Datacom QA

DataCommunicationsQuestions&AnswersThis document contains important questions and answers to DataCommunicationssubjectmeant for3rdYearComputerScienceEngineering&InformationTechnologyStudents

M. Kiran Dr. RDSSSSV Raju K.N.B.Kumar APN Rao KJamal

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Data Communications Questions and Answers

Gokaraju Rangaraju Institute of Engineering & Technology 1

UNIT-I Chapter-1

1-1. Define the following terms: data, information, data communications network protocol,

Connection-oriented protocols, connectionless protocol, data communications standards, syntax and semantics?

ANSWER: Data:-Data generally are defined as information that is stored in digital form. The word data is plural; a single unit of data is a datum. Information: - Information is defined as knowledge or intelligence. Information that has been processed, organized and stored is called data. Data communications network protocol: - Data communications protocols are sets of rules governing the orderly exchange of data within the network or a portion of the network, whereas network architecture is a set of layers and protocols that govern the operation of the network. The list of protocols used by a system is called protocol stack, which generally includes only one protocol per layer. Connection-oriented protocols:- Protocols can be generally classified as either connection oriented or connectionless. With a connection- oriented protocol, a logical connection is established between the endpoints (e.g.. a virtual circuit) prior to the transmission of data. A connection-oriented protocol is depicted in Figure a. Characteristics of connection-oriented protocols include the following:

1. A connection process called a handshake occurs between two stations before any data are actually transmitted. Connections are sometimes referred to as sessions, virtual circuits, or logical connections.

2. Most connection-oriented protocols require some means of acknowledging the data as they are being transmitted. Protocols that use acknowledgment procedures provide a high level of network reliability.

3. Connection-oriented protocols often provide some means of error control (i.e., error detection and error correction). Whenever data are found to be in error, the receiving station requests a retransmission.

4. When a connection is no longer needed, a specific handshake drops the connection.

Connectionless protocols: - Connectionless protocols are protocols where data are exchanged in an unplanned fashion without prior coordination between endpoints (e.g., a datagram).connectionless protocols offer significant advantage in transmission speed. A connectionless protocol is depicted in Figure b. Characteristics of connectionless protocols are as follow:

1. Connectionless protocols send data with a source and destination address without a handshake to ensure that the destination is ready to receive the data.

2. Connectionless protocols usually do not support error control or acknowledgment procedures, making them a relatively unreliable method of data transmission.

3. Connectionless protocols are used because they are often more efficient, as the data being transmitted usually do not justify the extra overhead required by connection-oriented protocols.

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Data communications standards:- Data communications standards are guidelines that have been generally accepted by the data communications industry. The guidelines outline procedures and equipment configurations that help ensure an orderly transfer of information on between two or more pieces of data communications equipment or two or more data communications networks. Syntax:- Syntax refers to the structure or format of the data within the message, which includes the sequence in which the data are sent. Semantics:- Semantics refers to the meaning of each section of data. For example, does a destination address identify only the location of the final destination, or does it also identify the route the data take between the sending and receiving locations?

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1-2. List and describe the nine primary standards organizations for data communications.

ANSWER:-

A consortium of organizations, governments, manufacturers, and users meet on a regular bas is to ensure an orderly flow of information within data communications networks and systems by establishing guidelines and standards. Standards organizations generate, control, and administer standards. Often, competing companies will form a joint committee to create a compromised standard that is acceptable to everyone. 1. International Standards Organization (ISO) Created in 1946, the International Standards Organization (ISO) is the international organization for standardization on a wide range of subjects. The ISO is a voluntary, non-treaty organization whose membership is comprised mainly of members from the standards committees of various governments throughout the world. The ISO creates the sets of rules and standards for graphics and document exchange and provides models for equipment and system compatibility, quality enhancement, improved productivity, and reduced costs. The ISO is responsible for endorsing and coordinating the work of the other standards organizations. The member body of the ISO from the United States is the American National Standards Institute (ANSI). 2. International Telecommunications Union-Telecommunications Sector

The International Telecommunications Union-Telecommunications Sector (ITU-T), formerly the Comit Consultatif Intemationale deTlgraphie etTdlphonie (CCI1T), is one of four permanent parts of the International Telecommunications Union based in Geneva, Switzerland. Membership in the ITU-T consists of government authorities and representatives from many countries. The ITU-T is now the standards organization for the United Nations and develops the recommended sets of rules and standards for telephone and data communications. The ITU-T has developed three sets of specifications: the V series for modem interfacing and data transmission over telephone lines; the X series for data transmission over public digital networks, e-mail, and directory services; and the I and Q series for integrated services& digital Network (ISDN) and its extension Broadband ISDN. The ITU-T is separated into 14 study groups that prepare recommendations on the following topics:

1. Network and service operation 2. Tariff and accounting principles 3. Telecommunications management network and network maintenance 4. Protection against electromagnetic environment effects 5. Outside plant 6. Data networks and open system communications 7. Characteristics of Telematics systems 8. Television and sound transmission 9. Language and general software aspects for telecommunications systems 10. Signaling requirements and protocols 11. End-to-end transmission performance of networks and terminals 12. General network aspects 13. Transport networks, systems, and equipment 14. Multimedia services and systems

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3. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) is an international professional organization founded in the United States and is comprised of electronics, computer and communications engineers. The IEEE is currently the worlds largest professional society with over 200,000 members. The IEEE works closely with ANSI to develop communications and information processing standards with the underlying goal of advancing theory, creativity, and product quality in any field associated with electrical engineering. 4. American National Standards Institute

The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) is the official standards agency for the United States and is the U.S. voting representative for the ISO. However, ANSI is a completely private, nonprofit organization comprised of equipment manufacturers and users of data processing equipment and services. Although ANSI has no affiliations with the federal government of the United States, it serves as the national coordinating institution for voluntary standardization in the United States. ANSI membership is comprised of people from professional societies, industry associations, governmental and regulatory bodies, and consumer groups. 5. Electronics Industry Association

The Electronics Industry Associations (EIA) is a nonprofit U.S. trade association that establishes and recommends industrial standards. EIA activities include standards development, increasing public awareness, and lobbying. The EIA is responsible for developing the RS (recommended standard) series of standards for data and telecommunications. 6. Telecommunications Industry Association

The Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA) is the leading trade association in the communications and information technology industry. The TIA facilitates business development opportunities and a competitive marketplace through market development, trade promotion, trade shows, domestic and international advocacy, and standards development. The TIA represents manufacturers of communications and information technology products and services providers for the global marketplace through its core competencies. The TIA also facilitates the convergence of new communications networks while working for a competitive and innovative market environment. 7. Internet Architecture Board

In 1957, the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), the research arm of the Department of Defense, was created in response to the Soviet Unions launching of Sputnik. The original purpose of ARPA was to accelerate the advancement of technologies that could possibly be useful to the U.S. military. When ARPANET was initiated in the Late 1970s, ARPA formed a committee to oversee it. In 1983, the name of the committee was changed to the Internet Activities Board (IAB). The meaning of the acronym was later changed to the Internet Activities Board. Today the IAB is a technical advisory group of the Internet Society with the following responsibilities:

1. Oversees the architecture protocols and procedures used by the Internet 2. Manages the processes used to create Internet standards and serves as an appeal board for complaints of improper execution of the standardization processes 3. Is responsible for the administration of the various Internet assigned numbers 4. Acts as representative for Internet Society interests in liaison relationships with other organizations concerned with standards and other technical and organizational issues relevant to the worldwide Internet

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5. Acts as a source of advice and guidance to the board of trustees and officers of the Internet Society concerning technical, architectural. Procedural and policy matters pertaining to the internet and its enabling technologies

8. Internet Engineering Task Force

The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) is a large international community of network designers, operators. Vendors and researchers concerned with the evolution of the Internet architecture and the smooth operation of the Internet. 9. Internet Research Task Force

The Internet Research Task Force (IRTF) promotes research of importance to the evolution of the future Internet by creating focused, long-term and small research groups working on topics related to Internet protocols, applications, architecture, and technology. 1-3. Briefly describe the seven layers of the OSI protocol hierarchy. ANSWER: Open systems interconnection (OSI) is the name for a set of standards for communicating among computers. The primary purpose of OSI standards is to serve as a structural guideline for exchanging information between computers, workstations, and networks. The ISO seven-layer open systems interconnection model is shown in Figure 1-6.

