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CR IMINAL !LAW!OUTL INE ! !
TABLE!OF!CONTENTS!
WHAT%IS%A%CRIME?%................................................................................................................................%2!
PRINCIPLES%OF%PUNISHMENT%...........................................................................................................%2!THEORIES%OF%PUNISHMENT%.......................................................................................................................%3!SENTENCING%................................................................................................................................................%3!
PRINCIPLE%OF%LEGALITY%.....................................................................................................................%4!RETROACTIVE%APPLICATION%OF%PENAL%LAWS%.........................................................................................%4!SPECIFICITY%.................................................................................................................................................%4!
ACTUS%REUS%.............................................................................................................................................%5!VOLUNTARY%ACT%.........................................................................................................................................%5!POSSESSION!.....................................................................................................................................................................!6!OMISSION%....................................................................................................................................................%6!
MENS%REA%.................................................................................................................................................%7!LEVELS%OF%CULPABILITY%.............................................................................................................................%8!PURPOSELY/INTENTIONALLY!......................................................................................................................................!8!KNOWINGLY!....................................................................................................................................................................!9!RECKLESSLY!..................................................................................................................................................................!10!CRIMINAL!NEGLIGENCE!..............................................................................................................................................!10!STRICT%LIABILITY%.....................................................................................................................................%11!MISTAKE!OF!FACT!........................................................................................................................................................!12!MISTAKE!OF!LAW!.........................................................................................................................................................!13!
CAUSATION%............................................................................................................................................%13!ACTUAL%(FACTUAL)%CAUSE%......................................................................................................................%14!PROXIMATE%(LEGAL)%CAUSE%...................................................................................................................%14!
CRIMINAL%HOMICIDE%..........................................................................................................................%16!INTENTIONAL%KILLINGS%............................................................................................................................%17!MANSLAUGHTER!..........................................................................................................................................................!18!UNINTENTIONAL%KILLINGS%.......................................................................................................................%19!FELONY%MURDER%RULE%.............................................................................................................................%20!
THEFT%......................................................................................................................................................%22!LARCENY%....................................................................................................................................................%22!
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EMBEZZLEMENT%........................................................................................................................................%26!FALSE%PRETENSES%.....................................................................................................................................%26!
DEFENSES%...............................................................................................................................................%27!SELFHDEFENSE%..........................................................................................................................................%27!DEFENSE%OF%OTHERS%................................................................................................................................%28!DEFENSE%OF%HABITATION%........................................................................................................................%29!NECESSITY%.................................................................................................................................................%29!DEFENSE%OF%DURRESS%..............................................................................................................................%30!DEFENSE%OF%INTOXICATION%.....................................................................................................................%31!
INCHOATE%OFFENSES%.........................................................................................................................%31!ATTEMPTS%.................................................................................................................................................%31!CONSPIRACY%..............................................................................................................................................%34!
ACCOMPLICE%LIABILITY%....................................................................................................................%35!!
WHAT!IS!A!CRIME?!
A!crime!is!anything!that!lawmakers!say!is!a!crime.!
Characteristics!of!a!Crime!
• Directions/commands!about!what!people!must!or!must!not!do.!!• Commands!are!valid!and!binding!on!the!community!• Commands!are!subject!to!sanctions!for!violations.!!• Community!condemnation!of!the!conduct!• Conduct!causes!a!social!harm.!!
Proof!Beyond!a!Reasonable!Doubt!
• The!Sixth!Amendment!of!the!US!Constitution!guarantees,!“in!all!criminal!prosecutions,!the!accused!shall!enjoy!the!right!to!a!speedy!and!public!trial,!but!an!impartial!jury.”!!
• The!Fifth!Amendment!guarantees!that!“No!person!shall...be!deprived!of!life,!liberty,!or!property!without!due!process!of!law...”!
o The!prosecutor!in!a!criminal!trial!must!persuade!the!jury!“beyond!a!reasonable!doubt!of!every!fact!necessary!to!constitute!the!crime...charged.”!!
o Presumption!of!innocence:!Until!the!prosecutor!meets!that!burden,!the!defendant!is!presumed!innocent.!!
PRINCIPLES!OF!PUNISHMENT!
What!is!a!punishment?!
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• Pain!or!deprivation!• Proceeded!by!a!judgment!of!moral!condemnation!• Imposed!by!one!with!authority!to!do!so!• Imposed!for!breach!of!an!established!rule!of!behavior!• Imposed!on!the!one!who!violated!the!rule.!!
THEORIES(OF(PUNISHMENT(
• Utilitarianism:!punishment!is!justifiable!only!if!it!is!expected!to!result!in!a!reduction!in!the!pain!of!a!crime!that!otherwise!would!occur.!!
o Deterrence:!Reduces!crime!by!deterring!people!from!committing!a!crime.!Presumes!rationality.!It!only!works!if!rational!people!analyze!the!costs!and!benefits!of!conduct.!!
! General!Deterrence:!Defendant!is!punished!to!convince!the!general!community!to!forego!criminal!conduct!in!the!future.!!
! Individual!Deterrence:!Use!punishment!to!deter!a!defendant!from!future!misconduct.!!
o Incapacitation:!Imprisoning!the!defendant!prevents!him!from!committing!crimes!during!his!incarceration.!!
o Rehabilitation:!Reform!the!wrongdoer!so!he!doesn’t!commit!another!crime.!!• Retributivism:!Punishment!is!justified!when!the!wrongdoer!freely!chooses!to!violate!
society’s!rules.!Morally!culpable!and!deserves!punishment.!!
SENTENCING(
• Criminal!codes!have!provided!that!a!defendant!convicted!of!a!noncapital!felony!receive!a!sentence!consisting!of!a!term!of!years!of!imprisonment!in!a!state!prison,!a!monetary!fine!or!a!combination!thereof.!!
• Indeterminate!Sentencing:!System!where!judges!have!considerable!discretion.!Maximum!sentence!is!individualized!based!on!defendant’s!character!and!circumstances!of!the!offense.!Correctional!officers!had!authority!to!release!prisoner!before!completion!of!sentence!if!prisoner!satisfied!rehabilitative!goals.!!
• Determinate!Sentencing:!Offender’s!sentence!is!determined!at!the!time!of!sentencing.!Corrections!officers!cannot!reduce!sentence!based!on!evidence!of!rehabilitation!in!prison.!Legislature!or!sentencing!commission!sets!a!specific!punishment!for!a!defined!offense,!or!sets!a!range!of!penalties!and!the!judge!may!impose!a!specific!sentence!within!that!range.!!
• Sentencing!Objectives!(People!v.!Du)!o Protection!of!society!o Punishing!the!defendant!for!committing!a!crime!o Encouraging!the!defendant!to!lead!a!law[abiding!life!o Stopping!others!from!committing!crimes!o Isolating!the!defendant!so!she!can’t!commit!other!crimes!
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o Securing!restitution!for!the!victim!o Seeking!uniformity!in!sentencing!
• Conditions!as!punishment!o Conditions!imposed!must!be!reasonably!related!to!the!purpose!of!rehabilitation,!
deterrence!and!the!protection!of!the!public.!Court!can!take!into!account!the!type!of!crime!and!the!history!and!character!of!the!offender!
o Two[step!analysis!for!determining!if!conditions!imposed!are!permissible:!! Are!the!conditions!being!imposed!for!a!legitimate!purpose!consistent!
with!the!statutory!requirement?!! Are!the!conditions!reasonably!related!to!those!purposes!and!involve!no!
greater!deprivation!than!reasonably!necessary!to!achieve!the!purpose?!• If!the!sole!purpose!is!humiliation,!court!likely!to!strike!it!down.!!
PRINCIPLE!OF!LEGALITY!
Legality!Principle:!“Nullum!crimen!sine!lege,!nulla!poena!sine!lege,”!or!“no!crime!without!law,!no!punishment!without!law.”!
Corollaries!to!legality!principle!!
• Criminal!Statutes!should!be!understandable!to!reasonable,!law[abiding!persons!• Criminal!statutes!should!be!crated!so!as!not!to!delegate!basic!policy!matters!to!
policemen,!judges!and!juries!for!resolution!on!an!ad!hoc!and!subjective!basis.!!• Judicial!interpretation!of!ambiguous!statutes!should!be!biased!in!favor!of!the!accused.!!
RETROACTIVE(APPLICATION(OF(PENAL(LAWS(
• Penal!laws!cannot!be!applied!retroactively;!a!person!may!not!be!convicted!and!punished!unless!the!conduct!engaged!in!was!defined!as!a!crime!at!the!time!the!conduct!was!engaged.!!
• Ex!Post!Facto!Clause:!Art.!1.!§§9[10.!Federal!and!state!legislatures!cannot!enact!bills!of!attainder!and!ex!post!facto!legislation.!!
o Bill!of!attainder:!Legislation!declaring!a!specific!person!to!be!guilty!of!a!crime!and!subject!to!punishment!without!trial!or!conviction.!
o Ex!Post!Facto:!Legislatures!cannot!enact!legislation!that!makes!conduct!engaged!in!before!the!passing!of!the!law!criminal!and!punish!according,!aggravates!a!crime,!or!increases!the!punishment!for!a!crime!committed!when!the!punishment!was!less!or!different.!!
SPECIFICITY(
• Statutes!cannot!be!overbroad!or!vague.!!
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• A!criminal!statute!must!be!sufficiently!definite!to!give!notice!of!the!required!conduct!to!one!who!would!avoid!its!penalties,!and!to!guide!the!judge!in!its!application!and!the!lawyer!in!defending!one!charged!with!its!violation.!–!In!Re!Banks!
• If!a!statute!is!ambiguous,!the!court!can!look!to!legislative!intent/history,!common!law,!and!case!law!precedents!to!interpret!it.!!
• Void!for!Vagueness!Doctrine:!A!criminal!statute!must!provide!a!person!of!ordinary!intelligence!fair!notice!of!what!is!prohibited.!Criminal!laws!can!be!invalidated!for!vagueness!for!two!independent!reasons:!(1)!the!statute!fails!to!provide!fair!notice;!or!(2)!the!statute!authorizes!or!encourages!arbitrary!and!discriminatory!enforcement!!
o Fair!notice!! Definiteness:!Due!Process!requires!that!a!penal!statute!be!sufficiently!
definite!by!its!terms!so!as!“to!give!a!person!of!ordinary!intelligence!fair!notice!that!his!contemplated!conduct!is!forbidden!by!the!state”!!
! Overbroad:!Legislature!may!not!criminalize!conduct!that!is!inherently!innocent!since!to!do!so!would!not!fairly!inform!the!ordinary!citizen!that!an!otherwise!innocent!act!is!illegal.!!
o Arbitrary!Enforcement!!! Penal!law!must!provide!minimal!guidelines!to!govern!law!enforcement!! Test:!Does!the!statute!require!the!officer!on[the[scene!to!objectively!
observe!some!definable!impermissible!act!in!order!to!find!probable!cause!to!arrest,!thereby!foreclosing!the!possibility!that!the!law!will!be!arbitrarily!enforced?!!
o To!determine!how!much!clarity!is!required,!courts!look!at!three!factors:!! The!purpose!of!the!statute!! The!extent!to!which!the!statutory!ambiguity!was!necessary!to!further!
the!legislative!goal!! The!impact!of!the!statute!on!the!protected!rights!of!the!individual!
ACTUS!REUS!
• Actus!Reus:!Voluntary,!physical!act.!Required!element.!o Consists!of!a!voluntary!act!that!causes!social!harm.!!
