherea dominantleadertakes over

groupdiscussionsby controllingthe numberof messagesand amountof


22/22

informationbeingpassed,groupmembersdo not interact exceptthrough

the leader. Sucha networkcan createcommunicationunderload,in which

too few or simplemessagesare transmitted.In this type of network,group

membersfeel isolatedfromgroupdiscussionsand generallyfeel dissatisfied. In the chain

network,communicationoccursupwardand downwardand followsline authority

relationships.An exampleis a staff nursewho reportsto the chargenurse, who reportsto the directorof nursing,

who reportsto the vice presidentfor clinical services, and who finally reportsto the CEOof

a large hospital. This networkdelineatesthe chain

of commandand showsclear lines of authority

INFORMALCOMMUNICATION

In additionto formal communicationflowsand networkswithin healthcareorganizations,

there are informalcommunicationflows, whichhave

their own networks.Employeeshave alwaysrelied on the oldest communicationchannel

the corporategrapevine.The grapevineis an unstructuredand informalnetworkfoundedon

social relationshipsrather than

organizationalcharts or job descriptions.Accordingto someestimates,75

percentof employeestypically receivenewsfromthe grapevinebeforethey

hear about it throughformal channels(McShane& Von Glinow,2003).

Documents

Definition Organizational Behaviour