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PREVIEW The development of intelligence requires a school culture thatmotivates students to learn.

High-stakes testing decreases student motivation and can result in a narrow curriculum.Best practices-including differentiated instruction, inquiry-based learning, and

collaborative learning-can help schoolsovercome a narrow curriculum and

t illteaching to the test.

hen Dewey's monograph Experience and Education was published in 1938, the worldw as inhethhroes of a grueling, persistent depression and the U.S. education system wa s

in flux because ofcompeting visions about the purpose and conduct of school. The/ traditionalists favored an authoritarian structure that emphasized rote memorization, an dthe progressives advocated few barriers and the free flow of ideas. Dewey sought to bridge these

positions by establishing a multidimensional philosophy of education that wa s grounded in thelearning environment and human nature. In other words, he advocated educating the whole stu-dent. He identified three fundamental aspects of curriculum to achieve this end: the developmentof intelligence, the acquisition of socially useful skills, and the healthy growth of the individual.Seventy years later, the remnants of earlier cultural struggles remain, this time in the context ofaccountability and high-stakes testing that bring a host of new challenges.

Nichols and Berliner (2007) asserted that high-stakes testing inherently breeds corruption thathas ethical, social, economic, and curricular consequences. Specifically, they pointed to:"* Prolific cheating by students, teachers, and administrators"* Increased retention rates for low-achieving students that often cause them to drop out of high

school"* Scarce resources that are used to help "bubble" students (those on the edge of passing) passtests, to the detriment of low and high achievers"* Narrow curricula and an emphasis on teaching to the test.In other words, addressing the needs of the secondary student has become one-dimensional,

resulting in a singular focus on passing the test at all costs. Although not everyone agrees with thisanalysis-notably those who offer their own set of suppositions suggesting that high-stakes test-ing leads to more learning with greater alignment among curriculum, pedagogy, and practice-both sides agree that the goal is to create effective learners who will be prepared for the workplace.Th e skills required to meet that goal extend beyond performance on standardized tests to includethe ability to work with others toward common goals, effective communication skills, and the ca-pacity for innovative problem solving. What can Dewey's philosophical legacy and research teacheducators about addressing the needs of the whole student in the context of high-stakes testingand the demands of the 21st century? What curricular changes or emphases are necessary? Bestpractices may provide the answer.

By Daniel W. Stuckartand Jeffrey Glanz

VThe skills requiredto meet that goalextend beyondperformance onstandardized eststo includethe abilityto work with otherstowardcommongoals,effectivecommunicationskills, and thecapacity orinnovativeproblemsolving.

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The Development of Intelligence:Four ConsiderationsMotivationAccording to Dewey, the development of intel-V ligence is a manifestation of human nature,specifically the desire for freedom. Although

High-stakes testing, most people juxtapose freedom with physi-according to cal movement and constraint, Dewey defined"freedom of intelligence" as the most lastingAmrein andBerliner freedom "of observation and judgment" that

[2003), results in the student finds "intrinsically worth while."decreasedstudent A key attribute for the development of intelli-gence is the cultivation of motivation.

motivationand High-stakes testing, according to Amreinincreasedhigh and Berliner (2003), results in decreasedstudent motivation and increased high schoolschooldrop-out drop-out rates. The idea behind high-stakes

rates. testing is to use consequences to motivate lowachievers. In their study of 18 states, Amreinand Berliner identified typical low achieversas students with low socioeconomic statuswho attend urban schools. They determinedthat "88 percent of the states with high schoolgraduation tests have higher dropout rates"than states that don't have tests, which dis-proportionately affects poorer and minoritystudents (p . 33). Moreover, drop-out rates inthose states are often inaccurate because morestudents choose to earn a GED, rather than riskthe humiliation of failure. In addition, studentmotivation is decreased because "retentionin grade does not motivate students to learnmore or perform better." Instead it causes"students to leave school early" (p . 34). Otherstudies confirm these conclusions, adding thatalthough high achievers in suburban schoolsappear to be motivated by the tests, elemen-tary students, special populations, and urbanstudents report feeling demoralized (Clarke etal., 2003).Differentiation of InstructionA second element Dewey addressed involvesteacher pedagogy that is based on understand-ing "the capacities and needs" of the studentsand using this understanding to instituteinstruction "for individuality of experience."Teachers are expected to provide appropri-ate experiences through various types ofinstruction.