• Crimes!typically!contain!two!elements,!the!actus!reus!and!the!mens!rea.!!• For!a!defendant!to!be!criminally!liable,!he!must!have!performed!a!voluntary!physical!act!
or!failed!to!act!under!circumstances!imposing!a!legal!duty!to!act.!!o !MPC!§2.01:!A!person!is!not!guilty!of!an!offense!unless!his!liability!is!based!on!
conduct!that!includes!a!voluntary!act!or!the!omission!to!perform!an!act!of!which!he!is!physically!capable.!!
o NYPL!§15.10:!The!minimal!requirement!for!criminal!liability!is!the!performance!by!a!person!of!conduct!which!includes!a!voluntary!act.!!
VOLUNTARY(ACT(
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• A!person!is!not!guilty!of!a!crime!unless!her!conduct!includes!an!overt!voluntary!act.!!o An!act!is!a!bodily!movement,!ex.!Pulling!a!trigger,!walking,!speaking,!starting!a!
car.!“Act”!excludes!mental!processes.!!o Voluntary!act!involves!the!use!of!the!human!mind.!!
• Model!Penal!Code!sets!out!acts!which!are!NOT!voluntary!o A!reflex!or!convulsion!o A!bodily!movement!during!unconsciousness,!sleep!or!as!a!result!of!hypnosis!o Bodily!movement!that!is!not!a!product!of!the!effort!or!determination!of!the!
actor.!!• NYPL!§15,00!defines!a!voluntary!act!as!“a!bodily!movement!performed!consciously!as!a!
result!of!effort!or!determination.”!• Note:&violations&do¬&require&a&voluntary&act.!• Involuntary(Acts:(Acts!that!an!individual!has!no!conscious!control!over.!See!the!MPC.!!
! POSSESSION! !
• Possession!is!a!voluntary!act!when!there!is!an!affirmative!act!of!taking.!• It!is!sometimes!a!failure!to!act!when!the!actor!is!aware!of!the!possession!and!does!
nothing!to!separate!themselves!from!it.!!• MPC!§2.01:!possession!is!a!voluntary!act!if!the!possessor!knowingly!procured!or!
received!the!thing!possessed!or!was!aware!of!his!control!thereof!for!a!sufficient!period!to!have!been!able!to!terminate!his!possession.!!
• NYPL!§15.00:!a!voluntary!act!includes!the!possession!of!property!if!the!actor!was!aware!of!his!physical!possession!or!control!thereof!for!a!sufficient!period!to!have!been!able!to!terminate!it.!!
• Constructive(Possession:!A!person!is!guilty!of!possession!if!he!exercised!dominion!and!control!over!the!place!where!the!contraband!was!seized!or!over!the!persons!who!actually!possessed!the!property.!
• Statutory!Presumptions!in!New!York!o NYPL!§220.25:!The!presence!of!drugs!in!car!is!presumptive!evidence!of!knowing!
possession!thereof!by!each!and!every!person!in!the!automobile!at!the!time!such!controlled!substance!was!found.!This!presumption!does!not!apply!if!the!controlled!substance!is!concealed!upon!the!person!of!one!of!the!occupants.!!
o NYPL!§265.15:!The!presence!of!a!firearm!in!an!automobile!is!presumptive!evidence!of!knowing!possession!thereof!by!each!and!every!person!in!the!automobile!at!the!time!such!firearm!was!found.!!
OMISSION(
• When!a!common!law!duty!to!act!exists,!and!a!person!was!physically!capable!of!performing!the!act,!an!omission!of!the!duty!to!act!serves!as!a!legal!substitute!for!a!voluntary!act.!!
• Circumstances!that!commonly!create!legal!duties!o Family!members!(parent/minor!children,!spouses)!
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o Non[family!member!who!has!assumed!the!role!of!a!parent!o A!person!who!puts!another!at!risk!for!serious!harm!!
! Also,!a!person!who!voluntarily!commences!assistance!to!another!in!jeopardy!has!a!duty!to!continue!to!provide!aid!if!a!subsequent!omission!would!put!the!victim!in!a!worse!position!than!if!the!actor!had!not!initiated!help.!!
o Certain!professionals!have!a!duty!to!report!suspected!child!abuse!o A!duty!can!arise!from!a!contractual!obligation,!either!implied!or!express.!!o Statutory!Duty!
! Ex.!Pay!taxes,!provide!food!and!shelter!for!own!children.!!• MPC!§2.01:!A!person!is!not!guilty!of!an!offense!unless!his!liability!is!based!on!conduct!
which!includes!a!voluntary!act!or!omission!to!perform!an!act!o (3)!Liability!or!the!commission!of!an!offense!may!not!be!based!on!an!omission!
unless!a!duty!to!perform!the!omitted!act!is!imposed!by!law.!• NYPL!§15.10:!The!minimal!requirement!for!criminal!liability!is!the!performance!by!a!
person!of!conduct!which!includes!a!voluntary!act!of!the!omission!to!perform!an!act.!!o (3)!Omission!means!a!failure!to!perform!an!act!as!to!which!a!duty!of!
performance!is!imposed!by!law.!!• Good!Samaritan!Laws!
o Ex.!Vt.!Stat.!Ann,!Title!12!§519:!! A!person!who!knows!another!is!exposed!to!grave!physical!injury!shall!
give!reasonable!assistance!to!the!person!to!the!extent!that!aid!can!be!rendered!without!danger!or!peril!
! In!most!jurisdictions,!this!isn’t!the!law.!!
MENS!REA!
• Actus&non&facit&reum&nisi&mens&sit&rea!(an!act!does!not!make!a!person!guilty!unless!the!mind!be!guilty).!!
• Mens!Rea:!“Guilty!Mind.”!The!mental!state!that!a!defendant!must!have!had!with!regard!to!a!specific!crime!he!has!committed!
o Defendant!must!have!a!culpable!state!of!mind!o Broadly!speaking,!defendant!is!guilty!of!a!crime!if!she!commits!the!social!harm!
of!the!offense!with!any!morally!blameworthy!state!of!mind.!!o More!narrowly,!a!defendant!is!not!guilty!of!an!offense,!even!if!she!has!a!
culpable!frame!of!mind,!if!she!lacks!the!mental!state!specified!in!the!definition!of!the!crime!
• Intent!o General!Intent:!Any!offense!for!which!the!only!mens!rea!required!was!a!
blameworthy!state!of!mind.!Presumed!to!be!general!intent!if!specific!intent!is!not!set!out!in!the!definition!of!the!crime!
o Specific!Intent:!the!definition!of!the!offense!expressly!required!proof!of!a!particular!mental!state.!Person!is!guilty!if!he!voluntarily!engaged!in!the!conduct!
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under!circumstances!manifesting!the!specific!state!of!mind!set!out!in!the!definition.!
Statutory(Interpretation(of(Mens(Rea(
• If!a!statute!is!not!clear!on!its!face,!the!court!will!seek!to!interpret!the!best!gives!effect!to!legislative!intent.!Courts!look!to:(
o Legislative!history(o Earlier!statutes!on!the!same!subject(o Common!law!as!was!understood!at!the!time!of!the!enactment!of!the!statute(o Previous!interpretations!of!the!same!or!similar!statutes.!(
LEVELS(OF(CULPABILITY(
• A!person!may!not!be!convicted!of!an!offense!unless!he!acted:!o Purposely!(NY:!Intentionally)!o Knowingly!o Recklessly,!or!o Negligently!(NY:!Criminally!Negligent)!
• Conduct,!attendant!circumstances!and!result!relate!to!each!material!element!of!the!offense.!!
MPC!2.02(1)!
• Except!as!provided!in!section!2.05,!a!person!is!not!guilty!of!an!offense!unless!he!acted!purposely,!knowingly,!recklessly,!or!negligently,!as!the!law!may!require,!with!respect!to!each(material(element!of!the!offense.!!
o The!MPC!requires!that!the!prosecution!prove!that!the!defendant!committed!the!social!harm!of!the!offense—each!material!element!of!the!offense—with!a!culpable!state!of!mind.!
! A!legislature!may!choose!to!require!different!levels!of!culpability!for!each!material!element.!!
PURPOSELY/INTENTIONALLY!
• MPC!2.02(2)(a)!o A!person!acts!purposely!with!respect!to!a!material!element!of!an!offense!when:!
! (i)!if!the!element!involves!the!nature!of!his!conduct!or!a!result!thereof,!it!is!his!conscious(object(to(engage(in(conduct(of(that(nature(or(to(cause(such(a(result;!and!
! (ii)!if!the!element!involves!the!attendant!circumstances,!he!is!aware(of(the(existence(of(such(circumstances(or(he(believes(or(hopes(that(they(exist.!
o !• NYPL!15.05!(1)!
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o A!person!acts!intentionally!with!respect!to!a!result!or!to!conduct!described!by!a!statute!defining!an!offense!when!his!conscious!objective!is!to!cause!such!result!or!to!engage!in!such!conduct.!
• At!common!law,!intentionally!is!defined!as!(1)!a!desire!to!cause!the!social!harm;!or!(2)!knowledge!that!the!social!harm!is!virtually!certain!to!occur!as!a!result!of!his!conduct.!!!
o Under!the!first!prong!of!the!definition,!it!doesn’t!matter!how!likely!it!was!that!the!event!would!occur,!just!that!the!desire!to!cause!the!harm!was!present.!!
o The!second!prong!cannot!be!satisfied!if!the!outcome!was!merely!highly!probable.!
• Intent!can!be!proven!through!conduct!where!once!can!infer!that!the!defendant!intended!to!cause!the!social!harm.!!
• The!defendant’s!subjective!fault!matters,!meaning!that!the!defendant!must!possess!a!wrongful!state!of!mind!
o i.e.!the!conscious!desire!to!cause!the!social!harm!or!the!awareness!that!the!harm!will!almost!certainly!result!from!his!conduct.!!
Transferred(Intent(
• Applies!when!a!defendant!intends!to!cause!harm!to!one!person!but!accidentally!causes!it!to!another.!
o The!law!transfers!the!actor’s!state!of!mind!regarding!the!intended!victim!to!the!unintended!one.!!
• NYPL!and!MPC!are!written!in!such!a!way!that!the!doctrine!of!transferred!intent!is!unnecessary.!!
o The!requisite!intent!is!intent!to!kill!a&human!being,!not!a!specific!human!being.!!
KNOWINGLY!!
• MPC!2.02(2)(b)!!o A!person!acts!knowingly!with!respect!to!a!material!element!of!an!offense!when:!
! (i)!if!the!element!involves!the!nature!of!his!conduct!or!the!attendant!circumstances,!he!is!aware!that!his!conduct!is!of!that!nature!or!that!such!circumstances!exist;!and!
! (ii)!if!the!element!involves!a!result!of!his!conduct,!he!is!aware!that!it!is!practically!certain!that!his!conduct!will!cause!such!a!result.!
• NYPL!15.05(2)!!o A!person!acts!knowingly!with!respect!to!conduct!or!to!a!circumstance!described!
by!a!statute!defining!an!offense!when!he!is!aware!that!his!conduct!is!of!such!nature!or!that!such!circumstance!exists.!
• Sometimes,!knowledge!of!a!material!fact—an!attendant!circumstance—is!a!required!element!of!an!offense.!
• A!person!has!knowledge!of!a!material!fact!is!!o (1)!he!is!aware!of!the!fact!or!o (2)!he!correctly!believes!that!the!fact!exists.!!
• There!is!a!presumption!that!“knowingly”!applies!to!all!of!the!elements!of!the!crime.!!
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RECKLESSLY!
