2008

1SECTION 1WRITING

2Unit 1 WRITING DEFINITIONS

When writing academic papers you will often have to define various terms and concepts. Thereare two major types of definitions: formal and expanded.1. Formal definitionsA formal definition usually contains the following elements:Concept/Term

Verb Class Features

A bone is one of the hardparts

that form a frame inside the body of a human or animal.

Amuscle

is a tissue or organ ofthe animal body

characterized by the ability to contract.

Definitions can also be written in the following way:Class Features Verb Concept

TermThe part of thebody

that forms a frame inside thebody of a human or animal.

is called/may be defined as

a bone.

The tissue ororgan of theanimal body

characterized by the ability tocontract

is known as a muscle.

2. Expanded definitionsSometimes you may deal with terms or concepts that are too complex to be defined satisfactoryin a simple sentence. In such cases you will have to add extra information to the definition.Below there are some techniques that can be used when writing an expanded definition:2.1 Insert examples or explanations between brackets or dashes.e. g. Sports (football, basketball, tennis) are activities in which players or teams compete againsteach other.e. g. The success of a football team may be defined as the harmonious combination of individualskills - passing, marking, tackling - and team tactics - switching the attack, playing possession ofthe ball, defending at corners -.

32.2 A definition can also be expanded by giving an example of the use of the object or idea beingdefined.e. g. Aluminium is a metal which is light in weight. Consequently/Therefore, it can be used inthe manufacture of aircraft.2.3 Another way of expanding a definition is by stating the main characters of the object orconcept.e. g. Football is a team sport. It is a game in which two teams of eleven players kick a round balland try to score goals.e. g. Physiology is the study of the physical and chemical processes that take place in livingorganisms during the performance of life functions. It is concerned with such basic activities asreproduction, growth, metabolism, excitation, and contraction as they are carried out within thefine structure, the cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems of the body.

4Unit 2 DESCRIBING1. Read the following texts and find the words used to describe things.A. If you look at an octopus, it seems to be just a huge head with eight long, fearful arms. Itshead is soft and rubberlike. Its eyes stick out on stalks so that it can see in all directions. Itsmouth is on the underside of its body and has powerful jaws which are shaped like a beak. Thelong arms, or tentacles, have double rows of suckers. These can fasten onto objects with suchsuction that they cannot be pulled off.B. The liver is the largest organ in the body. It weighs a little more than three pounds in an adult.It is shaped like a wedge and it is situated under the diaphragm, mostly on the left side of thebody. There it is protected by the lower ribs. The liver is a little like an intricate chemicalfactory. It takes the particles of glucose - which come from digested starches and sugars - andchanges them into another kind of carbohydrate called glycogen. It then stores the glycogen.When you need sugar in your body, the liver turns the glycogen into glucose again and sends itto the body tissues through the bloodstream.When you describe things you will have to provide information on the position, weight,structure, colour, composition, size, shape and function of the object described.Position

adjacent to/alongside/below/ beyond/facing (diagonally)/ parallelto/underneath/opposite/ in the middle of/on the right of/ on the left of/onthe left of/near/close to/ touching/behind/in front of /under/ on topof/above/below/ level with/diagonally above/ vertically below

BA isbetweenequidistant from

B and C

Structureis nailed/screwed/fixed/fastened

linked/welded/tied/connectedattached

to Y by Z

consists of

X

containsincludes

Y and Z

5held in place/ secured/supported/ suspended

by

joined toX is

mounted/placed/pivoted on

Y

ColourX is dark/light/pale/bri

ght/dullgreen/blue/red/yellow

Talking and writing about coloursshade = one of the different types of a particular colour, especially when describing how dark orlight it is.e. g. a deep shade of red, subtle shades of blue and greentone = one of the different types of a particular colour.e. g. a delicate pink tone, eye shadow in tones of green and brow-ish = used with colours to make adjectives describing things that look a bit like that colour.e. g. reddish hairdark = used for describing colours that look more like black than white. e. g. dark green trousersdeep = used for describing dark colours, especially when they look attractive. e. g. lovely deepblue eyesrich = used for describing dark colours that look beautiful and expensive. e. g. rich brown velvetsombre = dark in the way that seems suitable for a serious occasion and use. e. g. The men werewearing sombre suits and black ties.bright = strong and noticeable. e. g. bright yellow paintvibrant = bright in a way that looks exciting.e. g. curtains in vibrant shades of redcolourful = brightly coloured, or having a lot of bright colours. e. g. wonderfully colourfulcurtainsloud = bright in a way that you think looks silly or ugly. e. g. He tends to wear silk shirts andloud ties.gaudy = very brightly coloured, especially in a way that you think shows bad taste. e. g. Look atthose gaudy purple sunglasses.