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1. Physical layer:- The physical layer is the lowest level of the OSI hierarchy and is responsible for the actual propagation of unstructured data bits (1 s and 0s) through a transmission medium, which includes how bits are represented, the bit rate, and how bit synchronization is achieved. The physical layer specifies the type of transmission medium and the transmission mode (simplex, half duplex. or full duplex) and the physical, electrical, functional, and procedural standards for accessing data communications networks.

2. Data-link layer :-The data-link layer is responsible for providing error-free communication across the physical link connecting primary and secondary stations (nodes) within a network (sometimes referred to as hop-to-hop delivery). The data-link layer packages data from the physical layer into groups called blocks, frames, or packets and provides a means to activate, maintain, and deactivate the data communications link between nodes. The data-link layer provides the final framing of the information signal provides synchronization facilitates orderly flow of data between nodes, outlines procedures for error detection and correction, and provides the physical addressing information.

3. Network layer:- The network layer provides details that enable data to be routed between

devices in an environment using multiple networks, sub networks, or both. Networking components that operate at the network layer include routers and their software. The network layer determines which network configuration is most appropriate for the function provided by the network and addresses and routes data within networks by establishing, maintaining, and terminating connections between them. The network layer provides the upper layers of the hierarchy with independence from the data transmission and switching technologies used to interconnect systems. It accomplishes this by defining the mechanism in which messages are broken into smaller data packets and routed from a sending node to a receiving node within a data communications network. The network layer also typically provides the source and destination network addresses (logical addresses), subnet information and source and destination node addresses.

4. Transport 1ayer:- The transport layer controls and ensures the end-to-end integrity of the data message propagated through the network between two devices, providing the reliable, transparent transfer of data between two endpoints. Transport layer responsibilities include message routing, segmenting, error recovery, and two types of basic services to an upper layer protocol: connection oriented and connectionless. The transport layer is the highest layer in the OSI hierarchy in terms of communications and may provide data tracking, connection flow control, sequencing of data, error checking and application addressing and identification.

5. Session layer:- The session layer is responsible for network availability (i.e.. data storage and

processor capacity). Session layer protocols provide the logical connection entities at the application layer. These applications include file transfer protocols and sending e-mail. Session responsibilities include network log-on and log-off procedures and user authentication. A session is a temporary condition that exists when data are actually in the process of being transferred and does not include procedures such as call establishment, setup, or disconnect. The session layer determines the type of dialogue available (i,e., simplex, half duplex, or full duplex). Session layer characteristics include virtual connections between applications entities, synchronization of data flow for recovery purposes, creation of dialogue units and activity units, connection parameter negotiation, and partitioning services into functional groups.

6. Presentation layer:-The presentation layer provides independence to the application processes by addressing any code or syntax conversion necessary to present the data to the

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network in a common communications format. The presentation layer specifies how end-user applications should format the data.This layer provides for translation between local representations of data and the representation of data that will be used for transfer between end users. The results of encryption, data compression, and virtual terminals are examples of the translation service. The presentation layer translates between different data formats and protocols. Presentation functions include data file formatting, encoding, encryption and decryption of data messages, dialogue procedures, data compression algorithms, synchronization, interruption and termination.

7. Application layer:- The application layer is the highest layer in the hierarchy and is analogous

to the general manager of the network by providing access to the OSI environment. The applications layer provides distributed information services and controls the sequence of activities within an application and also the sequence of events between the computer application and the user of another application.

1-4. List and briefly describe the basic functions of the five components of a data

communications circuit.

ANSWER:

The underlying purpose of a data communications circuit is to provide a transmission path between locations and to transfer digital information from one station to another using electronic circuit. Figure 1- l5shows a simplified block diagram of a two-station data communications circuit. The fundamental components of the circuit are source of digital information, transmitter, transmission medium, receiver, and destination for the digital information.

Source:-The information source generates data and could be a mainframe computer, personal computer, workstation, or virtually any other piece of digital equipment. The source equipment provides a means for humans to enter data into the system. Transmitter:- Source data is seldom in a form suitable to propagate through the transmission medium. For example, digital signals (pulses) cannot be propagated through a wireless radio system without being converted to analog first. The transmitter enc odes the source information and converts it to a different form, allowing it to be more efficiently propagated through the transmission medium. In essence, the transmitter acts as an interface between the source equipment and the transmission medium.

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Transmission medium:- The transmission medium carries the encoded signals from the transmitter to the receiver. There are many different types of transmission media, such as free-space radio transmission (including all forms of wireless transmission, such as terrestrial microwave, satellite radio, and cellular telephone) and physical facilities, such as metallic and optical fiber cables. Very often, the transmission path is comprised of several different types of transmission facilities. Receiver:- The receiver converts the encoded signals received from the transmission medium back to their original form (i.e.. decodes them) or whatever form is used in !e destination equipment. The receiver acts as an interface between the transmission medium and the destination equipment. Destination:-. Like the source, the destination could be a mainframe computer, personal computer, workstation, or virtually any other piece of digital equipment.

1-5. Briefly describe the differences between serial and parallel data transmission.

ANSWER:

Binary information can be transmitted either in parallel or serially. Figure 1-16a shows how the binary code 0110 is transmitted from station A to station B in parallel. As the figure shows, each bit position (A0 to A3) has its own transmission line. Consequently, all four bits can be transmitted simultaneously during the time of a single clock pulse (Ta). This type of transmission is called parallel by bit or serial by character

Figure l-16b shows the same binary code transmitted serially. As the figure shows, there is a single transmission line, and thus only one bit can be transmitted at a time. Consequently, it requires four clock pulses (4Tc) to transmit the entire four-bit code. This type of transmission is called serial by bit. Obviously, the principal trade-off between parallel and serial data transmission is speed versus simplicity. Data transmission can be accomplished much more rapidly using parallel transmission; however, parallel transmission requires more data lines. As a general rule, parallel transmission is used for short-distance data communications and within a computer, and serial transmission is used for long-distance data communications.

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1-6. List and briefly describe the four transmission modes.

ANSWER:

Simplex:- In the simplex (SX) mode, data transmission is unidirectional. Simplex lines are also called receive-only, or transmit -only, or one-way-only lines. Commercial radio broadcasting is an example of simplex transmission, as information is propagated in only one directionfrom the broadcasting station to the listener. Half duplex:-. In the half-duplex (HDX) mode, data transmission is possible in both directions but not at the same time. Half-duplex communications lines are also called two-way-alternate or either-way lines. Citizens band (CB) radio is an example of half-duplex transmission because to send a message, the push-to-talk (PTT) switch must be depressed, which turns on the transmitter and shuts off the receiver. To receive a message, the PTT switch must be off, which shuts off the transmitter and turns on the receiver. Full duplex:- In the full-duplex (FDX) mode, transmissions are possible in both directions simultaneously, but they must be between the same two stations. Full duplex lines are also called two-way simultaneous, duplex,-or bath-way lines. A local telephone call is an example of full-duplex transmission. Although it is unlikely that both parties would be talking at the same time, they could if they wanted to. Full/full duplex:- In the full/full duplex (F/FDX) mode, transmission is possible in both directions at the same time but not between the same two stations (i.e., one station is transmitting to a second station and receiving from a third station at the same time). Full/full duplex is possible only on multipoint circuits. The U.S. postal system is an example of full/full duplex transmission because a person can send a letter to one address and receive a letter from another address at the same time.