Differentiated instruction can foster the ac-quisition of important content skills by appeal-ing to most learners. In her seminal study ofliteracy practices in low socioeconomic schoolsin four states, Langer (2002) concluded that ef-fective schools-those where the students scoresignificantly better on standardized tests thanstudents in typical schools-employ effectiveteachers who teach skills using "separated,simulated, and integrated experiences." She de-fined separated nstruction as "direct instructionof isolated skills and knowledge," such as lec-tures; simulated instruction as "the applicationof those concepts and rules," such as textbookexercises; and integrated instructionas studentpractice of "skills and knowledge within theembedded context of a large and purposefulactivity," such as letter writing.Inquiry-Based LearningIn describing the sequence and scope fo r thearrangement of curricula, Dewey identifieda third wa y to promote the development ofintelligence. He asserted that "problems arethe stimulus to thinking" and that teachers areresponsible for organizing content so that in-struction "arouses in the learner an active questfor information and the production of ne wideas." Through systematic inquiry, studentsexamine problems, and in the process, theycreate solutions and new forms of knowledge.

In a qualitative study focusing on 12 pre-service science teachers, Eick (2002) concludedthat some schools fail to offer significantopportunities for inquiry-based learning. Butschools that take a holistic view streamlinetheir science curricula in the context of the de -mands of standardized testing to build in moretime for inquiry-based learning and otheractive-learning strategies. In those schools,teachers and administrators work together toprovide an optimal environment for hands-onlearning.

Eick's findings echo other research stud-ies that show mostly neutral effects of state-mandated tests on inquiry-based learningin schools where some teachers offer fewerhands-on activities after the introduction ofhigh-stakes testing and some offer more. AsAmrein and Berliner (2002) pointed out,

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however, inquiry-based learning in the testingcontext occurs mainly in schools with studentsfrom affluent households. Poorer students aremore often subjected to a narrow curriculumthat focuses mainly on the tested skills.ReflectionA fourth means of developing individual intel-ligence is through reflection. Dewey explainedreflection as the process of "thinking" with theadded "postponement of immediate action"involving the "self-control" of "impulses." Inthis schema, intelligence operates as the agentof self-control. Reflection allows learners toregulate, monitor, and control their thinking.

Langer (2002) discovered that effectiveteachers in effective schools incorporatedmetacognition into their own professionalpractice as well as student assignments, mean-ing that teachers and students are aware oftheir reflections. A common attribute that out-standing educators share is that they nurturean intimate classroom dynamic in which thestudents reflect on their own experiences usingsuch strategies as reader-response theories andportfolios. One example Langer noted was us -ing portfolios to help students become awareof their learning and prepare them to addressareas of weakness in the coming semester.Socially Useful SkillsThe development of intelligence depends onthe continuity and quality of the experiences.Dewey said that all experiences were socialin nature. Therefore, to navigate toward the"experiences that are worth while education-ally," students must develop socially usefulskills. Students gain experiences from "thenature of the work done as a social enterprise,"which also functions as "the primary sourceof social control" that gives each student "anopportunity to contribute something." Deweymaintained that teachers should provide socialexperiences to cultivate socially useful skills.

A key finding from Langer's (2002) studywas that:

in effective schools, English learning andhigh literacy (the content as well as theskills) are treated as social activity.... In

"* Thirty-five percent cited failure inschool as their main reason fordropping out.

"* Forty-five percent stated that theyentered high school unprepared forthe academic challenges an d fellbehind because of lack of additionalsupport services.

"* Thirty-two percent were retained in agrade before dropping out.

"* Twenty-nine percent believed they could not have me t the require-ments for graduation with any amount of effort.