• MPC!2.02(2)(c)!o A!person!acts!recklessly!with!respect!to!a!material!element!of!an!offense!when!
he!consciously!disregards!a!substantial!and!unjustifiable!risk!that!the!material!element!exists!or!will!result!from!his!conduct.!The!risk!must!be!of!such!a!nature!and!degree!that,!considering!the!nature!and!purpose!of!the!actor's!conduct!and!the!circumstances!known!to!him,!its!disregard!involves!a!gross!deviation!from!the!standard!of!conduct!that!a!law[abiding!person!would!observe!in!the!actor's!situation.!
• NYPL!15.05(3)!o A!person!acts!recklessly!with!respect!to!a!result!or!to!a!circumstance!described!
by!a!statute!defining!an!offense!when!he!is!aware!of!and!consciously!disregards!a!substantial!and!unjustifiable!risk!that!such!result!will!occur!or!that!such!circumstance!exists.!The!risk!must!be!of!such!nature!and!degree!that!disregard!thereof!constitutes!a!gross!deviation!from!the!standard!of!conduct!that!a!reasonable!person!would!observe!in!the!situation.!A!person!who!creates!such!a!risk!but!is!unaware!thereof!solely!by!reason!of!voluntary!intoxication!also!acts!recklessly!with!respect!thereto.!
• Requires!proof!that!the!actor!disregarded!a!substantial!and!unjustifiable!risk!of!which!he!was!aware.!!
• The!line!between!criminal!negligence!and!recklessness!is!founded!on!the!actor’s!state!of!mind!in!regard!to!the!risk,!not!the!extent!of!the!deviation!from!the!standard!of!care.!!
• The!actor!must!be!aware!of!the!substantial!and!unjustifiable!risk!he!was!taking,!and!yet!consciously!disregard!It!an!proceed!with!his!dangerous!conduct.!!!
CRIMINAL!NEGLIGENCE!
• MPC!2.02(2)(d)!o A!person!acts!negligently!with!respect!to!a!material!element!of!an!offense!when!
he!should!be!aware!of!a!substantial!and!unjustifiable!risk!that!the!material!element!exists!or!will!result!from!his!conduct.!The!risk!must!be!of!such!a!nature!and!degree!that!the!actor's!failure!to!perceive!it,!considering!the!nature!and!purpose!of!his!conduct!and!the!circumstances!known!to!him,!involves!a!gross!deviation!from!the!standard!of!care!that!a!reasonable!person!would!observe!in!the!actor's!situation.!
• NYPL!15.05(4)!o A!person!acts!with!criminal!negligence!with!respect!to!a!result!or!to!a!
circumstance!described!by!a!statute!defining!an!offense!when!he!fails!to!perceive!a!substantial!and!unjustifiable!risk!that!such!result!will!occur!or!that!such!circumstance!exists.!The!risk!must!be!of!such!nature!and!degree!that!the!failure!to!perceive!it!constitutes!a!gross!deviation!from!the!standard!of!care!that!a!reasonable!person!would!observe!in!the!situation.!
• Conduct!that!represents!a!gross!deviation!from!the!standard!of!care.!• A!person!is!criminally!negligent!if!he!takes!a!substantial!and!unjustifiable!risk!of!causing!
the!social!harm!that!constitutes!the!offensive!charges.!!
! 11!
• Not!to!be!equated!with!recklessness.!!
STRICT(LIABILITY((
• A(strict(liability(offense(is!a!crime!that,!by!definition,!contains!no!mens!rea!requirements!regarding!one!or!more!elements!of!the!actus!reus.!!
• According!to!the!Supreme!Court,!offenses!that!do!not!contain!a!mens!rea!element!have!a!generally!disfavored!status!and!with!regards!to!crimes!having!their!origin!in!the!common!law,!an!interpretative!presumption!that!mens!rea!is!required!in!federal!statutes.!!
o Federal!statutes!which!are!otherwise!silent!in!regard!to!mens!rea,!as!containing!an!implicit!requirement!of!some!culpable!mental!state.!!
• State!courts!apply!this!same!presumption!against!strict!liability!• Common!example!of!a!non[public!welfare!offense!that!does!not!require!a!mens!rea!is!
statutory!rape,!because!most!statutes!don’t!require!the!defendant!to!have!any!mens!rea!with!regard!to!the!knowledge!of!the!females!underage!status!
General!Rules!of!construction!!
• If!the!purpose!is!for!a!regulation!and!the!penalty!is!light,!then!the!mens!rea!may!not!be!required.!!
• If!the!purpose!is!for!punishment!of!the!offender!and!the!punishment!outweighs!the!regulatory!purpose,!mens!rea!is!required!
• If!the!penalty!includes!imprisonment,!mens!rea!is!usually!required.!!
A!court!will!generally!interpret!a!statute!to!be!one!of!strict!liability!when:!
1. The!statutory!crime!is!not!derived!from!the!common!law!2. There!is!an!evident!legislative!policy!that!would!be!undermined!by!the!mens!rea!
requirement!3. The!standard!imposed!by!the!statute!is!reasonable!adherence!thereto!properly!
expected!of!a!person!4. The!penalty!of!violation!of!the!statute!is!small!!5. The!conviction!does!not!gravely!besmirch!!
Public(Welfare(Offenses(
• Statutes!aimed!at!conduct!that,!although!not!morally!wrongful,!could!gravely!affect!the!health,!safety!or!welfare!of!a!significant!portion!of!the!public.!(
o Ex.!Minor!violations!of!liquor!laws,!pure!food!laws,!anti[narcotics!laws,!motor!vehicle!and!traffic!regulations,!etc.!(
• If!the!penalty!is!light,!as!it!is!in!public!welfare!offenses,!involving!a!relatively!small!fine,!and!not!including!imprisonment,!mens!rea!probably!not!required.!(
• Characteristics!of!public!welfare!offenses(o Regulate!dangerous!or!deleterious!devices!or!products!or!obnoxious!waste!
materials!(
! 12!
o Heighten!the!duties!of!those!in!control!of!particular!industries,!trades,!properties!or!activities!that!affect!public!health,!safety!or!welfare(
o Depend!on!no!mental!element!but!consist!only!of!forbidden!acts!or!omissions.(
MPC(§2.05(
• (1)!The!requirements!of!culpability!prescribed!by!Sections!2.01!and!2.02!do!not!apply!to:!o (a)!offenses!that!constitute!violations,!unless!the!requirement!involved!is!
included!in!the!definition!of!the!offense!or!the!Court!determines!that!its!application!is!consistent!with!effective!enforcement!of!the!law!defining!the!offense;!or!
o (b)!offenses!defined!by!statutes!other!than!the!Code,!insofar!as!a!legislative!purpose!to!impose!absolute!liability!for!such!offenses!or!with!respect!to!any!material!element!thereof!plainly!appears.!
MISTAKE!OF!FACT!
• Generally!speaking,!mistake!of!fact!is!a!defense!to!liability!if!it!negates!the!mens!rea.!!o General!intent!offense!
! Mistake!must!be!honest!(in!good!faith)!and!reasonable—if!it!is!unreasonable,!then!by!definition,!the!actor!still!has!a!culpable!state!of!mind.!!
o Specific!Intent!Offenses!! Mistake!must!be!honest!(in!good!faith);!if!the!mistake!negates!the!
specific!mens!rea,!it!doesn’t!matter!if!it’s!reasonable.!!o Strict!Liability!Offenses!
! Under!no!circumstances!does!a!person’s!mistake!of!fact!negate!his!criminal!responsibility.!!
• If!the!mistake!of!fact!defeats!the!mens!rea,!then!it!defeats!that!element!of!the!crime!
MPC!§2.04!Ignorance!or!Mistake!
o Ignorance!or!mistake!as!a!matter!of!fact!or!law!is!a!defense!if:!!! The!ignorance!or!mistake!negatives!the!purpose,!knowledge,!belief,!
recklessness!or!negligence!required!to!establish!a!material!element!of!the!offense;!or!
! The!law!provides!that!the!state!of!mind!established!by!such!ignorance!or!mistake!constitutes!a!defense!
• NYPL!§15.20!o A!person!is!not!relieved!of!criminal!liability!for!conduct!because!he!engages!in!
such!conduct!under!a!mistaken!belief!or!fact.!!
Legal(Wrong(Doctrine(
• MPC!§2.04(2)!o Although!ignorance!or!mistake!would!otherwise!afford!a!defense!to!the!offense!
charged,!the!defense!is!not!available!if!the!defendant!would!be!guilty!of!another!offense!had!the!situation!been!as!he!supposed.!In!such!case,!however,!the!
! 13!
ignorance!or!mistake!of!the!defendant!shall!reduce!the!grade!and!degree!of!the!offense!which!he!may!be!convicted!to!those!of!the!offense!of!which!he!would!be!guilty!had!the!situation!been!as!he!supposed.!
MISTAKE!OF!LAW!
• Generally,!ignorance!or!mistake!of!law!is!no!defense!to!criminal!liability.!(o The!law!is!definite!and!knowable,!so!if!someone!fails!to!learn!of!the!law!that!
person!is!still!morally!culpable.!(o (
• Exceptions(o If(the(mistake(of(law(negates(the(mens(rea(
! One!very!rare!occasion,!knowledge!that!the!prohibited!conduct!constitutes!an!offense!is!itself!an!express!element!of!the!crime.!(
! Sometimes,!a!defendant’s!lack!of!knowledge!of,!or!misunderstanding!regarding!the!meaning!or!application!of!another!law—typically,!a!non!penal!law—will!negate!the!mens!rea!element!in!the!definition!of!the!criminal!offense(
• Ex.!D!is!prosecuted!for!bigamy!because!she!believed!that!she!had!obtained!a!legal!divorce!before!remarrying.!(
o The(defendant(reasonably(relied(on(an(interpretation(of(the(law(that(was(later(found(to(be(erroneous.((
! Reliance!on!one’s!own!interpretation!of!the!law!is!not!a!valid!defense.!(• A!person!is!not!excused!for!committing!a!crime!if!she!relies!on!
her!own!erroneous!reading!of!the!law,!even!if!a!reasonable!person!would!have!similarly!misunderstood!the!law.!(
! Reliance!on!the!advice!of!private!counsel!also!not!a!valid!defense(! Reliance!on!an!official!interpretation!of!the!law!is!a!valid!defense(
• Defendant!will!be!excused!if!he!reasonably!relies!on!an!official!statement!of!the!law,!later!determined!to!be!erroneous,!obtained!from!a!person!or!public!body!with!responsibility!for!interpretation,!administration,!or!enforcement!of!the!law!defining!the!offense.!!(
• For!a!statement!to!be!official,!it!must!contain!(1)!a!statute!later!declared!to!be!invalid;!(2)!a!judicial!decision!of!the!highest!court!in!the!jurisdiction,!later!determined!to!be!erroneous;!or!(3)!an!official,!but!erroneous!interpretation!of!the!law,!secured!from!a!public!officer!in!charge!of!its!interpretation,!administration!or!enforcement.!(
CAUSATION!!
• Actus!Reus!requires!that!the!defendant’s!voluntary(act!be!the!factual(and(proximate(cause!of!the!social(harm.(!
! 14!
ACTUAL((FACTUAL)(CAUSE((
“ButXfor”(test(
o But!for!D’s!voluntary!act(s),!would!the!social!harm!have!occurred!when!it!did?!!o If!the!social!harm!would!not!have!occurred!when!it!did!in!the!absence!of!D’s!
voluntary!conduct,!D!is!an!actual!cause!of!the!result.!!o D!cannot!be!held!criminally!responsible!for!social!harm!unless!the!prosecution!
proves!beyond!a!reasonable!doubt!that!he!is!a!but[for!cause!of!the!harm!!