6light = pale rather than bright. e. g. a light blue shirtpale = like white with a small amount of colour mixed in. e. g. pale grey featherspastel = in a soft and attractive way. e. g. summer dresses in pastel shades.faded = something that is pale because it had been washed a lot or because it has been affectedby light or the sun. e. g. faded blue jeans. The paintwork was faded in places.CompositionX is madeof

metal/steel/aluminium/cloth/silk/china.wood/plastic/glass/ an alloy of A andB

Size and weightX is 6 cm long/wide/highX is 6 cm in length/height/width/diameterX is 6 kg in weight

length/height/width/diameter 6 cmTheweight

of Xis 6 kg

length/height/width/diameter

6 cmXhas a

weight

of

6 kg

X measures 6 cmX weighs 6 kgShape

X is

square/round/rectangular/triangular/semi-circular/conical/spherical/hexagonal/octagonal/oval/circular/irregular/cubical/cylindrical/pyramidalspherical/tubular/spiralhemispherical/conical/bulboustapering/concave/convex

in shape

7X is a shaped likea

square/circle/rectangletriangle/semi-circlehexagon/octagon

X isdiamond-shaped/kidney-shaped/U-shapedstar-shaped/bell-shaped/dome-shapedmushroom-shaped/X-shaped/crescent-shapedegg-shaped/pear-shaped/Y-shaped

Functionthermometer measure

thetemperatureThe

functionpurposeaimobjective

ofthe tripod

isto hold the

camera

thermometer measuring thetemperature

The

tripod

is usedfor

holding thecamera

PropertiesX is light/tough/soft/elastic/malleable/flexible/

soluble/a good conductor of electricity/heat/corrosion resistant/combustible/transparent/smooth/heavy/brittle/plastic/ductile/rigid/insoluble/a bad conductor of electricity/notcorrosion resistant/non-combustible/opaquerough

8Exercises

I. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate words orphrases:

found, exhibit, is composed of, mediated, have,

The smooth muscle 1_____ spindle-shaped cells, each having a central nucleus. The cells2_____ no cross striations, although they do 3____ faint longitudinal striations. Stimuli for thecontractions of smooth muscles are 4_____ by the autonomic nervous system. Smooth musclesare 5_____ in the skin, internal organs, reproductive system, major blood vessels, and excretorysystem.serve to, by, are attached to, forms, called, is made of, surrounded, sausage-shaped, containing,display, supplied, under controlThe skeletal muscle 1_____ long fibers 2_____ by a membranous sheath, the sarcolemma. Thefibers are elongated, 3_____ cells 4_____ many nuclei and clearly 5_____ longitudinal and crossstriations. Skeletal muscle is 6_____ with nerves from the central nervous system, and because itis partly 7_____ conscious 7_____, it is also called voluntary muscle. Most skeletal muscles8_____ portions of the skeleton 9_____ connective-tissue attachments 10_____ tendons.Contractions of skeletal muscle 11_____ move the various bones and cartilages of the skeleton.Skeletal muscle 12_____ most of the underlying flesh of vertebrates.in response to, have, are composed of, produce, used, according to, are found in, such as,contain, is activated, resembling, is dependent on, made up, looks, classified

Smooth muscles 1_____ organs 2_____ also of other tissues, 3_____ the heart and intestines,which 4_____ layers of connective tissue. Skeletal muscles are usually found in bundles,composing muscular structures 5_____ organs in function. These often ripple the skin visiblyduring muscular action. The shape of the muscular organ 6_____ its location and function. Sucha muscle structure is named scientifically 7_____ its shape, function, or attachments: thetrapezius muscle of the back, for example, is so called because it 8_____ like a geometricalfigure known as a trapezoid; and the masseter muscle of the face is so called because it is 9_____

9in chewing food. Muscle fibers have been 10_____ by function into slow twitch (type I) and fasttwitch (type II). Most skeletal muscles 11_____ both types of fibers, although one type maypredominate. The fast-twitch, darker-hued muscle fibers contract more rapidly and 12_____bursts of power; the slow-twitch, lighter-hued muscle fibers 13_____ greater endurance.The contraction of a muscle cell 14_____ by the release of calcium from inside the cell, probably15_____ electrical changes at the cell's surface.