1-7. List and describe the functions of the most common components of a computer network.

ANSWER: Computer networks all share common devices, functions, and features, including servers, clients, transmission media, shared data, shared printers and other peripherals, hardware and software resources, network interface card (NIC), local operating system (LOS), and the network operating system (NOS). Servers:- Servers are computers that hold shared files programs, and the Network Operating System. Servers provide access to network resources to all the users of the network. There are many different kinds of servers, and one server can provide several functions. For example, there are file servers, print servers, mail servers, communications servers, database servers, directory/security servers, fax servers, and Web servers, to name a few. Clients:- Clients are computers that access and use the network and shared network resources. Client computers are basically the customers (users) of the network, as they request and receive services from the servers. Transmission media:- Transmission media are the facilities used to inter connect computers in a network, such as twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, and optical fiber cable. Transmission media are sometimes called channels, links, or lines.

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Shared data:- Shared data are data that file servers provide to clients, such as data files, printer access programs, and e-mail. Shared printers and other peripherals:- Shared printers and peripherals are hardware resources provided to the users of the network by servers. Resources provided include data files, printers, software, or any other items used by clients on the network. Network interface card:- Each computer in a network has a special expansion card called a network interface card (NIC). The NIC prepares (formats) and sends data, receives data, and controls data flow between the computer and the network. On the transmit side, the NIC passes frames of data on 10 the physical layer, which transmits the data to the physical link. On the receive side, the NIC processes bits received from the physical layer and processes the message based on its contents. Local operating system:- A local operating system (LOS) allows personal computers to access files, print to a local printer, and have and use one or more disk and CD drives that are located on the computer. Examples of LOSs are MS-DOS. PC-DOS, Unix, Macintosh, OS/2, Windows 3.11, Windows 95, Windows 98, Windows 2000, and Linux. Network operating system:- The network operating system (NOS) is a program that runs on computers and servers that allows the computers to communicate over a network. The NOS provides services to clients such as log-in features, password authentication, printer access, network administration functions, and date file sharing. Some of the more popular network operating systems are Unix, Novell NetWare, AppleShare, Macintosh System 7, IBM LAN Server, Compaq Open VMS, and Microsoft Windows NT Server. The NOS is software that makes communications over a network more manageable. 1-8. List and briefly describe the five basic data communications network topologies. ANSWER: Star topology:- A star topology is a multipoint data communications network where remote stations are connected by cable segments directly to a centrally located computer called a hub, which acts like a multipoint connector. With a star topology, remote stations cannot communicate directly with one another, so they must relay information through the hub. Hubs also have store-and-forward capabilities, enabling them to handle more than one message at a time. Bus topology:- A bus topology is a multipoint data communications circuit that makes it relatively simple to control data flow between and among the computers because this configuration allows all stations to receive every transmission over the network. With a bus topology, all the remote stations are physically or logically connected to a single transmission line called a bus. The two ends of the transmission Line never touch to form a complete loop. A bus topology is sometimes called multi drop or linear bus, and all stations share a common transmission medium. The bus topology is sometimes called a horizontal bus. Ring topology:- A ring topology is a multipoint data communications network where all stations are interconnected in tandem (series) to form a closed loop or circle. A ring topology is sometimes called a loop. Each station in the loop is joined by point- to-point links to two other stations (the transmitter of one and the receiver of the other). Transmissions are unidirectional and must propagate through all the stations in the loop. Each computer acts like a repeater in that it receives signals from down-line computers and then retransmits them to up-line computers. The ring topology is similar to the bus and star topologies, as it generally involves one centrally located host computer that controls data flow to and from the other stations.

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Mesh topology:- In a mesh topology, every station has a direct two- point communications link to every other station on the circuit. The mesh topology is sometimes called fully connected. A disadvantage of a mesh topology is a fully connected circuit requires n(n -1)/2 physical transmission paths to interconnect n stations and each station must have n-1 input output ports. Advantages of a mesh topology are reduced traffic problems, increased reliability, and enhanced security. Hybrid topology:- A hybrid topology is simply combining two or more of the traditional topologies to form a larger, more complex topology. Hybrid topologies are sometimes called mixed topologies.

1-9. Briefly describe the TCP/IP protocol model. ANSWER The functional layers of the OSI seven-layer protocol hierarchy do not line up well with certain data communications applications, such as the Internet. Because of this, there are several other protocols that see widespread use, such as TCP/IP and the Cisco three-layer hierarchical model. TCP/IP Protocol Suite:- The TCP/IP protocol suite (transmission control protocol/Internet protocol) was actually developed by the Department of Defense before the inception of the seven-layer OSI model. TCP/IP is comprised of several interactive modules that provide specific functionality without necessarily operating independent of one another. The OSI seven layer models specifies exactly which function each layer performs, whereas TCP/IP is comprised of several relatively independent protocols that can be combined in many ways, depending on system needs. Depending on whose definition you use, TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol comprised of either three or four layers. The three-layer version of TCP/IP contains the network, transport, and application layers that reside above two lower-layer protocols that are not specified by TCP/IP (the physical and data link layers). The network layer of TCP/IP provides internetworking functions similar to those provided by the network layer of the OSI network model. The network layer is sometimes called the internetwork layer or internet layer. The transport layer of TCP/IP contains two protocols: TCP (transmission control protocol) and UDP (user datagram protocol). TCP functions go beyond those specified by the transport layer of the OSI model, as they define several tasks defined for the session layer. The applications layer of TCP/IP contains several other protocols that users and programs utilize to perform the functions of the three uppermost layers of the OSI hierarchy (i.e.. the applications, presentation. and session layers). The four-layer version of TCP/IP specifies the network access, Internet, host-to-host, and process layers: Network access layer Provides a means of physically delivering data packets using frames or cells Internet layer Contains information that pertains to how data can be routed through the network Host-to-host layer Services the process and Internet layers to handle the reliability and session aspects of data transmission

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Process layer Provides applications support TCP/IP is probably the dominant communications protocol in use today. It provides a common denominator, allowing many different types of devices to communicate over a network or system of networks while supporting a wide variety of applications. 1-10. Briefly describe the Cisco three-layer protocol model.

ANSWER: Cisco Three-Layer Model

Cisco defines a three-layer logical hierarchy that specifies where things belong, how they fit together, and what functions go where. The three layers are the core, distribution, and access: Core layer:- The core layer is literally the core of the network, as it resides at the top of the hierarchy and is responsible for transporting large amounts of data traffic reliably and quickly. The only purpose of the core layer is to switch traffic as quickly as possible.