Substantial(Factor(Test(
• D’s!act!will!be!found!to!be!the!cause!in!fact!of!the!harm,!even!if!the!act!is!not!the!“but!for”!cause,!if!the!act!was!a!“substantial!factor”!in!bringing!out!the!result.!!
• Substantial!• Used!when!two!defendants!acting!simultaneously!and!independently!commit!separate!
acts,!each!sufficient!to!bring!about!the!proscribed!harm.!!
Accelerating(a(Result(
• Where!the!defendant’s!actions!accelerate!the!harm,!the!defendant!is!an!actual!cause!of!that!harm.!!
• Ex.!D1!shoots!V!in!the!stomach.!Based!on!medical!testimony,!V!would!have!died!from!that!gunshot!wound!within!an!hour.!Simultaneously!and!independently,!D2!shoots!V!in!the!stomach.!This!gunshot!alone!would!have!cause!V!to!die!within!an!hour.!Both!of!the!shorts!together!caused!V!to!die!in!five!minutes.!!
o Both!D1!and!D2!are!actual!causes!of!the!death!because!both!of!their!actions!accelerated!V’s!death.!!
PROXIMATE((LEGAL)(CAUSE(
• Proximate!cause!identifies!the!actor!who!should!be!held!criminally!liable!for!the!harm!caused.!!
• The!prosecution!must!show!that!the!act!and!harm!are!sufficiently!closely!related!that!the!act!is!a!proximate!cause.!!
o Is!the!connection!between!the!act!and!the!harm!so!stretched!that!it!is!unfair!to!hold!D!liable!for!that!harm?!
MPC(§2.03(
• When!purposely!or!knowingly!causing!a!particular!result!is!an!element!of!an!offense,!the!element!is!not!established!if!the!actual!result!is!not!within!the!purpose!or!the!contemplation!of!the!actor!unless:!
o the!actual!result!involves!the!same!kind!of!injury!or!harm!as!that!designed!or!contemplated!and!is!not!too!remote!or!accidental!in!its!occurrence!to!have!a![just]!bearing!on!the!actor's!liability!or!on!the!gravity!of!his!offense.!
! 15!
Direct!Cause:!Where!no!event!of!causal!significance!intervened!between!the!defendant’s!conduct!and!the!social!harm!for!which!he!is!being!prosecuted,!the!defendant!is!the!direct!cause!of!that!social!harm.!!
• An!act!that!is!a!direct!cause!of!social!harm!is!also!a!proximate!cause!of!it.!!
Intervening(Causes(
• An!intervening!cause!is!an!independent!force!that!operates!in!producing!social!harm,!but!which!only!comes!into!play!after!the!defendant’s!voluntary!act!has!been!committed!or!his!omission!has!occurred.!(
• Usually!comes!in!the!form!of!wrongdoing!by!a!third!party,!the!victim’s!contributory!negligence!or!suicidal!act,!or!a!natural!force.!(
• The!question!that!arises:!under!what!circumstances!should!D,!who!acts!with!the!requisite!mens!rea,!and!who!commits!a!voluntary!act!that!is!a!cause[in[fact!of!the!social!harm,!be!relieved!of!criminal!responsibility!because!of!an!intervening!cause?(
Factors(for(Intervening,(Superseding(Causes(
• Acts(that(break(the(causal(chain:(o Coincidental!intervening!act(
! A!force!that!does!not!occur!in!reponse!to!the!initial!wrongdoer’s!conduct.!(
• The!defendant’s!conduct!places!the!victim!in!a!situation!where!an!unforeseeable(!intervening!act!causes!the!harm!to!the!victim.(
• Ex.!V!is!a!passenger!in!D’s!car.!D!robs!V!and!abandons!him!on!a!rural!road.!Later!X!strikes!and!kills!V,!who!is!standing!in!the!middle!of!the!road.!X’s!conduct!is!a!coincidental!intervening!cause.!(
! Apparent!Safety!Doctrine(• When!a!person!reaches!a!position!of!safety,!the!original!
wrongdoer!is!no!longer!responsible!for!any!ensuing!harm.!(! Voluntary,!Knowing!Human!Intervention(
• A!free,!deliberate!and!informed!intervening!human!agent(! Di!Minimus!Contribution(
• When!the!defendant’s!causal!responsibility!for!ensuing!harm!is!exceptionally!insubstantial!in!comparison!to!that!of!an!intervening!cause.!(
o Acts(that(don’t(break(the(causal(chain(! Responsive!Intervening!act(
• A!foreseeable!act!in!response!to!the!conditions!created!by!the!defendant.!(
! Intended!Consequences(
! 16!
• A!voluntary!act!intended!to!bring!about!what!in!fact!happens!and!in!the!manner!in!which!it!happens!is!a!proximate!cause,!even!if!it!is!an!intervening!cause.!(
! Omission! (• A!failure!to!do!something!rarely!supersedes!an!earlier!operative!
wrongful!act.!(o Operates!even!if!the!intervening!actor!has!a!duty!to!act.!(
CRIMINAL!HOMICIDE!
Murder((common(law)((
• The!unjustified!and!unexcused!killing!of!a!human!being!with!“malice!aforethought.”!o Malice!aforethought!became!over!time!an!arbitrary!symbol!used!by!judges!to!
signify!any!number!of!mental!states!deemed!sufficient!to!support!liability!for!murder.!
o Malice(aforethought!generally!refers!to!four!states!of!mind!! Intent!to!kill,!including!awareness!that!the!death!of!another!would!
result!from!one’s!actions,!even!if!the!actor!had!no!particular!desire!to!achieve!such!a!consequence.!!
! Intent!to!inflict!serious!bodily!injury!! Reckless!disregard!for!the!value!of!human!life!(depraved!heart!murder)!! Intent!to!commit!a!felony!and!during!commission,!a!person!is!killed.!!
o All!of!the!malice!aforethought!mental!states!have!one!thing!in!common:!in!the!absence!of!justification,!excuse,!or!mitigating!circumstances,!each!mental!state!manifests!the!actor’s!extreme!indifference!to!the!value!of!human!life.!!
Homicide(
• Generally,!the!killing!of!a!human!being.!!o When!does!a!life!begin?!
! Under!NYPL!and!the!MPC,!a!person!is!one!who!has!been!born!and!is!alive.!!
• Some!states,!including!MI,!IL,!and!CA!have!statutes!protecting!an!unborn!child.!!
o When!does!a!life!end?!! The!traditional!rule!is!that!death!occurs!when!there!was!complete!and!
permanent!stoppage!of!the!circulation!of!the!blood!and!the!“cessation!of!the!animal!and!vital!functions!consequent!thereon.!!
! However,!due!to!the!development!of!life[support!devices!and!procedures,!a!person!can!be!kept!legally!alive!after!their!capacity!for!independent!life!has!ceased.!
! “Whole!Brain!Death”!is!now!commonly!incorporated!by!statute!or!judicial!decision!in!the!definition!of!human!“death.”!
Degrees(of(Homicide(
! 17!
• Some!states!divide!murder!into!degrees!to!distinguish!between!levels!of!culpability(o First!Degree!Murder:!Includes!murders!committed!in!a!statutorily!specified!
manner;!willful,!deliberate!and!premeditated!killing;!homicide!that!occurs!during!the!perpetration!or!attempted!perpetration!of!a!statutorily!enumerated!felony.!(
o Second!Degree!Murder:!Any!killing!that!is!not!specifically!covered!by!the!first[degree!murder!statute!necessarily!constitutes!the!lesser!form!of!murder(
! Ex.!Intentional!killings!that!are!not!premeditated!and!deliberate,!intent[to[inflict[grievous[bodily[injury!killings,!reckless!killings,!deaths!that!occur!during!the!commission!of!any!felony!not!listed!in!the!first[degree!section!of!the!murder!statute.!!(
• Model!Penal!Code
! 18!
o Any!interval!of!time!between!the!forming!of!the!intent!to!kill!and!the!execution!of!the!intent!which!is!of!sufficient!duration!for!the!accused!to!be!fully!conscious!of!what!he!intended.!
• Factors!for!premeditation!o Lack!of!provocation!o Conduct!and!statements!of!the!defendant!o Threats!to!the!defendant!o Ill!will!between!the!parties!o Dealing!lethal!blows!after!the!deceased!is!helpless!o Killing!done!in!a!brutal!manner!o The!nature!and!number!of!wounds.!
• New!York!has!abandoned!the!premeditated!requirement!!
MANSLAUGHTER!
• Voluntary!manslaughter!(common!law):!Intentional!homicide!committed!in!the!sudden!heat!of!passion!as!the!result!of!adequate!provocation.!!
o Four!Elements!! The!actor!must!have!acted!in!the!heat!of!passion!! The!passion!must!have!been!the!result!of!adequate!provocation!! The!actor!must!not!have!had!a!reasonable!opportunity!to!cool!off!! There!must!be!a!causal!link!between!the!provocation,!the!passion!and!
the!homicide.!!• MPC!§210.3!
o (1)!Criminal!homicide!constitutes!manslaughter!when:!! (a)!it!is!committed!recklessly;!or!! (b)!a!homicide!which!would!otherwise!be!murder!is!committed!under!
the!influence!of!extreme!mental!or!emotional!disturbance!for!which!there!is!reasonable!explanation!or!excuse.!The!reasonableness!of!such!explanation!or!excuse!shall!be!determined!from!the!viewpoint!of!a!person!in!the!actor's!situation!under!the!circumstances!as!he!believes!them!to!be.!
o (2)!Manslaughter!is!a!felony!of!the!second!degree.!o Reasonableness&of&such&explanation&or&excuse&shall&be&determined&from&the&
viewpoint&of&a&person&in&the&actor’s&situation&under&the&circumstances&as&he&believes&them&to&be.&!
• NYPL!§125.20!o A!person!is!guilty!of!manslaughter!in!the!first!degree!when:!
! 2.!With!intent!to!cause!the!death!of!another!person,!he!causes!the!death!of!such!person!or!of!a!third!person!under!circumstances!which!do!not!constitute!murder!because!he!acts!under!the!influence!of!extreme!emotional!disturbance... the!reasonableness!of!which!is!to!be!determined!from!the!viewpoint!of!a!person!in!the!defendant's!situation!under!the!circumstances!as!the!defendant!believed!them!to!be.!
Provocation(
! 19!
• Adequate!provocation:!Calculated!to!inflame!the!passion!of!a!reasonable!man!and!tend!to!cause!him!to!act!for!the!moment!from!passion!rather!than!reason.!!
• Situations!where!provocation!is!found!adequate!(common!law)!o Adultery!o Mutual!combat!o Assault!and!battery!o Injury!to!relative!or!third!party.!o Words&were¬&sufficient&provocation!
• Provocation!must!be!so!serious!that!an!ordinary!person!of!fair!average!disposition,!would!be!liable!to!act!rashly!or!without!due!deliberation!or!reflection!and!from!passion!rather!than!judgment.!(modern!law)!
o The!notion!that!words!alone!do!not!constitute!adequate!provocation!is!still!prevalent.!!
• State!of!Passion!!o Includes!violent,!intense,!high[wrought,!or!enthusiastic!emotion.!!
• Cooling!off!time!o Defense!of!provocation!involves!sudden!heat!of!passion!o If!a!reasonable!person!would!have!cooled!off!in!the!time!that!elapsed!between!
the!provocation!and!the!fatal!act,!then!the!defense!of!provocation!will!not!be!available.!!
o Historically,!strictly!applied.!