Homework. Using the language provided to you above describe the human heart

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Unit 3 DESCRIBING PROCESSES and GIVING INSTRUCTIONSRead the following texts and find the words used to describe the process of papermaking. Payattention to verbal tenses, voice and linkers.

Printing is of little use without paper. Basically, a sheet of paper is a flattened mesh ofinterlocking plant fibres, mainly of wood and cotton. Making paper involves reducing a plant toits fibres, and then aligning the fibres and coating them with materials such as glues, pigmentsand mineral fillers.

Firstly, trees are felled and then they are transported to paper mills as logs.Next, the bark has to be stripped off the logs, without damaging the wood.Then, the wood is pulped. Pulping reduces the wood to a slurry of loose fibres in water.

The logs are first sliced into chips and then they are treated with chemicals in a digester. Thesechemicals dissolve the lignin binding the wood fibres together. Alternatively, machines maygrind the logs in water to produce pulp. The pulp is then bleached.

After that, the pulp goes to the mixer. The mixer is where materials are added to improvethe quality of the paper. The additives include white fillers such as china clay, size for water-proofing, and coloured pigments. The mixer beats the fibres into a smooth pulp.

Then, liquid pulp is fed from the flowbox onto the mesh belt. The water drains throughthe holes in the mesh, and suction is used to accelerate the drainage. The dandy roll then pressesthe fibres together into a wet ribbon known as a web.

Belts move the web between the press rolls, which remove more water and compress thepaper.

Finally, the damp web moves through the dryer, where it passes between hot cylindersand felt-covered belts that absorb water. It then passes through the calender stacks before beingwound on reels or cut into sheets.A process is a series of things that happen and have a particular result. When describing aprocess you are expected to give information on the sequence of events, the methods (howsomething is done), the position (where something happens) and the purpose (whysomething happens).Voice and verbal tenses The Passive Voice is frequently used in combination with the Active Voice in describingprocesses.

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e. g. Trees are felled and then they are transported to paper mills as logs. The wood is pulped. The logs are first sliced into chips and then they are treated with chemicals in a digester. Usually the present tense simple is used in such descriptions. The past tense simple can also be used when describing processes which happened in the past.

Sequence of eventsFirstly, The first step isFirst of all, The first stage isTo begin with, ... begins withInitially ... commences withBeforehand, Before this,Previously, Prior to this,Earlier,At the same time, DuringSimultaneously, When this happens

WhileSecondly, Thirdly etc After this,Next, The next step isThen, In the next stage,Subsequently, In the following stage,Later, Following this,

As soon as the committee has finished its work, ...Eventually, ... until ...Lastly, ... finishes with ...Finally, concludes withIn the last stage, The last step is ...

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Methodsin such a way that/ slowly, carefully, etc./ with care/precision/in a careful way/mannere. g. First of all, letters and packets are collected in bags from pillar boxes. This is done byplacing them in the appropriate pigeon hole.

The baskets are directed to the appropriate secondary sorting section by means of codingpegs.

The drainage is accelerated by suction. The vapour is then compressed by means of a compressor.Positione. g. They are then taken to the sorting office, where the bags are emptied.

The pulp goes to the mixer, where materials are added to improve the quality of the paper.The steam from the boiler is admitted into the cylinder in which there is a piston.

Purposeso as (not) to, so that, in order (not) toe. g. Following this step, the letters are put through machines so that the stamps can be cancelled.

This is then chemically etched to reduce its thickness.From there it is absorbed by plants to build carbohydrates in green leaves.In order to take heat out of the low-temperature interior of the refrigerator, work must be

done.Giving instructionsInstructions can be given in many ways. A list with the imperative form of the verb and wordssuch as "first, "then, "next" is one common way. Continuous text using should + infinitive isanother common way. Make sure you distinguish between giving instructions - that is, tellingsomeone how to do something - and describing a process - that is describing how somethinghappens.A. First, put the scores in order down the page.Then, work out the mean.Now calculate how much each deviates from the mean.Next, square each of these deviations.Add them all up.Now divide by the number of scores.