Distribution layer:-. The distribution layer is sometimes called the workgroup layer. The distribution layer is the communications point between the access and the core layers that provides routing, filtering, WAN access, and how many data packets are allowed to access the core layer. The distribution layer determines the fastest way to handle service requests; for example, the fastest way to forward a file request to a server. Several functions are performed at the distribution level:

1. Implementation of tools such as access lists, packet filtering, and queuing 2. Implementation of security and network policies, including firewalls and address

translation 3. Redistribution between routing protocols 4. Routing between virtual LANs and other workgroup support functions 5. Definition of broadcast and multicast domains

Access layer:- The access layer controls workgroup and individual user access to internetworking resources, most of which are available locally. The access layer is sometimes called the desktop layer. Several functions are performed at the access layer level:

1. Access Control 2. Creation of separate collision domains (segmentation) 3. Workgroup connectivity into the distribution layer

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UNIT-I Chapter-2

2-1 Define the following terms as they relate to electrical signals: amplitude, frequency, period,

phase, periodic signal, electrical noise, frequency spectrum, and bandwidth. ANSWER:

Amplitude:- Amplitude is analogous to magnitude or displacement. The amplitude of a signal is the magnitude of the signal at any point on the waveform. Signal amplitude is generally represented on the vertical axis of a waveform graph. The maximum voltage of a signal in respect to its average value (i.e., the vertical center of the waveform) is called its peak amplitude or peak voltage (V).

Frequency:- A cycle is one complete variation in the signal, and the period is the time the waveform takes to complete one cycle (T). One cycle constitutes 360 degrees. Frequency is technically measured in cycles per second and expressed in hertz. Periodic Signal:- The signal which repeats itself at regular intervals is called a periodic signal. Phase:- The phase of a signal is measured in degrees or radians (360 degrees or 2 radians) with respect to a reference point. A phase of 45 degrees means the waveform is shifted one-eighth of a cycle from the reference. A phase shift of 180 degrees corresponds to a shift of half a cycle (i.e., a complete inversion of a sine wave), and a phase shift of 360 degrees corresponds to a shift of one complete cycle. Phase, like time, is shown on the horizontal axis of a signal graph.

Figure 2-3 Three Sine waves showing amplitude, frequency and phase Electrical Noise:- Electrical noise is defined as any undesirable electrical energy that falls within the pass- band of the signal. Frequency Spectrum:- The frequency spectrum of a waveform Consists of all the frequencies contained in the waveform and their respective amplitudes plotted in the frequency domain. Bandwidth:- The term bandwidth can be used in several ways. The bandwidth of a frequency spectrum is the range of frequencies contained in the spectrum. The bandwidth of an information signal is simply the difference between the highest and lowest frequencies contained in the information, and the bandwidth of a communications channel is the difference between the highest

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and lowest frequencies that the channel will allow to pass through it (i.e., its pass band). The bandwidth of a communications channel must be sufficiently large (wide) to pass all significant information frequencies. In other words, the bandwidth of a communications channel must be equal to or greater than the bandwidth of the information signal. 2-2 Describe the following wave symmetries: even, odd, and half-wave. ANSWER: Wave symmetry:- wave symmetry describes the symmetry of a waveform in the time domain, that is, its relative position with respect to the horizontal (time) and vertical (amplitude) axes. Even symmetry:-If a periodic voltage waveform is symmetric about the vertical axis, it is said to have axes, or mirror, symmetry and is called an even function. The signal contains a dc component and the cosine terms (note that a cosine wave is itself an even function). Even functions satisfy the condition Equation states that the magnitude and polarity of the function at +t is equal to the magnitude and polarity a--t. A waveform that contains only the even functions is shown in on Figure 2-7a. Odd symmetry:- If a periodic voltage waveform is symmetric about a line midway between the vertical axis and the negative horizontal axis (i.e.. the axes in the second and fourth quadrants) and passing through the coordinate origin, it is said to have point, or skew, symmetry and is called an odd function. The signal contains a dc component and the sine wave terms. Odd functions satisfy the condition Equation states that the magnitude of the function at +t is equal to the negative of the magnitude at t (i.e., equal in magnitude but opposite in sign). A periodic waveform that contains only the odd functions is shown in Figure 2-7b.

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Half-wave symmetry:- If a periodic voltage waveform is such that the waveform for the first half cycle (t = 0 to t = T/2) repeats itself except with the opposite sign for the second half cycle (t = T12 to t = T), it is said to have half-wave symmetry. For all waveforms with half-wave symmetry, the even harmonics in the series for both the sine and cosine terms are zero. Therefore, half-wave functions satisfy the condition /2 2-3 Give a brief description of the following forms of electrical noise: man-made, thermal,

correlated, and impulse.

ANSWER:

Man-made noise:- Man-made noise is noise that is produced by mankind. The predominant sources of man-made noise are spark-producing mechanisms, such as commutators in electric motors, automobile ignition systems, ac power-generating and switching equipment, and fluorescent lights. Man-made noise is impulsive in nature and contains a wide range of frequencies that are propagated through space in the same manner as radio waves. Man-made noise is most intense in the more densely populated metropolitan and industrial areas and is, therefore, sometimes called industrial noise.

Thermal noise:- Thermal noise is associated with the rapid and random movement of electrons within a conductor due to thermal agitation and is present in all electronic components and communications systems. Because thermal noise is uniformly distributed across the entire electromagnetic frequency spectrum, it is often referred to as white noise (analogous to the color white containing all colors [frequencies] of light). Thermal noise is a form of additive noise, meaning that it cannot be eliminated and that it increases in intensity with the number of devices in a circuit and with circuit length. Therefore, thermal noise sets the upper bound on the performance of a communications system.

Correlated noise:- Correlated noise is produced by nonlinear amplification and includes harmonic distortion and inter modulation distortion, both of which are forms of nonlinear distortion. Harmonic distortion occurs when unwanted harmonics of a signal are produced through nonlinear amplification (nonlinear mixing).Harmonics are integer multiples of the original signal. The original signal is the first harmonic and is called the fundamental frequency. Two times the original signal

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frequency is the second harmonic, three times is the third harmonic, and so forth. Amplitude distortion is another name for harmonic distortion. A more meaningful measurement is total harmonic distortion (TDH), which is the ratio of the quadratic sum of the rms values of all the higher harmonics to the rms value of the fundamental frequency.

As the figure 2-12a shows, the output spectrum contains the original input frequency plus several harmonics (2f1, 3f1, 4f1) that were not part of the original signal.

Inter modulation distortion is the generation of unwanted sum and difference frequencies produced when two or more signals are amplified in a nonlinear device. The sum and difference frequencies are called cross products. The emphasis here is on the word un anted because in communications circuits it is often desirable to produce harmonics or to mix two or more signals to produce sum and difference frequencies. Cross-product frequencies can interfere with the information signals in a circuit or with the information signals in other circuits.

Figure 2-12b shows the input and output frequency spectrums for a nonlinear device with two input frequencies (f1andf2). .

Impulse noise:- Impulse noise is characterized by high-amplitude peaks of short duration in the total noise spectrum. As the name implies, impulse noise consists of sudden bursts of irregularly shaped pulses that generally last between a few microseconds and several milliseconds, depending on their amplitude and origin. The significance of impulse noise (hits) on voice communications is often more annoying than inhibitive, as impulse hits produce a sharp popping or crackling sound.

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2-4 Define analog modulation and describe the following types: amplitude, Frequency and phase.

ANSWER:

Analog modulation:- The process of impressing relatively low-frequency information signals onto a high-frequency carrier signal is called modulation. Demodulation is the reverse process where the received signals are transformed back to their original form.

Analog modulation is used for the transmission of conventional analog signals. such as voice, music, and video, and it not particularly useful for data communications systems.

Amplitude Modulation:- Amplitude modulation (AM) is the process of changing the amplitude of a relatively high- frequency carrier signal in proportion to the instantaneous value of the modulating signal (information). In the modulator, the information signals act on or modulate the RF carrier, producing a modulated wave.