Source: Bridgeland, J.M. , Dijulio, J. J., &Morison, K.B. 2008). The silent epidemic:Perspectivesof high school dropouts. Retrieved July 9, 200?, from www.gatesfoundation.org/nr/downloads/ed/TheSilent Epidemic3-06FINAL.pdf

contrast, in typical schools, studentstend to work alone or interact withthe teacher, and when collaborative orgroup work occurs, the activity focuseson answering questions rather than en-gaging in substantive discussion frommultiple perspectives. (p. 36)Further, when collaborative learning con-

tains the key elements of cooperation, interde-pendent group goals, and individual account-ability, all ability groups achieve at higherlevels. Slavin (1996) analyzed 52 studies thatwere conducted in secondary schools and con-cluded that of those studies that incorporatethe key elements, about three-fourths of themresult in significantly positive learning gains.Healthy Growth:Three ConsiderationsA Narrow Curriculum and Teachingto the TestThe third fundamental aspect of curriculumrelates to the healthy growth of the individual.Dewey explicitly acknowledged the role of thecurriculum in context, particularly regarding"subject matter.. .in an organization which isfree.. .because it is in accord with the growth ofexperience itself." Experience originates fromthe interaction of "needs, desires, purposes,and capacities to create." Hence, students

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"* Use data coaches"* Provide better data analysis training for teachers and administrators"* Address cultural fears"* Demonstrate enthusiastic leadership with data-driven decisions"* Provide adequate time for administrators and teachers to

understand the data"* Model the appropriate use of dataSource: Jerald, C.D. 2006]. Using data: The math'snot the hardpart.Washington,DC : Th e Center for Comprehensive School Reform and Improvement. [ERIC DocumentReproduction Service No. ED494094)

thrive within a broader curriculum in whichintelligence-manifested through motivationand reflection and expertly guided with dif-ferentiated instructional strategies, includinginquiry-based learning-can be exercised toovercome perceived difficulties.

V Teaching to the test and narrowing the cur-riculum are widely reported consequences of

Th e healthy growth high-stakes testing. According to Jerald (2006),of the individual "item teachers" teach disaggregated bits ofinformation that are most likely to appear onalso depends the test, leading to a narrow curriculum, buton the quality of "curriculum teachers" take into account thefull breadth of skills and knowledge associatedwith a domain. Item teachers tend to substi-

experience. tute the test for the curriculum.Authentic LearningTh e healthy growth of the individual alsodepends on the quality of the educational ex-perience. Dewey envisioned curricula in whichthe items "fall within the scope of ordinarylife-experiences" making the subject matter rel-evant and interesting to the learner, somethingeducators refer to as "authentic" today.Analyzing the conclusions of a study thatwas conducted in the 1990s involving class-room assignments and students' standardizedtest scores from more than 40 0 Chicago class-rooms, Jerald (2006) reported that studentswho were exposed to authentic learningassignments scored, on average, 20% higheron norm-referenced tests. These assignmentsrequired students to solve problems using real-

world applications, such as learning fractionswhile investing hypothetical money in thestock market. Although students who were as-signed fewer authentic assignments also scoredabove the national average, they "gainedmuch less," even when controlling for income,gender, and race. Further, teacher dispositionand choice determined the use of authenticassignments.Attitudes About LearningA final consideration of the healthy growthof the individual is his or her attitudes aboutlearning. Dewey stated that the most impor-tant attitude is the "desire to go on learning."

In a literature review of best practices,Gulek (2003) indicated a growing consen-sus that high-stakes testing leads to negativeattitudes toward learning and increased testanxiety. The anxiety appears to affect studentsdifferently: female and non-White studentsare the most adversely affected and are proneto developing cognitive interference and poorstudy habits.ConclusionPreparing students for the 21st century work-place is a continual process that goes wellbeyond the high-stakes test. Keeping the wholestudent in mind through the fundamentalaspects of curriculum-the development ofintelligence, the acquisition of social andemotional skills, and the healthy growth of theindividual-is a challenge. Using best practicesmay alleviate some of the negative effects ofhigh-stakes testing. Administrators can help byproviding valuable assistance with the analysisof data targeting those students most at risk. PL

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l Keeping the whole student in mind throughthefundamentalaspectsof curriculum-the development of intelligence, heacquisitionof socialand emotional skills,and the healthygrowth of the individual-is a challenge.