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Lastly find the square root.This is the standard deviation.B. In certain accidents, if the patient's breathing stops, you can save life by using artificialrespiration. This means that someone else causes air to enter and leave a person's lungs. Themethod of artificial respiration that the U.S. Army, the Red Cross, and the Boy Scouts ofAmerica recommend is a method of mouth-to-mouth breathing. First, place the victim face up.Tilt the victim's head back so that the chin is pointing upward. Next, if there is any foreignmatter in the victim's mouth, wipe it out quickly with your fingers. Then, with your right-handthumb, pull the jaw down to clear the tongue from the air passage in the back of the victim'smouth. With your left hand, pinch the nostrils to prevent the air you blow into the victim's mouthfrom escaping through the nose. Now, place your mouth tightly over the victim's and blow intohis or her mouth until you see the chest rise. Remove your mouth, turn your head to the side, andlisten to the out rush of air that indicates air exchange. Repeat blowing. For an adult, blowvigorously at a rate of about twelve breaths a minute. For a young child, take relatively shallowbreaths, at a rate of about twenty a minute. When giving instructions you are expected to give information on the sequence of events,the methods (how something is done), the position (where something happens) and thepurpose (why something happens). Use the same language structures (sequence of events,methods, position, purpose) as in the case of describing processes.

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Unit 4 DESCRIBING CHARTS AND DIAGRAMSLook at the following figure and fill in the blanks with the following words:increasing, levelled off, reached a peak,covers, shows, fluctuated, increase, steady,fall, declined

If you look at Figure 1, you can see the sales of mobile phones per month. You can see that it1_____the years 1998 to 2001. It shows that the sales of mobile phones 2_____ steadily in 1998,then remained 3_____ from May until the end of the year. As the graph 4_____, the sales thenrose, more and more steeply, throughout 1999, and there was a large 5_____ at the end of theyear. Sales 6_____ of 6,200 in February 2000. There was then a sharp 7_____, as you can see,but sales 8_____ at about 5,300 per month in April. They then 9_____ slightly through the year,and are now 10_____ again.As youcansee

Wecansee

fromin

thechart/diagram/table/graphs/figures/statistics/Table 1/Figure 2/Graph 3 that

chart/diagram/table/graph

showsindicates

As the

figures/statistics showindicate

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Table 1Figure 2

From the figures/chart/diagram

wecanmay

see/showconclude/estimate/calculate/infer

that

increased/shot up/grew/roseXdecline/reduced/decreased/dropped/fell

by

increased/shot up/grew/rose

X

decline/reduced/decreased/dropped/fell

slightly/slowly/gradually/steadily/markedly/dramatically/steeply/sharply/rapidly/suddenly

reached a peakXlevelled off

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Unit 5 CLASSIFYING/CATEGORIZING AND GIVING EXAMPLES

When we classify, we arrange members of a group. For example, if we take the following list:Physics, Chemistry, Biology, French, German, Spanish it is quite clear that we have twodifferent types of words. We have science subjects and languages. So it is simple to divide thelist into two: Physics, Chemistry, Biology and French, German, Spanish. When we areclassifying, we often need to say what our classification is and how we are making it.Read the texts and answer the following questions. What is the text classifying? How many types are there? What are the two types? How do we make the distinction?A. We can divide lavas into two contrasting types, acid and basic. Acid or siliceous lavas have ahigh silica content, about 70 to 75 per cent, and are stiff or viscous. They move slowly over thesurface and solidify close to the vent. Basic lavas have a silica content of about 50 per cent. Theyare dark colored and fluid, and they flow more easily at lower temperatures and reach a greaterdistance from the crater than do acid lavas.B. Friedman and Rosenham first distinguished between Type A and Type B people.Individuals with certain behavioural traits were found to be more susceptible to coronary heartdisease (Type A) than the low-risk Type B individuals.

Type A people are characterized by extreme competitiveness, striving for achievement,aggressiveness, haste, impatience, restlessness. hyperalertness, explosiveness of speech,tenseness of facial musculature and feelings of being under pressure of time and under thechallenge of responsibility. Type B were more laid back.