Figure 2-13 illustrates the relationship among the earner (Vc sin[2fct]), the modul ating signal (Vm sin[2fmt]), and the modulated wave (Vam[t]). The figure shows how an AM waveform is produced when a single-frequency modulating signal acts on a high- frequency carrier signal. Since the output waveform contains all the frequencies that make up the AM signal and it is used to transport the information through the system, the shape of the modulated wave is called the AM envelope. Note that when there is no modulating signal, the output waveform is simply the carrier signal. However, when a modulating sign al is applied, the amplitude of the output wave varies in accordance with the modulating signal.

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Angle Modulation:- Angle modulation results whenever the phase angle ()of a sinusoidal signal is varied with respect to time. Angle modulation includes both frequency (FM) and phase (PM) modulation. Figure 2-16 illustrates both frequency and phase modulation of a sinusoidal carrier by a single-frequency modulating signal. It can be seen that the FM and PM waveforms are identical except for their time relationship (phase). Thus, it is impossible to distinguish an FM waveform from a PM waveform without knowing the dynamic characteristics of the modulating signal. With FM, the maximum frequency deviation (positive and negative change in the carrier frequency) occurs during the maximum positive and negative peaks of the modulating signal (i.e., the frequency deviation is proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal). With PM, the maximum frequency deviation occurs during the zero crossings in the modulating signal (i.e., the frequency deviation is proportional to the slope of the modulating signal).

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2-5 Describe the following terms: information capacity, bit, bit rate, baud , probability of error , bit error rate and Bandwidth efficiency.

ANSWER: Information Capacity:- Information capacity is a measure of how much information can be propagated through a communications system and a function of bandwidth and transmission time. Bit:-Information capacity represents the number of independent symbols that can be carried through a system in a given unit of time. The most basic digital symbol used to represent information is the binary digit, or bit. Bit rate :-It is often convenient to express the information capacity of a system as a bit rate. Bit rate is the number of bits transmitted during 1 second and is expressed in bits per second (bps). Baud:- Baud refers to the rate of change of the signal on the transmission medium after encoding and modulation have occurred. Bit rate refers to the rate of change of a digital information signal which is usually binary. Probability of Error and Bit Error Rate:-Probability of error (P[e]) and bit error rate (BER) are often used interchangeably, although in practice they do have slightly different meanings. P(e) is a theoretical (mathematical) expectation of the bit error rate for a given system. BER is an empirical (historic al) record of a systems actual bit error performance. For example, if a system has a P(e) of l0-5, this means that mathematically you can expect one bit error in every 100,000 bits transmitted (l/l0-5 = 1/100,000). If a system has a BER of 10-5, this means that in past performance there was one bit error for every 100,000 bits transmitted. A bit error rate is measured and then compared with the expected probability of error to evaluate a systems performance. Bandwidth efficiency:- Bandwidth efficiency (sometimes called information density or spectral efficiency) is often used to compare the performance of one digital modulation technique to another. In essence, bandwidth efficiency is the ratio of the transmission bit rate to the minimum bandwidth required for a particular modulation scheme. Bandwidth efficiency is generally normalized to a 1-Hz bandwidth and, thus, indicates the number of bits that can be propagated through a transmission medium for each hertz of bandwidth. Mathematically, bandwidth efficiency is B = transmission bit rate(bps)/minimum bandwidth(Hz) = bits/second/hertz = bits / second / cycles / second = bits/cycle Where B = bandwidth efficiency Bandwidth efficiency can also be given as a percentage by simply multiplying B by 100.

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2-6 Briefly describe the significance of the Shannon limit for information capacity. ANSWER: In 1928, R. Hartley of Bell Telephone Laboratories developed a useful relationship among bandwidth, transmission time, and information capacity. Simply stated, Hartleys law is

Where I = information capacity (bits per second) B = bandwidth (hertz) t = transmission time (seconds)

From Equation 2-17 it can be seen that information capacity is a linear function of bandwidth and transmission time and is directly proportional to both. If either the bandwidth or the transmission time changes, a directly proportional change occurs in the information capacity. In 1948, mathematician Claude E. Shannon (also of Bell Telephone Laboratories) published a paper in the Bell System Technical Journal relating the information capacity of a communications channel to bandwidth and signal-to-noise ratio. Mathematically stated, the Shannon limit for information capacity is

log1 / or 3.32 log1 / where I= information capacity (bps) B= bandwidth (hertz)

S/N= signal-to-noise power ratio (unit less)

For a standard telephone circuit with a signal-to-noise power ratio of 1000 (30 dB) and a bandwidth of 2.7 kHz, the Shannon limit for information capacity is

I = 26.9 kbps

Shannons formula is often misunderstood. The results of the preceding example indicate that 26.9 kbps can be propagated through a 2.7-kHz communications channel. This may be true, but it cannot be done with a binary system. To achieve an information transmission rate of 26.9 kbps through a 2.7 KHz channel, each symbol transmitted must contain more than one bit.

2-7 Give a brief description of amplitude-shift keying, frequency-shift keying.

ANSWER:

Amplitude-Shift Keying:- The simplest digital modulation technique is amplitude-shift keying (ASK), where a binary information signal directly modulates the amplitude of an analog carrier. ASK is similar to standard amplitude modulation except there are only two output amplitudes possible. Amplitude-shift keying is sometimes called digital amplitude modulation (DAM). Mathematically, amplitude shift keying is

1

cos (2-23)

where = amplitude-shift keying wave digital information (modulating) signal (volts)

A/2 = unmodulated carrier amplitude (volts) = analog carrier radian frequency (radians per second, 2fct)

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In Equation 2-23, the modulating signal, , is a normalized binary waveform, where +1V= logic 1 and- 1V = logic 0. Therefore, for a logic 1 input = +1V, Equation 2-23 reduces to 1 1

cos

And for a logic 0 input, Equation 2-23 reduces to 1 1

cos 0

Thus, the modulated wave,, is either or 0. Hence, the carrier is either on or off, which is why amplitude-shift keying is sometimes referred to as on-off keying (OOK).

Frequency Shift Keying:- FSK is a form of constant-amplitude angle modulation similar to standard frequency modulation (FM) except the modulating signal is a binary signal that varies between two discrete voltage levels rather than a continuously changing analog waveform. Consequently, FSK is sometimes called binary FSK (BFSK). The general expression for FSK is cos2 (2-24)

where binary FSK wave form = peak analog carrier amplitude (volts)

= analog carrier center frequency (hertz) = peak change (shift) in the analog carrier frequency (hertz) = binary input (modulating) signal (volts) From Equation 2-24, it can be seen that the peak shift in the carrier frequency () is proportional to the amplitude of the binary input signal and that the direction of the shift is determined by the polarity. The modulating signal is a normalized binary waveform where a logic 1 = +1 V and a logic 0 = +1V Thus, for a logic 1 input, 1 and Equation 2-24 can be rewritten as cos2 For a logic 0 input, 1 , and Equation 2-24 becomes cos2 With binary FSK. the carrier center frequency ( ) is shifted (deviated) up and down in the frequency domain by the binary input signal as shown in Figure 2-19. As the binary input signal changes from a

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logic 0 to a logic 1 and vice versa, the output frequency shifts between two frequencies: a mark, or logic 1, frequency (fm) and a space, or logic 0, frequency (f). The mark and space frequencies are separated from the carrier frequency by the peak frequency deviation () and from each other by 2. With FSK, frequency deviation is defined as the difference between either the mark or the space frequency and the center frequency or half the difference between the mark and space frequencies.