REFERENCESM Amrein, A. L., & Berliner, D. C. (2002). Ananalysisof some unintendedand negativeconsequenc-es of high-stakes testing.Retrieved July 10, 2007,from www.greatlakescenter.org/pdf/H-S%20Analysis%20final.pdfm Amrein, A. L., & Berliner, D. C. (2003). Th eeffects of high-stakes testing on student motiva-tion and learning. EducationalLeadership, 60(5),32-38.M Clarke, M., Shore, A., Rhoades, K., Abrams,L., Miao, J., &Li, J. (2003). Perceived effects ofstate-mandated estingprograms on teachingandlearning: Findings rom interviews with educatorsin low-, medium-, and high-stakes states. ChestnutHill, MA: National Board on Testing and PublicPolicy. (ERIC Document Reproduction ServiceNo. ED474867)* Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. NewYork: Macmillan.* Eick, C. J. (2002). Science curriculum in prac-tice: Student teachers' use of hands-on activitiesin high-stakes testing schools. NASSP Bulletin,86(630), 72-85.* Gulek, C. (2003). Preparing for high-stakestesting. Theory into Practice,42(1), 42-50.E Jerald, C. D. (2006). "Teach to the test"? Just sayno. Washington, DC : Center for ComprehensiveSchool Reform and Improvement. (ERIC Docu-ment Reproduction Service No. ED494086)N Langer, J. A. (2002). Effective literacy instruction:Building successful readingand writing programs. Ur-bana, IL : National Council of Teachers of English.* Nichols, S. L., & Berliner, D. C. (2007). Col-lateraldamage: How high-stakes testingcorruptsAmerica's schools. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Educa-tion Press.* Slavin, R. E. (1996). Cooperative learningin middle and secondary schools. Th e ClearingHouse, 69(4), 200-204.

Daniel W. tuckart (dan.stuckart@wagner.edu] is anassistant rofessor of secondary educationat WagnerCollege in Staten Island,NYJeffreg Gianz (glanz@yu.edu) is the Silverstein Professorof Ethics an d Values in theAzrieli School of JewishEducationat Yeshiva University n New York City.

To enhance motivation:"* Use multiple and frequent formative assessments in he classroom."* Use data to target interventions for those students who are at most

risk.To differentiate Instruction:N When teaching skills, include direct instruction, applications, and

assignments with purpose.To promote inquiry-based learning:"* Build time in the academic schedule for administrators and teachers

to plan inquiry-based learning."* Encourage teachers to use inquiry-based activities in all content

areas for all student populations.To encourage reflection:"* Cultivate intimate and positive risk-taking classroom climates."* Create assignments and assessments that have meaningful

opportunities for students to engage in reflection and promotemetacognition.

To institute collaborative learning:"* Provide opportunities for collaborative assignments, such as coop-

erative learning activities."* Explain, model, and practice social skills, such as listening to others,

expressing ideas, and neg otiating differences.To overcome a narrow curriculum an d teaching to the test:"* Convene teachers, principals, and subject matter and curriculum

specialists to align the curriculum and instruction with standards."* Align instruction with research-based strategies."* Include a little test preparation in formative assessments through-

ou t the year.To incorporate authentic learning into instruction:"* Provide professional opportunities for teachers to learn more about

authentic learning in their content areas."* Encourage the use of authentic learning as a means to enhance

student interest and motivation.To address attitudes about learning and test anxiety:"* Prepare the students with instructional best practices."* Nurture the students' emotional well-being by providing positive

affirmations an d acknowledging that some anxiety is natural andbeneficial.

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TITLE: What Dewey Can Still Teach Us

SOURCE: Principal Leadership (High Sch Ed) 8 no4 D 2007

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