A national sample in the United States of 3,400 men (without heart disease) was judgedby a panel of psychiatrists and rated A or B. Two and a half years later Type A men agedbetween 39 and 49 had 6.5 times the incidence of coronary heart disease of the Type B men.Between 50 and 59 the incidence was 1.9 times higher. When a similar study was done onBenedictine and Trappist monks the same sort of difference emerged.

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In 1976 Howard et al. looked at 236 managers and found that extreme Type A behaviourwas associated with a range of known risk factors (high blood pressure, cholesterol, triglycerides,uric acid, smoking and lack of fitness).Thereare

:acidic andbasic.These areacidic andbasic.

The

two

typeskindsclassescategoriessortsvarieties

oflava

are acidic andbasic.

Acidic and basic are

typeskindsclassescategoriessortsvarieties

oflava.

We canclassify lava

accordingtoon the basisofdependingon

the amount ofsilica present.

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Giving examplesRead the following texts paying attention to the way examples are givenA. The quiet outpouring of lava is characteristic of basaltic lavas with about 50 per cent silica.The Hawaiian volcanoes are typical examples. On the island of Hawaii, Mauna Loa rises 13, 675feet above sea level and 20 miles away is Kilauea 4,000 feet high.B. Though the authorities do not seem to have been aware of the scale and significance of capitalflows within the sterling area, they were aware that the exchange controls in that area were notall that London hoped. For example, a major recipient of capital from the UK in this period,Australia, had notoriously "leaky" controls.C. Morgan was not interested in the terms for themselves but in the principles which theyseemed to reveal when they were put together. For example, he would have been interested in thefact that the English word "uncle" can be used in speaking both of one's mother's brother andone's father's brother while in Swedish, for instance, two different words are used.D. A key experiment shows this. A hole is made in the shell and a small cube of cells is carefullycut out from the posterior margin containing the polarizing region and grafted into the anteriormargin of the limb bud of another embryo.LanguageWe show/exemplify/

illustrate this by

For example/For instance Anexperiment

shows/illustrates/exemplifies

that

This is shown by the following examples:The following are examples of this:The following is a case in point.Shoppers tend to think that high prices mean high quality. Electrical goods are a case in point. institutions such as the family

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Unit 6 COMPARISON AND CONTRAST

When you speak at university, you need to do much more than just give information. You shouldalways be trying to do something with your speaking. One common function is comparing andcontrasting, speaking about similarities and differences. There are many ways of expressingcomparison and contrast in English.

Example

Look at the following table and read the text below. Pay attention to the comparisons andcontasts.

Price Processor Speed Screen Size Hard Disk RAMEvesham Axis 1.33 SK 1,174 1.33 GHz 17" 40 GB 256 MBArmani R850 P4. 2,467 1.7 GHz 19" 40 GB 256 MBMesh Elite 1.7GT Pro 1,938 1.7 GHz 19" 57 GB 256 MBElonex WebRider Pro 1,174 1.2 GHz 17" 38.1 GB 128 MB

We compared three personal computers, the Evesham Axis 1.33 SK, the Armani R850 P4 andthe Mesh Elite 1.7 GT Pro, with respect to the following factors: price, processor speed and sizeof hard disk. The Evesham Axis, which costs 1,174, is by far the cheapest of the three, theArmani and the Mesh Elite costing 2,467 and 1,938 respectively. The Evesham Axis has thesame hard disk size as the Armani, 40 MB, whereas the Mesh Elite is the largest at 57 GB.Regarding the processor speed, the Armani and the Mesh Elite are similar - the processor speed,at 1.7 GHz, being 0.37 GHz faster than the Evesham Axis.

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Language

Comparison

The Evesham Axis is like the Elonex WebRiderThe Evesham Axis and the Elonex WebRider are similarThe Evesham Axis is similar to the Elonex WebRiderThe Evesham Axis is the same as the Elonex WebRiderThe Evesham Axis resembles the Elonex WebRider

with respect to price.as regards price.as far as price is concerned.regarding price.in that the price is the same.in terms of price.in price.

Both the Evesham Axis and the Elonex WebRider cost 1,174.The Evesham Axis is as expensive as the Elonex WebRider.The Evesham Axis costs the same as the Elonex WebRider.The Evesham Axis is the same price as the Elonex WebRider.

The Mesh Elite has a large screen.