Figure 2-20a shows in the time domain the binary input to an FSK modulator and the corresponding FSK output. As the figure shows, when the binary input (fb,) changes from a logic 1 to a logic 0 and vice versa, the FSK output frequency shifts from a mark (fm) to a space (f) frequency and vice versa. 2-8 Describe the relationship between bit rate, bandwidth, and baud for FSK. ANSWER: In Figure 2-20a that the time of one bit (tb) is the same as the time the FSK output is a mark of space frequency (ts). Thus, the bit time equals the time of an FSK signaling element, and the bit rate equals the baud. Figure 2-20b shows the truth table for a binary FSK modulator. The truth table shows the input and output possibilities for a given digital modulation scheme.

FSK baud and bandwidth:- Baud is defined as ratio of fb to N i.e., Baud=fb/N where fb is channel capacity (bps) and N is the number of bits encoded into each signaling element. The baud for binary FSK is determined by making N = 1 in the equation baud = fb/1=fb

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FSK is the exception to the rule for digital modulation, as the minimum bandwidth is not determined from Equation B=fb/N. where B is minimum Nyquist bandwidth(hertz). The minimum bandwidth for FSK is determined from the following formula:

B = 2(

where B = minimum Nyquist bandwidth (hertz) = frequency deviation | | (hertz)

fb = input bit rate (bps) 2-9 Give a brief description of BPSK and QPSK. ANSWER: Binary phase-shift keying:- The simplest form of PSK is binary phase- shift keying (BPSK), where N = 1 and M = 2. Therefore, with BPSK, two phases (21= 2) are possible for the carrier. One phase represents a logic 1, and the other phase represents a logic 0. As the input digital signal changes state (i.e., from a 1 to a 0 or from a 0 to a 1), the phase of the output carrier shifts between two angles that are separated by 180 degrees. Hence, other names for BPSK are phase-reversal keying (PRK) and biphase modulation. BPSK is a form of square-wave modulation of a continuous wave (CW) signal. Figure 2-21 shows the output phase-versus-time relationship for a BPSK waveform. As the figure shows, a logic 1 input produces an analog output signal with a 0-degree phase angle, and a logic 0 input produces an analog output signal with a 180-degree phase angle. As the binary input shifts between a logic 1 and a logic 0 condition, and vice versa the phase of the BPSK waveform shifts between 0 degrees and 180 degrees, respectively. For simplicity, only one cycle of the analog carrier is shown in each signaling element, although there may be anywhere between a fraction of a cycle to several thousand cycles, depending on the relationship between the input bit rate and the analog carrier frequency. It can also be seen that the time of one BPSK signaling element (ts) is equal to the time of one information bit (tb), which indicates that the bit rate equals the baud.

Figure 2-22 shows the truth table, phasor diagram, and constellation diagram for a BPSK signal. A constellation diagram, which is sometimes called a signal state-space diagram, is similar to a phasor diagram except that the entire phasor is not drawn. In a constellation diagram, only the relative positions of the peaks of the phasors are shown.

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Quaternary phase-shfi keying (QPSK) or quadrature PSK as it is sometimes called, is an M-ary encoding scheme where N = 2 and M= 4 (hence the name quaternary, meaning 4). With QPSK, four output phases are possible for a single carrier frequency. Because there are four output phases, there must be four different input conditions. The digital input to a QPSK modulator is a binary (base 2) signal, which requires two input bits to produce four input combinations. With two bits, there are four possible conditions: 00,01, 10, and 11. Therefore, with QPSK, the binary input data are combined into groups of two bits, called dibits. In the modulator, each dibit code generates one of the four possible output phases (+45, + 135,-45, and- 135 degrees). Therefore, for each two-bit dibit clocked into the modulator, a single output change occurs, and the rate of change at the output (baud) is equal to one-half the input bit rate (i.e., two input bits produce one output phase change). Figure 2-23 shows the output phase-versus-time relationship, truth table, and constellation diagram for QPSK.

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2-10 Give a brief description of 8PSK and 16PSK. ANSWER: 8PSK:With8PSK,threebitsareencoded,formingtribitsandproducingeightdifferentoutputphases.With8PSK,N=3,M=8,andtheminimumbandwidthandbaudequalonethirdthebit rate (fb/3). Figure 224 shows the output phaseversustime relationship, truth table, andconstellationdiagramfor8PSK.Asthefigureshows,alleightpointsontheconstellationdiagramarethesamedistancefromtheintersectionoftheXandYaxes,andeachpointisseparatedfromitstwoadjacentphasesby45degrees.

16-PSK:-With 16-PSK, four bits (called quad bits) are combined, producing 16 different output phases. With 16-PSK, N = 4, M 16, and the minimum bandwidth and baud equal one-fourth the bit rate (fb/4). Figure 2-25 shows the truth table and constellation diagram for 16-PS K. Table 2-2 summarizes the relationship between number of bits encoded, number of output conditions possible, minimum bandwidth, and baud for ASK, FSK, BPSK, QPSK,8-PSK and 16-PSK.

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2-11 Give a brief description of 8-QAM and 16-QAM. ANSWER: Quadrature Amplitude Modulation:- Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) is a form of digital modulation similar to PSK except the digital information is contained in both the amplitude and the phase of the transmitted carrier. With QAM, amplitude- and phase-shift keying are combined in such a way that the positions of the signaling elements on the constellation diagrams are optimized to achieve the greatest distance between elements, thus reducing the likelihood of one element being misinterpreted as another element. Obviously, this reduces the likelihood of errors occurring. Equations Baud=fb/N and B=fb/N are also valid with QAM for determining the minimum bandwidth and baud. In addition, the degree of bandwidth compression accomplished with QAM is the same as it is with PSK (i.e., B = baud =f1,/N). The primary advantage of QAM over PSK is immunity to transmission impairments, especially phase impairments that are inherent in all communications systems. Figure 2-26 shows the output phase-versus-time relationship, truth table, and constellation diagram for 8-QAM. As seen in Figure 2-26, with 8-QAM, there are four phases and two amplitudes that are combined to produce eight different output conditions. With 8-QAM (as with 8-PSK),three bits are encoded, forming tribits and producing eight different output conditions. With 8-QAM, N = 3, M = 8, and the minimum bandwidth and baud equal one-third the bit rate (fb/3).

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16-QAM:- Figure 2-27 shows the truth table and constellation diagram for 16-QAM. With 16-QAM, there are 12 phases and three amplitudes that are combined to produce 16 different output conditions. With QAM, there are always more phases possible than amplitude. With I 6-QAM, four bits (quadbits) are combined, producing 16 different output conditions. With 16-QAM, N = 4, M = 16, and the minimum bandwidth and baud equal one-fourth the bit rate (fb/4).

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Unit 2 Chapter 3

Metallic Cable Transmission Media 1. In which layer of the OSI protocol hierarchy is the transmission medium found. What are the two general categories of transmission media? Transmission medium is the path between a transmitter and a receiver in a communications system. It is included in the lowest layer of the OSI protocol hierarchy - the physical layer. Transmission media can be generally categorized as either unguided or guided. Guided transmission media are those media with some form of conductor that provides a conduit in which electromagnetic signals are contained. Examples of guided transmission media are copper wire and optical fiber. Unguided transmission media are wireless systems (i.e., those without a physical conductor). Examples of unguided transmission media are air (earths atmosphere) and free space (a vacuum). 2. What do you mean by a transmission line? Describe balanced and unbalanced transmission lines. A transmission line is a metallic conductor system used to transfer electrical energy from one point to another using electrical current flow. More specifically, a transmission line is two or more electrical conductors separated by a nonconductive insulator (dielectric), such as a pair of wires or a system of wire pairs. It can be used to propagate dc or low-frequency ac (such as 60-cycle electrical power and audio signals), or they can also be used to propagate very high frequencies (such as microwave radio-frequency signals). Balanced transmission line: With two-wire balanced lines, both conductors carry current; however, one conductor carries the signal and the other conductor is the return path. This type of transmission is called differential or balanced signal transmission. Figure below shows a balanced transmission line system. Both conductors in a balanced line carry signal currents. The two currents are equal in magnitude with respect to electrical ground but travel in opposite directions. Currents that flow in opposite directions in a balanced wire pair are called metallic circuit currents. Currents that flow in the same direction are called longitudinal currents. A balanced wire pair has the advantage that most noise interference (sometimes called common-mode interference) is induced equally in both wires, producing longitudinal currents that cancel in the load. The cancellation of common mode signals is called common-mode rejection (CMRR). Common-mode rejection ratios of 40 dB to 70 dB are common in balanced transmission lines. Any pair of wires can operate in the balanced mode, provided that neither wire is at ground potential.