Extreme(Emotional(Disturbance(
• A!person!is!guilty!of!a!lesser!offense!of!manslaughter!if!she!killed!the!victim!while!suffering!from!an!extreme!mental!or!emotional!disturbance!for!which!there!is!a!reasonable!explanation!or!excuse.!(
• A!Intended!to!incorporate!two!common!law!doctrines:!(1)!sudden!heat!of!passion;!and!(2)!partial!responsibility.(
• The!MPC!and!NYPL!use!EED,!which!is!an!outgrowth!of!heat!of!passion(o EED!is!much!broader!than!the!common!law!provocation!defense.!(
• Two!step!analysis!for!voluntary!manslaughter!under!this!approach(o 1.!Did!the!defendant!act!under!the!influence!of!extreme!emotional!disturbance?(
! This!is!a!subjective!standard(o 2.!If!so,!was!the!EED!reasonable!under!the!circumstances?(
! This!is!a!subjective!approach!(
UNINTENTIONAL(KILLINGS(
• Unjustified!risk[taking!that!constitutes!murder!o Depraved!heart!o Abandoned!and!malignant!heart!o Wanton!disregard!for!human!life.!!
• Depraved(Heart(Murder!o A!depraved[heart!murder!is!a!reckless!or!extremely!reckless!homicide.!!
! 20!
o Extreme!recklessness!is!the!form!of!risk[taking!that!constitutes!murder.!!o Though!the!accused!does!not!intend!to!kill!the!victim,!malice!is!implied!because!
there!is!a!wanton!and!willful!disregard!of!the!likelihood!that!the!natural!tendency!of!the!defendant’s!behavior!is!to!cause!death!or!great!bodily!harm.!!
! Actor!consciously!disregards!a!substantial!and!unjustifiable!risk!to!human!life.!! !
o The!defendant!is!liable!for!murder!if!he!causes!a!death,!while!acting!with!such!great!recklessness!that!he!can!be!said!to!have!a!depraved!heart!or!an!extreme!indifference!to!the!value!of!human!life.!!
MPC!§210.2!!
o Criminal!homicide!constitutes!murder!when:!! (b)!it!is!committed!recklessly!under!circumstances!manifesting!extreme!
indifference!to!the!value!of!human!life.!o NYPL!§125.25!!
! Under!the!circumstances!evincing!a!depraved!indifference!to!human!life,!he!recklessly!engages!in!conduct!which!creates!a!grave!risk!of!death!to!another!person,!and!thereby!causes!the!death!of!another!person.!!
• Criminal!Negligent!Homicide!o The!actor!grossly!fails!to!recognize!a!substantial!and!unjustifiable!risk!that!the!
result!will!occur.!The!failure!to!recognize!the!risk!involves!a!gross!deviation!from!the!standard!of!care!a!reasonable!person!would!observe.!!
o Involuntary!manslaughter!o Distinction!between!criminal!negligence!and!depraved!heart!murder!is!founded!
upon!the!consciousness!of!the!actor’s!risk[taking.!!! one!who!should!be!aware!of!the!risk,!but!is!not,!is!negligent.!!
Murder(v.(Manslaughter((
• Murder!is!recklessness!along!with!a!depraved!indifference!or!manifesting!an!extreme!indifference!to!the!value!of!human!life.!!
• Voluntary!Manslaughter!is!recklessness!!• Involuntary!manslaughter!is!criminal!negligence.!!
FELONY(MURDER(RULE(
• One!is!guilty!of!murder!if!a!death!results!from!conduct!during!the!commission!or!attempted!commission!of!any!felony.!!
o Applies!without!regard!to!the!mental!culpability!of!the!death!itself.!!o First!degree!murder!where!the!death!results!from!the!commission!of!a!
specifically!listed!felony.!o Second!degree!murder!where!it!results!from!the!commission!of!an!unspecified!
felony.!!• Limitations!on!the!felony[murder!rule!
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o Res!gestae!requirements!! Time!and!distance!
• In!order!for!the!rule!to!apply,!there!must!be!relatively!close!proximity!in!terms!of!time!and!distance!between!the!felony!and!the!homicide.!!
• Res!gestae!period!typically!begins!when!the!actor!has!reached!the!point!at!which!she!could!be!prosecuted!for!an!attempt!to!commit!the!felony!and!continues!at!least!until!all!of!the!elements!of!the!crime!are!completed.!!
o Will!continue!after!the!commission!of!the!crime,!as!long!as!the!felony!and!the!homicidal!act!can!be!interpreted!as!part!of!one!continuous!transaction.!!
! Causation!!• There!must!be!“but[for”!causation,!and!typically!proximate!
causation.!• The!act!causing!the!death!must!result!from!some!effort!to!
further!the!felony!before!malice!can!be!imputed!to!that!act.!!• There!must!be!some!act!attributable!to!the!felons!which!
proximately!causes!the!death.!!o Merger!doctrine!
! Rule!only!applies!if!the!predicate!felony!is!independent!of!or!collateral!to!the!homicide.!If!the!felony!is!not!independent,!then!the!felony!is!said!to!merge!with!the!homicide!and!cannot!serve!as!the!basis!for!a!felony[murder!conviction.!!
! Predicate!felony!must!not!be!one!involving!personal!injury!but!have!a!purpose!other!than!inflicting!harm!
! Assaultive[type!felonies!“merge”!with!the!homicide!and!render!the!felony[murder!rule!inapplicable.!
o Inherently!dangerous!felonies!! Many!states!limit!the!rule!to!homicides!that!occurred!during!the!
commission!of!a!felony!dangerous!to!human!life.!!! Two!approaches!to!determining!whether!a!felony!is!inherently!
dangerous!• 1.!Look!at!the!elements!in!the!abstract,!as!it!is!defined!by!
statute!o test!is!whether!the!crime,!by!its!very!nature!cannot!be!
committed!without!creating!a!substantial!risk!that!someone!will!be!killed.!!
• 2.!Look!at!the!facts!and!circumstances!of!the!particular!case!to!determine!if!such!felony!was!inherently!dangerous!in!the!manner!and!circumstances!in!which!it!was!committed.!!
o NY!Penal!Law!Rule!! Acting!either!alone!or!with!one!or!more!other!persons,!he!commits!or!
attempts!to!commit!robbery,!burglary,!kidnapping,!arson,!rape!in!the!first!degree,!criminal!sexual!act!in!the!first!degree,!sexual!abuse!in!the!
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first!degree,!aggravated!sexual!abuse,!escape!in!the!first!degree,!or!escape!in!the!second!degree,!and,!in!the!course!of!and!in!furtherance!of!such!crime!or!of!immediate!flight!therefrom,!he,!or!another!participant,!if!there!be!any,!causes!the!death!of!a!person!other!than!one!of!the!participants;!except!that!in!any!prosecution!under!this!subdivision,!in!which!the!defendant!was!not!the!only!participant!in!the!underlying!crime,!it!is!an!affirmative!defense!that!the!defendant:!
• (a)!Did!not!commit!the!homicidal!act!or!in!any!way!solicit,!request,!command,!importune,!cause!or!aid!the!commission!thereof;!and!
• !instrument,!article!or!substance!readily!capable!of!causing!death!or!serious!physical!injury!and!of!a!sort!not!ordinarily!carried!in!public!places!by!law[abiding!persons;!and!
o (c)!Had!no!reasonable!ground!to!believe!that!any!other!participant!was!armed!with!such!a!weapon,!instrument,!article!or!substance;!and!
o (d)!Had!no!reasonable!ground!to!believe!that!any!other!participant!intended!to!engage!in!conduct!likely!to!result!in!death!or!serious!physical!injury!
o MPC!has!not!adopted!the!felony[murder!rule.!It!incorporates!it!a!bit!by!setting!up!a!presumption!that!the!defendant!engaged!in!such!risky!conduct!that!he!showed!extreme!indifference!to!the!value!of!life.!!
! Presumed!if!the!actor!is!engaged!in!or!is!an!accomplice!in!the!commission!of!or!flight!after!committing!or!attempting!to!commit!robbery,!rape,!arson,!burglary,!kidnapping,!felonious!escape.!
THEFT!
LARCENY( (
• Larceny!is!the!nonconsensual!(trespassory)!taking!(caption)!and!carrying!away!(asportation)!of!the!personal!property!of!another!with!intent!to!deprive!him!of!the!property.!
• Specific!intent!crime—the!actor!who!takes!and!carries!away!the!personal!property!of!another!must!do!so!with!the!specific!intent!to!deprive!the!other!of!the!property!on!a!permanent!basis.!!
Trespassory(
• There!can!be!no!larceny!without!trespass,!and!there!can!be!no!trespass!unless!the!property!was!in!the!possession!of!the!one!from!whom!it!is!charged!to!have!been!stolen.!(
• Trespass!occurs!if!one!takes!possession!of!the!victim’s!personal!property—he!dispossesses!the!other!of!the!property—without!consent,!or!in!the!absence!of!a!justification!for!the!nonconsensual!dispossession.!(
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Caption(
• The!element!of!taking!limits!the!crime!to!acts!that!violate!the!possession!of!an!item,!not!ownership.!!
• To!take!possession(of!something!means!to!take!physical!control!over!the!property!with!unrestricted!rights!to!use!it.!!
o Actual!possession:!The!person!is!in!physical!control!of!it!o Constructive!possession:!person!is!not!in!physical!control!of!it,!but!nobody!else!
has!physical!control!because!the!property!was!mislaid!or!lost!or!because!another!person!has!mere!custody!of!it.!!
• A!person!has!mere(custody!of!the!property!if!he!has!physical!control!over!it,!but!his!right!to!use!it!is!substantially!restricted!by!the!person!in!constructive!possession!of!the!property.!
o Situations!in!which!a!person!has!mere!custody!of!the!property!! When!a!person!has!temporarily!or!extremely!limited!authority!to!use!
the!property!! Employer[employee:!the!person!is!an!employee!who!has!received!the!
property!from!the!employer!for!use!in!the!employment!relationship!! Bailment:!when!person!is!a!bailee!of!goods!enclosed!in!a!container!! Fraud:!When!possession!is!obtained!through!fraud.!
• The!distinction!between!possession!and!mere!custody!matters!because!larceny!requires!a!showing!that!the!defendant!has!taken!the!property!from!the!possession!of!another!without!consent.!!
o If!defendant!has!mere!custody!of!property,!with!the!intent!to!steal!it,!he!has!taken!it!from!the!possession!of!another!without!consent!even!though!it!is!physically!in!his!control!(because!Victim!still!has!constructive!possession).!
• Employer[employee!o When!an!employer!gives!an!employee!property,!the!employer!retains!
constructive!possession!and!the!employee!has!mere!custody.!o So!since!the!master!still!has!constructive!possession,!when!an!employee!
develops!the!intent!to!deprive!the!employer!of!the!property,!the!taking!possession!element!is!satisfied,!and!the!employee!can!be!convicted!of!larceny.!!
o However,!the!premise!that!the!employee!has!limited!control!over!the!property!because!of!the!employment!relation!does!not!apply!when!an!employee!receives!property!from!a!person!who!has!no!special!authority!over!him,!but!who!wants!the!property!delivered!to!the!employee’s!boss.!!
! The!employee!takes!lawful!possession!in!this!situation,!so!an!employee!who!intends!to!deprive!his!employer!of!this!property!cannot!be!held!liable!for!larceny.!