Similarly, it has a high capacity hard disk.Likewise, it has a high capacity hard disk.Correspondingly, it has a high capacity hard disk.It has a high capacity hard disk, too.It also has a high capacity hard disk.

Contrast

The Evesham Axis differs from the ArmaniThe Evesham Axis is unlike the ArmaniThe Evesham Axis and the Armani differThe Evesham Axis is different from the ArmaniThe Evesham Axis contrasts with the Armani

with respect to price.as regards price.as far as price concerned.regarding price.in terms of price.in price.

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in price.

The Evesham Axis costs 1,174, whereas the Armani costs 2,467.The Evesham Axis costs 1,174, while the Armani costs 2,467.The Evesham Axis costs 1,174, but the Armani costs 2,467.The Evesham Axis costs 1,174, in contrast to the Armani , which costs 2,467.The Armani is more expensive than the Evesham Axis.The Evesham Axis is not as expensive as the Armani.The Armani costs more than the Evesham Axis.

The Armani is expensive to buy.

On the other hand, it is very fast and has a large screen.In contrast, it is very fast and has a large screen.Conversely, it is very fast and has a large screen.However, it is very fast and has a large screen.

Although the Armani is expensive to buy,Despite the high price of the Armani, it is very fast and has a large screen.

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Unit 7 CAUSE AND EFFECTTake the following sentence:The death rate from cancer is increasing.We might want to ask why this is happening. We want the cause of this. The reason, or thecause, is that:People are smoking more.The death rate from cancer is increasing is the effect.People are smoking more is the cause.ExampleRead the following text and observe the cause and effect relationships.

There are several factors that we have to take into account when we study why some plantsbecome weak or die. One reason is lack of water. If the soil is dry, it causes the leaves to wilt,and this may cause the plant to die. On the other hand, too much water may result in the leavesdrooping, or becoming yellow. While plants need sunshine, if it is too strong, the soil may bebaked and the roots killed. However, if there is no light, the leaves will become pale and thestems thin. Consequently the plant may die.

Lack of water dryness in the soil leaves to wilt death of plant. Too much water leaves droop or become yellow plant dies. Too strong sun baked soil roots killed. Lack of light pale leaves & thin stems plant dies.

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Language

This relationship can be expressed in many ways:

1. Simply

Emphasising cause.

The death rate from cancer is increasing becauseowing to the fact that people are smoking more.

Emphasising effect.AsBecauseSince

people are smoking more, the death rate from cancer is increasing.

People are smoking more.

Therefore,So,Thus,Hence,Consequently,Because of this,For this reason,As a consequence,As a result,

People are smoking more,as a result of whichas a consequence of whichwith the result that

the death rate from cancer is increasing.

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2. With some grammatical changes.

Emphasing cause.

The fact that the death rate from cancer is increasing is due tomay be due to people smoking more.

TheOne

reasonforcause of

the death rate from cancerincreasing

is thatcould bethat

people are smokingmore.

ismay be

one effect ofone result ofone consequence ofcaused bydue tobecause of

An increase in the death rate from cancer

results fromarises from

people smoking more.

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Emphasing effect.Owing to people smoking more, the death rate from cancer is increasing.

is that the death rate from cancer is increasing.OneThe

effect ofresult ofconsequence of

people smoking moreis to increase the death rate from cancer.

People smoking more

results inleads toproducescausesis the cause ofgives rise tobrings about

an increase in the death rate from cancer.

People smoke more,(so)(thus)(thereby)

resulting inleading toproducingcausinggiving rise tobringing about

an increase in the death rate from cancer.

If people smoke more the death rate from cancer will increase.

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Unit 8 GENERALISING AND EXPRESSING DEGREES OF CERTAINTY

A common organisational principle in academic speaking is the general-specific pattern. Thispatterns involves a general statement supported by specific examples or details.

Example

Look at the following examples of generalisations. In some cases the generalisations aresupported by details or examples.:

It is believed that the USA wanted a round-the-world air route with access to all countriesincluding the Soviet Union, China, the Middle East, and Africa, as well as the BritishCommonwealth and Empire.

Marx and Engels followed their contemporaries in believing that the history of mankind usuallywent through the same sequence of technological improvement. The sequence, by and large,went like this: first gathering of plants and small animals, second fishing, third hunting, fourthpottery, fifth pastoralism, sixth agriculture, seventh metalworking.