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Fig: Differential, or balanced, transmission system

Unbalanced Transmission Lines: With an unbalanced transmission line, one wire is at ground potential, whereas the other wire is at signal potential. This type of transmission line is called single-ended or unbalanced signal transmission. With unbalanced signal transmission, the ground wire may also be the reference for other signal-carrying wires. If this is the case, the ground wire must go wherever any of the signal wires go. Sometimes this creates a problem because a length of wire has resistance, inductance, and capacitance, and therefore a small potential difference may exist between any two points on the ground wire. Consequently, the ground wire is not a perfect reference point and is capable of having noise induced into it. Unbalanced transmission lines have the advantage of requiring only one wire for each signal and only one ground line is required no matter how many signals are grouped into one conductor. The primary disadvantage of unbalanced transmission lines is reduced immunity to common-mode signals, such as noise and other interference.

Fig: single ended, or unbalanced, transmission system

Figure above shows two unbalanced transmission systems. The potential difference on each signal wire is measured from that wire to a common ground reference. Balanced transmission lines can be connected to unbalanced lines and vice versa with special transformers called baluns. 3. Describe various metallic transmission line types. Parallel Conductor Transmission Lines: Parallel-wire transmission lines are comprised of two or more metallic conductors (usually copper) separated by a nonconductive insulating material called a dielectric. Common dielectric materials include air, rubber, polyethylene, paper, mica, glass, and Teflon. The most common parallel-conductor transmission lines are open wire, twin lead, and twisted pair including unshielded twisted pair (UTP) and shielded twisted pair (STP). Open-Wire Transmission Lines: Open-wire transmission lines are two-wire parallel conductors (see Figure below). Open-wire transmission lines consist simply of two parallel wires, closely spaced and separated by air. Nonconductive spacers are placed at periodic intervals not only for support but also to keep the distance between the conductors constant. The distance between the two conductors is generally between 2 inches and 6 inches. The dielectric is simply the air between and around the two conductors in which the TEM wave propagates. The only real advantage of this type of transmission line is its simple construction. Because there is no shielding, radiation losses are high, and the cable is

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susceptible to picking up signals through mutual induction, which produces crosstalk. Crosstalk occurs when a signal on one cable interferes with a signal on an adjacent cable. The primary use of open-wire transmission lines is in standard voice-grade telephone applications.

Fig: Open-wire transmission line

Twin lead: Twin lead is another form of two-wire parallel-conductor transmission line and is shown in Figure below. Twin-lead is essentially the same as open-wire transmission line except that the spacers between the two conductors are replaced with a continuous solid dielectric that ensures uniform spacing along the entire cable. Twin- lead transmission line is the flat, brown cable typically used to connect televisions to rooftop antennas. Common dielectric materials used with twin-lead cable are Teflon and polyethylene.

Fig: Twin lead two-wire transmission line

Twisted-pair transmission lines: A twisted-pair (TP) transmission line (shown in Figure below) is formed by twisting two insulated conductors around each other. Twisted pairs are often stranded in units, and the units are then cabled into cores containing up to 3000 pairs of wire. The cores are then covered with various types of sheaths forming cables. Neighboring pairs are sometimes twisted with different pitches (twist length) to reduce the effects of electromagnetic interference (EMI) and radio-frequency interference (RFI) from external sources (usually man-made), such as fluorescent lights, power cables, motors, relays, and transformers. Twisting the wires also reduces crosstalk between cable pairs.

Fig: Twisted-pair two-wire transmission line

The size of twisted-pair wire varies from 16 gauge (16 AWG [American Wire Gauge]) to 26 gauge. The higher the wire gauge, the smaller the diameter and the higher the resistance. Twisted-pair cable is used for both analog and digital signals and is the most commonly used transmission medium for telephone networks and building cabling systems. Twisted-pair transmission lines are also the transmission medium of choice for most local area networks because twisted-pair cable is simple to

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install and relatively inexpensive when compared to coaxial and optical fiber cables. There are two basic types of twisted-pair transmission lines specified by the EIA/TIA 568 Commercial Building Telecommunications Cabling Standard for local area networks: 100-ohm unshielded twisted pair (UTP) and 150-ohm shielded twisted pair(STP). A typical network utilizes a variety of cabling technologies, depending on the networks size, its topology, and what protocol is used. The 568 standard provides guidelines for interconnecting various cabling technologies by dividing network-wiring systems into six subsystems: horizontal cabling, backbone cabling, work area, telecommunications closet, equipment room, and building entrance. Unshielded twisted-pair: An unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cable consists of two copper wires where each wire is separately encapsulated in PVC (polyvinyl chloride) insulation (see Figure below). Because a wire can act like an antenna, the wires are twisted two or more times at varying lengths to reduce crosstalk and interference. By carefully controlling the number of twists per foot and the manner in which multiple pairs are twisted around each other, manufacturers can improve the bandwidth (i.e., bit rate) of the cable pair significantly. The minimum number of twists for UTP cable is two per foot.

Fig: Unshielded twisted-pair(UTP) cable

To meet the operational requirements for local area networks, the EIA/TIA 568 standard classifies UTP twisted-pair cables into levels and categories that certify maximum data rates and recommended transmission distances for both UTP and STP cables (see Table below). Standard UTP cable for local area networks is comprised of four pairs of 22-gauge or 24-gauge copper wire where each pair of wires is twisted around each other. There are six primary unshielded twisted-pair cables classified by the EIA/TIA 568 standard: level 1, level 2, category 3, category 4, category 5, enhanced category 5, and category 6.

Table: EIA/TIA 568 UTP and STP Levels and Categories Cable Type Intended Use Data Rate Distance Level I (UTP) Level 2 (UTP) Category 3 (UTP/STP) Category 4 (UTP/STP) Category 5 (UTP/STP) Enhanced category 5

Standard voice and low-speed data Standard voice and low-speed data Low-speed local area networks Low-speed local area networks High-speed local area networks High-speed local area networks and asynchronous transfer mode (ATM)

2400 bps 4 Mbps 16Mbps and all level 2 applications 20 Mbps and all category 100 meters 3 applications 100Mbps 350 Mbps

18,000 feet 18,000 feet 100 meters 100 meters 100 meters 100 meters or more

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(UTP/STP) Proposed New Categories Category 6 (UTP/STP) Category 7 shielded screen twisted pair(STP) Foil twisted pair (STP) Shielded foil twisted pair (STP)

Very high-speed local area networks and asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) Ultra -high-speed local area networks and asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) Ultra -high-speed local area networks and asynchronous transfer mode (ATM); designed to minimize EMI susceptibility and maximize EMI immunity Ultra -high-speed local area networks and asynchronous transfer mode (ATM); designed to minimize EMI susceptibility and maximize EMI immunity

550 Mbps 1Gbps >1Gbps >1Gbps

100 meters or more 100 meters or more ? ?