• Bailor[bailee!o When!a!person!is!entrusted!with!a!container!for!the!delivery!in!an!unopened!
condition,!the!bailee!gets!possession!of!the!container!but!mere!custody!of!the!property!inside!the!container.!!
! When!the!bailee!wrongfully!opens!the!container!and!removes!its!contents,!a!trespassory!taking!of!possession!results.!!
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! The!timing!an!means!used!by!the!carrier!to!steal!goods!determines!whether!the!larceny!has!occurred.!!
• Fraud!or!dishonesty!in!acquiring!the!property!results!in!mere!custody!in!the!defendant;!possession!remains!with!the!person!defrauded.!!
Asportation(
• At!common!law,!a!person!is!not!guilty!of!larceny!unless!he!carries!away!the!personal!property!that!he!took!trespassorily!from!another.!!
o Virtually!any!movement!of!the!property!away!from!the!point!of!caption!is!sufficient.!!
• The!MPC!and!NYPL,!and!most!other!jurisdictions!no!longer!require!asportation.!!
Finders(
• The!rights!of!a!finder!of!lost!property!depend!upon!two!factors:!o (1)!the!possessory!interest!of!the!owner!at!the!time!the!property!is!discovered!o (2)!the!finder’s!state!of!mind!when!he!retrieves!the!lost!property.!!
• An!owner!of!property!retains!constructive!possession!of!his!lost!property!if!there!exists!a!reasonable!clue!to!ownership!of!it!when!it!is!discovered.!!
o Reasonable!clue!exists!if!the!finder!! Knows!to!whom!the!lost!property!belongs!or!!! Has!reasonable!ground!to!believe!from!the!nature!of!the!property!or!
circumstances!under!which!it!is!found!that!if!he!deals!honestly!with!it,!the!owner!will!appear!or!be!ascertained.!!
• If!there!is!no!reasonable!clue!to!ownership!of!the!lost!property,!the!finder!may!use!the!property!as!he!wishes;!the!act!of!picking!up!the!property!and!using!or!disposing!of!it!is!not!a!taking.!!
• If!there!is!a!reasonable!clue,!the!finder’s!state!of!mind!upon!discovery!is!critical.!If!the!defendant!takes!possession!with!intent!to!steal,!he’s!guilty!of!larceny.!If!he!picks!up!the!item!with!the!intent!to!locate!the!owner,!he!is!not!guilty!of!larceny!
• MPC!§223.5:!THEFT!OF!PROPERTY!LOST,!MISLAID,!OR!DELIVERED!BY!MISTAKE!!o A!person!who!comes!into!control!of!property!of!another!that!he!knows!to!have!
been!lost,!mislaid,!or!delivered!under!a!mistake!as!to!the!nature!or!amount!of!the!property!or!the!identity!of!the!recipient!is!guilty!of!theft!if,!with!purpose!to!deprive!the!owner!thereof,!he!fails!to!take!reasonable!measures!to!restore!the!property!to!a!person!entitled!to!have!it!!
Personal(Property(of((Another(
• Under!common!law,!larceny!only!protects!tangible!personal!property.!o Land,!intangible!property!and!labor!and!services!aren’t!protected.!
• MPC!moves!away!from!This!notion!a!bit!o §223.0(6)!
! “property”!means!anything!of!value,!including!real!estate,!tangible!and!intangible!personal!property,!contract!rights,!choses[in[action!and!other!
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interests!in!or!claims!to!wealth,!admission!or!transportation!tickets,!captured!or!domestic!animals,!food!and!drink,!electric!or!other!power.!
o §223.7!Theft!of!Services!! (1)!A!person!is!guilty!of!theft!is!he!purposely!obtains!services!which!he!
knows!are!available!only!for!compensation,!by!deception!or!threat,!or!by!false!token!or!other!means!to!avoid!payment!for!the!service.!“Services”!includes!labor,!professional!service,!transportation,!telephone!or!other!public!service,!accommodation!in!hotels,!restaurants!or!elsewhere,!admission!to!exhibitions,!use!of!vehicles!or!other!movable!property.!Where!compensation!for!service!is!ordinarily!paid!immediately!upon!the!rendering!of!such!service,!as!in!the!case!of!hotels!and!restaurants,!refusal!to!pay!or!absconding!without!payment!or!offer!to!pay!gives!rise!to!a!presumption!that!the!service!was!obtained!by!deception!as!to!intention!to!pay.!
! (2)!A!person!commits!theft!if,!having!control!over!the!disposition!of!services!of!others,!to!which!he!is!not!entitled,!he!knowingly!diverts!such!services!to!his!own!benefit!or!to!the!benefit!of!another!not!entitled!thereto.!
Intent(to(Deprive(
• Common!law!larceny!required!an!intent!to!deprive!the!possessor!of!the!property!permanently.!This!is!“felonious!intent!of!larceny.”!
o The!focus!needs!to!be!on!the!loss!to!the!possessor,!not!the!gain!to!the!defendant.!It!is!not!necessary!nor!sufficient!that!the!thief!intended!to!obtain!personal!benefit!from!the!taking.!!
o If!the!defendant!only!intended!to!deprive!the!possessor!temporarily,!he!is!not!guilty!of!larceny.!!
• Doctrine!of!Continuing!trespass!o Legal!fiction.!When!a!person!takes!possession!of!another!person’s!property!by!
trespass,!every!moment!that!he!retains!possession!of!it!constitutes!a!new!trespassory!taking!that!continues!until!he!terminates!possession!of!the!property.!!
! So!where!the!defendant!has!taken!possession!without!the!intent!to!steal,!and!later!develops!the!intent!to!steal!while!the!property!is!still!in!his!possession,!he!has!the!requisite!intent!to!steal!for!larceny.!!
• Claim!of!Right!o A!person!is!not!guilty!of!larceny!if!he!takes!property!belonging!to!another!
person!based!on!a!good!faith!belief!that!he!has!a!right!to!possess!the!property.!! This!belief!negates!the!specific!intent!to!steal.!!
• Three!categories!of!cases!where!intent!to!deprive!are!found!(People!v.!Davis)!o The!defendant!intends!to!sell!property!back!to!the!owner!o The!defendant!intends!to!claim!a!reward!for!finding!the!property!!o The!defendant!intends!to!return!the!property!to!its!owner!for!a!refund.!!
• MPC!§223.0(1)!
! 26!
o Deprive!means!to!withhold!property!of!another!permanently!or!for!so!extended!a!period!as!to!appropriate!a!major!portion!of!its!economic!value!or!with!intent!to!restore!only!upon!payment!of!reward!or!other!compensations.!!
EMBEZZLEMENT(
• Embezzlement!is!a!fraudulent!conversion!of!property!of!another!by!one!who!is!already!in!lawful!possession!of!the!property.!!
• Fraudulently!converting!the!property!occurs!when!the!defendant!performed!some!act!that!demonstrated!his!intent!to!deprive!another!of!the!property!permanently!!
• The!defendant!must!intend!to!defraud!for!a!conversion!to!become!embezzlement.!!o If!the!defendant!intended!to!restore!the!exact!property!taken,!then!it!is!not!
embezzlement.!If!the!defendant!intended!to!restore!similar!or!substantially!identical!property,!then!it!is!embezzlement,!!
• Most!jurisdictions!have!an!additional!requirement!that!the!defendant!came!into!possession!as!a!result!of!entrustment!by!or!for!the!owner!of!the!property.!!
Embezzlement(v.(Larceny(
• The!main!difference!between!larceny!and!embezzlement!is!the!initial!taking.!With!embezzlement,!the!defendant!had!permission!to!take!possession!of!the!property.!
• Also,!larceny!requires!caption!and!asportation,!whereas!embezzlement!requires!intentional!conversion.!!
FALSE(PRETENSES(
• A!person!who!knowingly!makes!a!false!representation!of!a!past!or!present!material!fact,!which!was!relied!upon!by!the!owner,!with!the!intent!to!defraud!the!owner!of!title!and!possession!of!her!property!is!guilty!of!theft!by!false!pretenses.!
• Here,!the!defendant!must!have!obtained!the!property!by!using!fraud.!!o The!thief!here!uses!trickery!to!secure!title,!not!simply!possession.!!o One!who!merely!secures!possession!would!be!guilty!of!larceny(by(trick.!!
False(Representation(
• Representation!may!be!in!writing,!orally!presented,!or!in!the!form!of!misleading!conduct.!!
o Nondisclosure!of!a!material!fact!does!not!constitute!false!pretenses!unless!the!omitter!has!a!duty!of!disclosure.!!
• The!representation!must!be!false.!A!person!is!not!guilty!of!false!pretenses!if!he!obtains!title!to!the!property!by!making!a!false!claim!that!turns!out!to!be!true.!
• The!aggrieved!party!needs!to!have!relied!upon!the!false!representation!in!order!for!it!to!be!false!pretense.!The!false!representation!must!have!been!materially!influential!to!the!decision!to!part!with!one’s!property.!!
! 27!
Material(Fact(
• Expression!of!an!opinion,!uttered!with!the!intent!to!defraud!another!does!not!constitute!false!pretenses.!!
o Puffery!is!not!actionable.!!• It!is!not!misrepresentation!to!fail!to!correct!what!is!known!to!be!a!mistaken!belief!that!
the!victim!holds!if!the!defendant!was!not!responsible!for!creating!that!belief!!or!has!no!fiduciary!duty!to!the!aggrieved!party.!!
• At!common!law,!a!false!promise!to!do!something!in!the!future!was!not!sufficient.!However,!the!MPC!includes!a!false!promise!of!performance.!!
DEFENSES!!
SELFXDEFENSE(
• The!non[aggressor!defendant!may!use!physical!force!against!another!when!!o There!is!an!actual!or!apparent!threat!of!the!use!of!force!against!the!defendant!o The!threat!of!force!is!unlawful!!o The!defendant!has!a!reasonable!belief!that!he!was!in!imminent!peril!of!death!or!
serious!bodily!harm!o The!defendant!has!a!reasonable!belief!that!the!use!of!force!in!response!was!
necessary!to!save!himself!o The!belief!must!be!objectively!reasonable!in!light!of!surrounding!circumstances.!
NonXaggressor(Requirement(
• An!aggressor!has!no!right!to!a!claim!of!self[defense,!as!a!person!is!not!privileged!to!use!force!to!resist!an!attack!unless!he!is!free!from!fault!in!the!difficulty.!!
• One!who!threatens!unlawfully!to!commit!a!battery!upon!another!or!who!provokes!physical!conflict!by!words!or!actions!calculated!to!bring!about!an!assault.!!
• Features!of!the!concept!of!aggression:!o A!person!is!an!aggressor!even!if!he!merely!starts!a!nondeadly!conflict!o It!is!incorrect!to!state!that!the!first!person!who!uses!force!is!always!the!
aggressor!o The!issue!of!whether!a!defendant!is!the!aggressor!ordinarily!is!a!matter!for!the!
jury!to!decide,!based!on!a!proper!instruction!on!the!meaning!of!the!term.!!
Necessity(Requirement(
• Force!should!not!be!used!against!another!person!unless,!and!only!to!the!extent!that!is!necessary.!!
• Under!common!law,!the!force!must!be!in!response!to!an!imminent!threat!• MPC!says!that!force!must!be!immediately!necessary,!authorizing!self[protection!a!bit!
sooner!than!the!common!law!
! 28!
• Duty!to!Retreat:!Generally!speaking,!if!a!person!can!safely!retreat!and!avoid!killing!the!aggressor,!deadly!force!is!unnecessary.!
o American!jurisdictions!split!on!the!issue!of!whether!an!innocent!person!must!retreat!when!this!can!be!done!in!complete!safety!