Throughout most of known human existence the processes, materials and tools of productionwere available to individuals who were involved in both utilitarian and expressive work. But,since the Renaissance the exponential growth and sophistication of technology has made itimpossible for the majority of artists to gain access to many potential tools for expression.

Language

Percentage Quantity Frequency Certainty Verbs100% all/every/each

mosta majority (of)many/much

some

always

usual(ly)normal(ly)general(ly)as a ruleon the whole

certain(ly)definite(ly)undoubtedlyclearlypresumablyprobably/probablelikely

willis/aremusthave to

shouldought to

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somea number (of)several

a minority (of)a few/a little

normal(ly)general(ly)as a ruleon the whole

oftenfrequent(ly)sometimesoccasional(ly)

presumablyprobably/probablelikely

conceivablypossibly/possibleperhapsmaybe

shouldought to

cancouldmaymight

0%

few/little

no/none/not any

rare(ly)seldomhardly everscarcely ever

never

uncertainunlikely

could notwill notcannotis/are not

Some of the probability qualifications can he further qualified, e.g.

fairly certainlikely

veryquite

probablepossiblelikelyunlikely

rather unlikely

It is

almostquite certain

that

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Sometimes generalisations may be introduced or qualified in the following way:

the (vast) majoritya large number of

In mostsomea few(+ other quantity words)

cases,

Expressing degrees of certainty

It is important when you are speaking to show how sure you are about something. In otherwords, you need to show the degree of certainty.

Examples

Look at the following examples:

We do not known, and will probably never know, when he began writing poetry. The answeralmost certainly lay in the sack of papers that Susan Owen, on her son's strict instructions, burntat his death.

Less finished, but more intimate, is a passage from a fragmentary "Ballad of a MoroseAfternoon", which he most probably wrote some time after he had left Dunsden.

There were, broadly, two interrelated reasons for this. The first was related to Britain's economicand imperial difficulties, and the second to the internal dissension in all three parties. This was ,perhaps , asymptom of the need for a realignment of political parties.

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Language

Verbs Degree of certainty

completeis (not)will (not)must (not)

certain(ly)definite(ly)clear(ly)undoubtedly

strong can/cannotshould (notprobably (is)presumably

partial could (not) likely/unlikely

less strong may (not)might (not)possibly (not)perhaps (not)

impersonal (i.e. no commitment)

It is said that ...It appears that ...A reports that ...There is evidence to suggest that (etc.)

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Unit 9 PRESENTING A SEMINAR PAPER

1. General remarks1.1 Decide on a time limit for your talk. Tell your audience what it is. Stick to your time limit.This is very important.1.2 Concentrate only on the main points. Ignore details. Hammer home the essence of yourargument. If necessary find ways of making your basic points so that your audience will be clearabout what they are.1.3 Try to make your presentation lively and interesting. This does not mean telling jokes andanecdotes. But if you can think of interesting or amusing examples to illustrate your argument,use them.1.4 Write out everything you have to say, including examples etc. Rehearse what you are goingto say until you are happy with it. Your speaking style should be less formal and more personalthan the written style. This style will be much easier to achieve if you speak from notes ratherthan reading a prepared talk. Speaking from notes allows you to be more flexible and to adjustyour talk to the audience.1.5 When you know exactly what you are going to say, reduce it to outline notes . Rehearse yourtalk again, this time form the outline notes. Write out your notes so you can use them easily. Uselarge writing, bold headings and colours, clear indentations, highlighting, bullet points andnumbering. Make sure you can find your way easily from the outline notes to the full notes, incase you forget something. Many people make notes on 6cm x 10cm cards to guide them throughtheir presentation. Usually, each card contains one main point and a few key words that areeasily seen with a simple glance. Make sure you number your cards in case you drop them.1.6 Look at your audience when you are speaking. First look at your notes and read theappropriate part silently. Remember one important idea. Then look up at your audience, makeeye contact, and say what you have to say. It is useful to divide the audience into 4 or 5 largegroups and make sure you look at every group regularly. While you look at your audience, try tojudge what they are thinking. Are they following you? You will never make contact with youraudience if your eyes are fixed on the paper in front of you. Speak loudly enough for everyone inthe room to hear you. Speak slowly and clearly. Emphasise key words. Use silence for emphasiswhen you can.