Shielded twisted pair: Shielded twisted-pair (STP) cable is a parallel two-wire transmission line consisting of two copper conductors separated by a solid dielectric material. The wires and dielectric are enclosed in a conductive-metal sleeve called a foil. If the sleeve is woven into a mesh, it is called a braid. The sleeve is connected to ground and acts as a shield, preventing signals from radiating beyond their boundaries (see Figure below). The sleeve also keeps electromagnetic noise and radio interference produced in external sources from reaching the signal conductors. STP cable is thicker and less flexible than UTP cable, making it more difficult and expensive to install. In addition, STP cable requires an additional grounding connector and is more expensive to manufacture. However, STP cable offers greater security and greater immunity to interference.

Fig: Shielded twisted-pair (STP) cable

There are seven primary STP cables classified by the EIA/TIA 568 standard: category 3, category 4, category 5, enhanced category 5, category 7, foil twisted pair and shielded-foil twisted pair. Categories 3 through 5e STP have essentially the same parameters as their UTP counterparts, except the added shielding provides greater immunity to interference.

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4. Define Characteristic impedance, velocity factor, and dielectric constant and tell how they affect the performance of a transmission line. Characteristic Impedance: Characteristic impedance (sometimes called surge impedance) is defined simply as the ratio of the source voltage (Eo) to the line current (Io) and is given by,

o

oo I

EZ =

For maximum power transfer from the source to the load, a transmission line must be terminated in a purely resistive load equal to the characteristic impedance of the transmission line. The characteristic impedance of a transmission line is a complex quantity that is expressed in ohms, is ideally independent of line length, and cannot be directly measured. Velocity factor: Velocity factor (sometimes called velocity constant) is defined simply as the ratio of the actual velocity of propagation of an electromagnetic wave through a given medium to the velocity of propagation through a vacuum (free space) and is given by,

cV

V pf = The velocity at which an electromagnetic wave travels through a transmission line depends on the dielectric constant of the insulating material separating the two conductors. The velocity factory is closely approximated with the formula

rpV

1= where r is the dielectric constant of a given material (the permittivity of the material relative to the permittivity of a vacuum-the ratio 0 , where is the permittivity of the dielectric and o is the permittivity of air). Dielectric constant: Dielectric constant is simply the relative permittivity of a material. The relative dielectric constant of air is 1.0006. However, the dielectric constant of materials commonly used in transmission lines ranges from 1.4872 to 7.5, giving velocity factors from 0.3651 to 0.8200. 5. List and describe the five types of transmission line losses. For analysis purposes, metallic transmission lines are often considered to be totally loss- less. In reality, however, there are several ways in which signal power is lost in a transmission line. They include conductor loss, radiation loss, dielectric hearing loss, coupling loss, and corona. Cable manufacturers generally lump all cable losses together and specify them as attenuation loss in decibels per unit length (e.g., dB/m, dB/ft and so on). Conductor Losses: Because electrical current flows through a metallic transmission Line and the Line has a finite resistance, there is an inherent and unavoidable power loss. This is sometimes called conductor loss or conductor heating loss and is simply an I2R power loss. Dielectric Heating Losses: A difference of potential between two conductors of a metallic transmission line causes dielectric heating. Heat is a form of energy and must be taken from the energy propagating down the line. For air dielectric transmission lines, the heating loss is negligible. However, for solid-core transmission lines, dielectric heating loss increases with frequency.

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Radiation Losses: If the separation between conductors in a metallic transmission line is an appreciable fraction of a wavelength, the electrostatic and electromagnetic fields that surround the conductor cause the line to act as if it were an antenna and transfer energy to any nearby conductive material. The energy radiated is called radiation loss and depends on dielectric material, conductor spacing, and length of the transmission line. Radiation losses are reduced by properly shielding the cable. Therefore, shielded cables (such as STP and coaxial cable) have less radiation loss than unshielded cables (such as twin lead. open wire, and UTP). Radiation loss is also directly proportional to frequency. Coupling Losses : Coupling loss occurs whenever a connection is made to or from a transmission line or when two sections of transmission line are connected together. Mechanical connections are discontinuities, which are locations where dissimilar materials meet. Discontinuities tend to heat up, radiate energy, and dissipate power. Corona : Corona is a luminous discharge that occurs between the two conductors of a transmission line when the difference of potential between them exceeds the breakdown voltage of the dielectric insulator. Generally, when corona occurs, the transmission line is destroyed.

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Unit 2 Chapter 4

Optical Fiber Transmission Media 1. Define an optical fiber transmission system or an optical fiber and Contrast the advantages and disadvantages of fiber optic cables compared metallic transmission lines. Optical fiber: An optical fiber is a dielectric waveguide for guiding the electromagnetic waves at optical frequencies. They allow propagation of light waves in a way, which is very similar to metallic waveguides that allow propagation of microwaves through them. ADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL FIBER CABLES: Communications using glass or plastic optical fiber cables has several overwhelming advantages over conventional metallic transmission media for both telecommunication and computer networking applications. The advantages of using optical fibers include the following:

1. Wider bandwidth and greater information capacity: Optical fibers have greater information capacity than metallic cables because of the inherently wider bandwidths available with optical frequencies. Optical fibers are available with bandwidths up to several thousand gigahertz. The primary electrical constants (resistance, inductance, and capacitance) in metallic cables cause them to act like low-pass filters, which limit their transmission frequencies, bandwidth, bit rate, and information-carrying capacity. Modern optical fiber communications systems are capable of transmitting several gigabits per second over hundreds of miles, allowing literally millions of individual voice and data channels to be combined and propagated over one optical fiber cable.

2. Immunity to crosstalk: Optical fiber cables are immune to crosstalk because glass and plastic fibers are nonconductors of electrical current. Therefore, fiber cables are not surrounded by a changing magnetic field, which is the primary cause of crosstalk between metallic conductors located physically close to each other.

3. Immunity to static interference: Because optical fiber cables are nonconductors of electrical current, they are immune to static noise due to electromagnetic interference (EMI) caused by lightning, electric motors, relays, fluorescent lights, and other electrical noise sources (most of which are man-made). For the same reason, fiber cables do not radiate electromagnetic energy.

4. Environmental immunity: Optical fiber cables are more resistant to environmental extremes (including weather variations) than metallic cables. Optical cables also operate over a wider temperature range and are less affected by corrosive liquids and gases.

5. Safety and convenience: Optical fiber cables are safer and easier to install and maintain than metallic cables. Because glass and plastic fibers are nonconductors, there are no electrical currents or voltages associated with them. Optical fibers can be used around volatile liquids and gasses without worrying about their causing explosions or fires. Optical fibers are also smaller and much more lightweight and compact than metallic cables. Consequently, they are more flexible, are easier to work with, require less storage space, are cheaper to transport, and are easier to install and maintain.

6. Lower transmission loss: Optical fibers have considerably less signal loss than their metallic counterparts. Optical fibers are currently being manufactured with as little as a few tenths of a dB loss per kilometer. Consequently, optical regenerators and amplifiers can be spaced considerably farther apart than with metallic transmission lines.

7. Security: Optical fiber cables are more secure than metallic cables. It is virtually impossible to tap into a fiber cable without the users knowledge, and optical cables cannot be detected with metal detectors unless they are reinforced with steel for strength.

8. Durability and reliability: Optical fiber cables last longer and are more reliable than metallic facilities because fiber cables have a higher tolerance to changes in environmental conditions and are immune to corrosive materials.

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