! Many!jurisdictions!have!a!no!retreat!rule,!saying!that!a!non[aggressor!permitted!to!use!deadly!force!to!repel!an!unlawful!deadly!attack,!even!if!he!is!aware!of!a!place!where!he!can!retreat!safely.!!
• Ex.!My!beloved!home!state’s!beloved!“stand!your!ground”!law.!!o Castle!Doctrine:!
! This!doctrine!provides!that!a!non[aggressor!is!not!ordinarily!required!to!retreat!from!his!dwelling,!even!though!he!knows!he!could!do!so!in!complete!safety,!before!using!deadly!force!in!self[defense.!!
Proportionality(Requirement(
• A!person!is!not!justified!in!using!force!that!is!excessive!in!relationship!to!the!harm!threatened.!(
o Non[deadly!force!must!be!used!to!repel!a!non[deadly!threat(o Deadly!force!can!only!be!used!to!repel!a!deadly!threat(
Reasonable(Belief(Requirement((
• A!self[defense!claim!contains!a!subjective!and!an!objective!component.!!o The!jury!must!determine!that!the!defendant!subjectively!believed!that!he!
needed!to!use!deadly!force!to!repel!an!imminent!unlawful!attack.!!o Also,!the!defendant’s!belief!must!be!one!that!a!reasonable!person!in!the!same!
situation!would!have!possessed.!!• A!defendant!is!justified!in!killing!a!supposed!aggressor!if!the!defendant’s!belief!in!this!
regard!is!objectively!reasonable,!even!if!appearances!prove!to!be!false.!!
Immanency(Requirement(
• A!person!who!wishes!to!use!force!in!self[defense!must!reasonably!fear!that!the!threatened!harm!is!imminent.!!
o Force!is!said!to!be!imminent!if!it!will!occur!immediately,!or!at!the!moment!of!danger.!!
o The!danger!must!be!pressing!and!urgent.!Force!is!not!imminent!if!an!aggressor!threatens!to!harm!another!person!at!a!later!time.!!
DEFENSE(OF(OTHERS(
• Generally,!the!intervener!is!justified!in!using!force!in!the!defense!of!another!in!circumstances!that!would!justify!self[defense!!
• Elements!of!the!defense!o Intervener!reasonably!believes!that!X!would!be!justified!in!using!self[defense!o Intervener!reasonably!believes!the!force!is!necessary!to!protect!X!
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o Intervener!uses!no!more!force!to!protect!X!than!X!would!be!justified!in!using!to!protect!himself!!
MPC((
• Under!the!MPC,!subject!to!retreat!provisions,!an!intervenor!is!justified!in!using!force!upon!another!person!in!order!to!protect!a!third!party!if:!
o D!uses!no!more!force!to!protect!X!than!D!would!be!entited!to!use!in!self!protection,!based!on!the!circumstances!as!D!believes!them!to!be!
o Under!the!circumstances!as!D!believed!them!to!be,!X!would!be!justified!in!using!such!force!in!her!self[defense!
o D!believes!that!the!intervention!is!necessary!for!X’s!protection.!!
DEFENSE(OF(HABITATION(
• Elements!o Defendant!has!a!reasonable!belief!that!the!intruder!intends!an!unlawful!and!
imminent!entry!o Defendant!has!a!reasonable!belief!that!the!intruder!intends!to!injure!an!
occupant!or!commit!a!felony!o Deadly!force!is!necessary!to!prevent!or!stop!the!intrusion.!!
• The!intruder!need!not!actually!enter!the!house!in!order!to!use!the!defense,!but!he!does!need!to!be!attempting!to!enter!the!house!to!commit!a!violent!felony.!!
NECESSITY(
• Usually!arises!when!as!a!result!of!some!natural!force!or!condition,!an!actor!must!choose!between!violating!a!relatively!minor!offense,!on!the!one!hand,!and!suffering!(or!allowing!others!to!suffer)!substantial!harm!to!person!or!property,!on!the!other!hand.!!
• Elements!o The!actor!must!have!a!reasonable!belief!based!on!the!circumstances!that!
! The!act!was!necessary!to!prevent!immediate!danger!or!dire!emergency!• The!defendant!must!expect,!as!a!reasonable!person,!that!his!
actions!will!be!effective!in!abating!the!danger!that!he!seeks!to!avoid.!!
! There!is!no!adequate!alternative!other!than!violating!the!law!! The!harm!caused!by!the!violation!of!the!law!will!be!less!than!what!the!
actor!seeks!to!avoid.!!• The!defendant’s!actions!should!be!weighed!against!the!harm!
reasonably!foreseeable!at!the!time,!not!the!harm!that!actually!occurs.!!
• Given!the!facts!as!they!reasonably!appear,!the!issue!is!not!whether!the!defendant!believes!that!he!made!the!right!choice,!
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but!rather!the!question!is!whether!the!defendant’s!value!judgment!was!in!fact!correct!as!determined!by!a!judge!or!jury.!!
! The!defendant!must!not!have!substantially!contributed!to!the!emergency!or!wrongfully!placed!himself!in!a!situation!in!which!he!would!be!forced!to!engage!in!criminal!conduct.!!
• Sometimes!the!necessity!defense!doesn’t!apply!in!homicide!cases.!o At!common!law,!necessity!is!not!a!defense!for!murder.!However,!17!states!have!
enacted!statutes!prohibiting!the!defense!of!homicide.!!o MPC!and!NYPL!allow!it.!!
MPC(§3.02(
(1)!Conduct!that!the!actor!believes!to!be!necessary!to!avoid!a!harm!or!evil!to!himself!or!to!another!is!justifiable,!provided!that:!
(a)!the!harm!or!evil!sought!to!be!avoided!by!such!conduct!is!greater!than!that!sought!to!be!prevented!by!the!law!defining!the!offense!charged;!and!
(b)!neither!the!Code!nor!other!law!defining!the!offense!provides!exceptions!or!defenses!dealing!with!the!specific!situation!involved;!and!
(c)!a!legislative!purpose!to!exclude!the!justification!claimed!does!not!otherwise!plainly!appear.!
(2)!When!the!actor!was!reckless!or!negligent!in!bringing!about!the!situation!requiring!a!choice!of!harms!or!evils!or!in!appraising!the!necessity!for!his!conduct,!the!justification!afforded!by!this!Section!is!unavailable!in!a!prosecution!for!any!offense!for!which!recklessness!or!negligence,!as!the!case!may!be,!suffices!to!establish!culpability.!
NYPL(§35.05(2)(
• Such!conduct!is!necessary!as!an!emergency!measure!to!avoid!an!imminent!public!or!private!injury!which!is!about!to!occur!by!reason!of!a!situation!occasioned!or!developed!through!no!fault!of!the!actor,!and!which!is!of!such!gravity!that,!according!to!ordinary!standards!of!intelligence!and!morality,!the!desirability!and!urgency!of!avoiding!such!injury!clearly!outweigh!the!desirability!of!avoiding!the!injury!sought!to!be!prevented!by!the!statute!defining!the!offense!in!issue.!The!necessity!and!justifiability!of!such!conduct!may!not!rest!upon!considerations!pertaining!only!to!the!morality!and!advisability!of!the!statute,!either!in!its!general!application!or!with!respect!to!its!application!to!a!particular!class!of!cases!arising!thereunder.!Whenever!evidence!relating!to!the!defense!of!justification!under!this!subdivision!is!offered!by!the!defendant,!the!court!shall!rule!as!a!matter!of!law!whether!the!claimed!facts!and!circumstances!would,!if!established,!constitute!a!defense.!
DEFENSE(OF(DURRESS(
• Elements!of!the!duress!claim!
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o !Another!person!threatened!to!kill!or!grievously!injure!the!actor!or!a!third!party,!particularly!a!near!relative,!unless!she!committed!the!offense!
o the!actor!reasonably!believed!that!the!threat!was!genuine!o the!threat!was!present,!imminent!and!impending!at!the!time!of!the!criminal!act!o there!was!no!reasonable!escape!from!the!threat!except!through!compliance!
with!the!demands!of!the!coercer!o Defense!is!unavailable!to!a!defendant!if!she!was!at!fault!for!finding!herself!in!the!
coercive!situation.!!!• Distinguishing!duress!from!necessity!
o The!necessity!defense!applies!when!a!person!is!faced!with!a!choice!of!two!evils!and!must!then!decide!whether!to!commit!a!crime!or!an!alternative!act!that!constitute!a!greater!
o Duress!applies!when!the!coercer’s!threats!overwhelm!the!actor’s!will!so!that!she!makes!the!wrong!choice,!i.e.!perpetuates!a!greater!evil.!!!
DEFENSE(OF(INTOXICATION(
• Two!classifications!o Voluntary:!intoxication!is!voluntary!if!the!actor!is!culpable!for!becoming!
intoxicated.!Culpability!exists!if!the!person!knowingly!ingests!a!substance!that!he!knows!or!should!know!can!cause!him!to!become!intoxicated,!unless!the!substance!was!prescribed!medication!or!he!was!coerced!to!ingest!it.!!
o Involuntary:!intoxication!is!involuntary!if!the!actor!is!not!to!blame!for!becoming!intoxicated.!!
• Intoxication!may!be!defined!as!a!disturbance!of!resulting!from!the!introduction!of!any!substance!into!the!body.!!
• Intoxication!is!a!defense,!but!it’s!not!a!justification!or!an!excuse.!It!negates!an!element!of!the!crime!if!there!is!a!mens!rea.!!
o General!rule,!intoxication!is!only!a!defense!if!it!negates!the!mens!rea!of!a!specific!intent!crime.!!
INCHOATE!OFFENSES!
ATTEMPTS(
• Attempt!punishes!offenders!who!intend!to!commit!a!crime!and!take!significant!steps!to!commit!it,!but!do!not!complete!the!crime!
• When!a!person!intentionally!commits!a!crime,!it!is!the!result!of!a!six[stage!process.!!o Actor!conceives!the!idea!o Evaluates!the!idea!o Fully!forms!the!intent!to!commit!the!crime!–!mens!rea!o Prepares!to!commit!the!crime!
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o Commences!commission!of!the!offense!o Completes!the!crime.!!
• In!the!United!States,!the!first!three!stages!are!not!punishable!• 4!and!5!are!the!actus!reus!for!the!attempt!• The!sixth!step!of!completion!is!too!far.!!• Two!varieties!of!criminal!attempts!
o Complete,!but!imperfect!! Occurs!when!the!actor!performs!all!of!the!acts!that!she!set!out!to!do,!
but!fails!to!attain!her!criminal!goal.!!o Incomplete!
! Occurs!when!the!actor!does!some!acts!necessary!to!achieve!the!criminal!goal,!but!she!quits!or!is!prevented!from!continuing.!!
Attempts:(Mens(Rea(
• In!order!for!the!defendant!to!be!convicted!of!attempt!it!must!be!shown!that!the!defendant!had!the!specific!intent!to!commit!the!target!crime.!!
• An!attempt!is!a!specific[intent!offense,!even!if!the!target!offense!is!a!general!intent!crime!
• There!is!no!such!as!an!attempt!for!a!crime!that!is!committed!recklessly!or!negligently!o A!person!is!not!guilty!of!an!attempt!unless!her!actions!in!furtherance!of!the!
prohibited!result!are!committed!with!the!specific!purpose!of!causing!the!unlawful!result.!!
• In!all!but!two!states,!attempted!murder!is!not!a!cognizable!offense.!This!is!because!the!defendant!had!the!intent!to!commit!the!felony,!but!not!the!murder!that!resulted.!!
• A!person!can!be!convicted!of!attempted!voluntary!manslaughter,!because!the!actor!possessed!the!specific!intent!to!kill.!!
• Generally,!a!person!cannot!be!convicted!of!attempted!involuntary!manslaughter!as!the!latter!offense!is!based!on!a!mens!rea!of!criminal!negligence!or!recklessness,!meaning!that!the!actual!death!was!not!intentional.!!
NYPL(§(110.00(
• A!person!is!guilty!of!an!attempt!to!commit!a!crime!when,!with!intent!to!commit!a!crime,!he!engages!in!conduct!which!tends!to!effect!the!commission!of!such!crime.!
Attempt:(Actus(Reus(
• Neither!the!common!law!nor!most!statutes!prove!a!clear!vision!of!the!actus!reus!of!a!criminal!attempt.!!
• Tests!for!Attempt!o Last!Act!
! The!defendant!must!have!taken!the!last!act!necessary!to!commit!the!target!offense.!!
• In!all!jurisdictions,!the!last!act!amounts!to!attempt,!but!not!jurisdictions!require!that!the!last!act!be!engaged!in!before!attempt!will!be!found.!!
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o Proximity!Test!! Physical!proximity!test!
• The!actor’s!conduct!must!be!proximate!to!the!completed!crime,!in!that!it!must!sufficiently!near!to!it!to!stand!wither!as!the!first!or!some!subsequent!step!in!a!direct!movement!towards!the!commission!of!the!offense!after!the!preparations!are!made.!!
• An!attempt!does!not!arise!unless!an!actor!has!it!within!her!power!to!complete!the!crime!almost!immediately.!!
! Indispensible!Element!test!• If!the!actor!lacks!an!indispensible!element!of!the!crime,!the!
court!will!probably!not!find!an!attempt.!!! Dangerous!Proximity!Test!
• A!person!is!guilty!of!an!attempt!when!her!conduct!is!in!dangerous!proximity!to!success,!or!when!an!act!is!so!near!to!the!result!that!the!danger!of!success!is!very!great.!!
• Every!question!of!proximity!must!be!determined!by!its!own!circumstances.!!
o Unequivocality!Test!! An!attempt!occurs!when!a!person’s!conduct,!standing!among,!
unambiguously!manifests!criminal!intent.!!!o Substantial!Step!Test!
! From!the!Model!Penal!Code!• The!defendant!must!have!intent!to!commit!the!target!offense!
and!use!conduct!constituting!a!substantial!step!towards!the!commission!of!the!target!offense.!!
• The!conduct!must!be!strongly!corroborative!of!the!actor’s!criminal!intent.!!
Impossibility(
• Factual!impossibility!exists!when!a!person’s!intended!end!constitutes!a!crime,!but!she!fails!to!consummate!the!offense!because!of!an!attendant!circumstance!unknown!to!her!or!beyond!her!control.!!
• Factual!impossibility!is!not!a!defense!to!attempt!o An!actor!is!guilty!of!an!attempt!if!he!would!have!committed!the!target!offense!if!
the!facts!had!been!as!he!believed!them!to!be.!!• Legal!Impossibility!!
o Pure!Legal!Impossibility!arises!when!the!law!does!not!proscribe!the!goal!that!the!defendant!sought!to!achieve.!!
! A!person!performs!a!lawful!act!with!a!guilty!conscience,!i.e.!believes!to!be!committing!a!crime!but!actually!isn’t.!!
• Obviously,!wouldn’t!be!guilty!of!a!crime.!!! Also,!an!actor’s!conduct!is!prohibited,!but!cannot!legally!constitute!the!
offense!charged.!!o Hybrid!Legal!Impossibility!exists!when!the!actor’s!goal!is!illegal,!but!commission!
of!the!offense!is!impossible!due!to!a!factual!mistake!regarding!the!legal!status!of!
! 34!
some!attendant!circumstances!that!constitutes!an!element!of!the!charged!offense.!
! Hybrid!legal!impossibility!cases!may!be!reasonably!characterized!as!factual!impossibility!and!thus!is!not!a!defense.!!
Abandonment(
• At!common!law,!abandonment!is!not!a!defense.!!• MPC!and!jurisdictions!that!recognize!abandonment!require!that!the!defendant!
voluntarily!and!completely!renounce!the!criminal!purpose!due!to!a!changed!heart/!o Abandonment!is!not!voluntary!if!the!actor!is!motivated!by!unexpected!
resistance,!absence!of!instrument!necessary!to!carry!out!crime,!or!belief!that!the!crime!has!been!or!will!be!detected.!!
MPC(§5.01!
• !(1)!Definition(of(Attempt.!A!person!is!guilty!of!an!attempt!to!commit!a!crime!if,!acting!with!the!kind!of!culpability!otherwise!required!for!commission!of!the!crime,!he:!
o (a)!purposely!engages!in!conduct!that!would!constitute!the!crime!if!the!attendant!circumstances!were!as!he!believes!them!to!be;!or!
o (b)!when!causing!a!particular!result!is!an!element!of!the!crime,!does!or!omits!to!do!anything!with!the!purpose!of!causing!or!with!the!belief!that!it!will!cause!such!result!without!further!conduct!on!his!part;!or!
o (c)!purposely!does!or!omits!to!do!anything!that,!under!the!circumstances!as!he!believes!them!to!be,!is!an!act!or!omission!constituting!a!substantial!step!in!a!course!of!conduct!planned!to!culminate!in!his!commission!of!the!crime.!
CONSPIRACY(
• At!common!law,!conspiracy!is!an!agreement,!express!or!implied,!between!two!or!more!persons!to!commit!a!criminal!act!or!series!of!criminal!acts,!or!to!accomplish!a!legal!act!by!unlawful!means.!!
o The!offense!of!conspiracy!does!not!merge!into!the!attempt!or!completed!offense!that!was!the!object!of!the!conspiracy.!!
• Conspiracy!is!a!specific!intent!crime!o The!defendant!must!intend!to!enter!an!agreement!with!another!and!must!
intend!to!commit!the!target!offense.!!
Conspiracy:(Mens(Rea(
• The!parties!need!to!have!intended!to!enter!into!the!agreement.!o An!express!agreement!need!not!be!proven.!!
• Courts!have!allowed!broad!inferences!to!be!drawn!from!evidence!of!acts,!conduct,!or!circumstances.!
• Knowledge!alone!is!not!sufficient!to!prove!an!agreement!unless!o The!defendant!acquired!a!stake!in!the!venture!
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o There!is!no!legitimate!use!for!the!goods!or!services!o The!volume!of!business!with!the!buyer!is!grossly!disproportionate!to!any!
legitimate!demand,!or!when!sales!for!illegal!use!amounts!to!a!high!proportion!of!the!seller’s!total!business.!!
Conspiracy:(Actus(Reus(
Actus(Reus(
• The!actus!reus!of!conspiracy!is!the!entering!into!the!agreement!!• At!common!law,!no!overt!act!in!furtherance!of!the!conspiracy!is!necessary!!
o Many!statutes!diverge!from!the!common!law!and!require!an!allegation!in!the!indictment!and!proof!at!trial!of!the!commission!of!an!overt!act!in!furtherance!of!the!conspiracy.!
! Any!act,!no!matter!how!trivial,!is!sufficient,!if!performed!in!furtherance!of!the!conspiracy.!!
MPC(§5.03(
(1)(Definition(of(Conspiracy.!A!person!is!guilty!of!conspiracy!with!another!person!or!persons!to!commit!a!crime!if!with!the!purpose!of!promoting!or!facilitating!its!commission!he:!
(a)!agrees!with!such!other!person!or!persons!that!they!or!one!or!more!of!them!will!engage!in!conduct!that!constitutes!such!crime!or!an!attempt!or!solicitation!to!commit!such!crime;!or!
(b)!agrees!to!aid!such!other!person!or!persons!in!the!planning!or!commission!of!such!crime!or!of!an!attempt!or!solicitation!to!commit!such!crime.!
(5)!Overt(Act.(
!No!person!may!be!convicted!of!conspiracy!to!commit!a!crime,!other!than!a!felony!of!the!first!or!second!degree,!unless!an!overt!act!in!pursuance!of!such!conspiracy!is!alleged!and!proved!to!have!been!done!by!him!or!by!a!person!with!whom!he!conspired.!
ACCOMPLICE!LIABILITY!
• Generally,!individuals!who!help!another!person!commit!a!crime!or!encourage!the!primary!actor!to!commit!the!crime!are!also!responsible!for!its!commission.!!
o The!primary!party!is!the!one!who!actually!commits!the!crime!o The!accomplice!is!the!one!who!assists!or!encourages!the!commission!of!a!crime.!!
• Conspiracy!liability!v.!accomplice!liability!o Conspiracy!liability!requires!proof!of!an!agreement!between!two!or!more!
persons!to!participate!in!the!commission!of!a!crime;!actual!assistance!in!the!crime!is!not!required!
o Accomplice!liability!requires!proof!that!an!accomplice!encouraged!or!assisted!primary!party!in!the!crime;!an!agreement!to!participate!is!not!required.!!
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• The!secondary!party!derives!his!liability!from!the!primary!party!with!whom!he!has!associated!himself.!!
Accomplice(Liability:(Mens(Rea(
• The!accomplice!has!to!intend!to!encourage!and!assist!in!the!commission!of!the!crime!and!intend!for!the!party!to!commit!the!target!offense.!(
• Knowledge!can!imply!requisite!intent!to!assist!in!the!commission!of!a!crime!if!it!is!coupled!with!(
o A!stake!in!the!outcome(o No!lawful!use!for!goods/services(o Sale!disproportionately!high(
• An!accomplice!must!act!with!at!least!the!same!mens!rea!required!for!conviction!of!the!target!offense!committed!by!the!primary.!(
• Foreseeable!Consequence!Doctrine(o A!person!encouraging!or!facilitating!the!commission!of!a!crime!may!be!held!
criminally!liable!not!only!for!the!crime,!but!for!any!other!offense!that!was!a!natural!and!probable!consequence!of!the!crime!aided!and!abetted.!(
o Two[step!analysis(! Did!the!accomplice!intentionally!assist!in!the!primary!crime!and(! Was!commission!of!the!secondary!crime!a!foreseeable!consequence!of!
the!accomplice’s!participation!in!the!crime.!(
Accomplice(Liability:(Actus(Reus(
• Three!forms!of!assistance!o By!physical!conduct!
! The!accomplice!helps!the!primary!commit!the!crime!in!some!physical!manner,!such!as!furnishing!him!with!an!instrumentality!to!commit!an!offense,!casing!the!scene!in!advance,!driving!the!getaway!car.!!
o By!Psychological!Influence!! Occurs!if!the!secondary!incites,!solicits!or!encourages!the!primary!to!
commit!the!crime!o By!Omission!
! Generally,!neither!failure!to!inform!police!authorities!of!an!impending!crime,!nor!failure!to!attempt!to!stop!the!crime!that!is!occurring!will!establish!accomplice!liability.!!
• Different!if!the!omitter!has!a!legal!duty!to!intervene.!!• A!person!is!not!an!accomplice!unless!his!conduct!in!fact!assists!in!the!commission!of!the!
offense.!(o Any!aid,!no!matter!how!trivial,!is!sufficient.!(
• Mere!presence!is!not!sufficient!to!prove!one!is!an!accomplice,!absent!a!showing!that!the!defendant!advised,!instigated,!encouraged,!or!assisted!in!the!perpetration!of!the!crime.!(
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