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1.7 Make a strong ending. One way of doing this is to repeat your main points briefly and invitequestions or opinions.1.8 Remember that listening is very different from reading. Something that is going to be listenedto has therefore to be prepared in a very different way from something that is intended to be read.1.9 Prepare well. During your preparation you will become completely familiar with every partof your presentation. Practise out loud, until you're comfortable delivering your presentation withyour notes. Rehearse as many times as you need to. Practise in front of a mirror to get your eye-contact right. Do not try to memorise your whole presentation. Make sure your timing is right.Record yourself and listen. Practise on your friends.

2. Evaluation of the presentation

A colleague can help you evaluate your presentation by answering the following set of questions.

A. General1. What were the strengths of the presentation?2. What were the weaknesses of the presentation?B. Preparation1. Was the objective clear?2. Had I considered the audience?3. Was the content relevant to the topic?C. Organisation1. Comment on my introduction.2. Did the presentation have a clear logical structure?3. Did you conclude with a summary at the end of your talk?D. Delivery1. What about my use of notes?2. What about my use of visual aids?3. Was the timing of the presentation well controlled?4. What about the speed of speaking?5. Could everyone hear?

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6. What about the clarity of speaking?7. Did you make eye contact with the listeners?8. What about your body language (posture, position etc.)?E. Discussion1. How well did I deal with questions?2. What kinds of participation were most frequent/useful?F. LanguageIf I had any difficulties in giving the talk, were they caused by:- Grammar?- Vocabulary?- Pronunciation?G. GeneralWhat do you need to improve for future seminars?

3. Structure of the presentation

Academic seminars and presentations often take the following form:

A. Presentation1. IntroductionWhat you intend to do.How you intend to do it.2. Main bodyState your points: information, arguments, examples.3. ConclusionSummarize.Invite questions.

B. Discussion/Questions

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4. LanguageA. Presentation1. Introduction

1.1 State what you will doWhat I'd like to do is to discuss What I intend to do is to explain In my talk today, My topic today is Today, I'm going to talk about I'm going to talk to you about My colleagues and I are going to give a short presentation on Today I want to consider In this talk, I would like to concentrate on The subject of this talk is The purpose of this talk is to This talk is designed to

1.2 State how you will do itI'm going to deal with three aspects of the subject I'm going to divide my presentation into three sections.I've divided my presentation into three sections.I thought it would be useful to divide my talk into three sections.This subject can be looked at under the following headings: I'll take about ... minutes.The talk should last about ... minutes.I'll be happy to answer questions at the end.If you have any questions, I'll try to answer them afterwards.If you have any questions, please feel free to interrupt.

2. Main body2.1 Ordering pointsFirstly/To start with,/ First of all,/ Secondly/Next/ Then/ Thirdly/ Lastly/Finally

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2.2 Giving examplesFor example, / For instance, And as proof of that, Remember You only have to think of

2.3 EmphasisingFurthermore / What's more, /This supports my argument that / It follows, therefore,that

2.4 Referring back to what you have saidAs I said at the beginning, / In the first part of my talk, I said / As I mentioned earlier,/ I told you a few minutes ago that

2.5 Putting in other wordsIn other words, / That is to say, / To put it another way, / The point I'm making is /What I'm suggesting is ,/ Let me put it another way.

2.6 Using visualsOn this graph, / Take a look at this./ Let's have a look at this./ I'd like you to look at this./I'd like to draw your attention to / Here we can see / The represents / The graphillustrates / As you can see, / If you look closely, you'll see

2.7 Moving onI'd like now to move on to / Turning now to/ Moving on now to / Having looked at ,I'd now like to consider / Now, let's turn to .../ I now want to turn to/ The next point is /Another interesting point is / The next aspect I'd like to consider is / I'd now like to turnto

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3. Conclusion

3.1 ConcludingSo / We've seen that / First we looked at and we saw that / Then we considered and I argued / In short / In brief, we have looked at .../ To sum up / In conclusion, I'dlike to emphasise that / I think that covers most of the point./ That completes mypresentation./ Thank you for your attention.

3.2 Invite questionsThat covers the main points. If you have any comments or questions, I'll be happy to hearthem.So that explains my main point. Does anyone have any comments or questions?I'd be glad to try and answer any questions.

B. Discussion/Questions

1. Encouraging participationDoes anyone have any comments or questions?So is this the same as your experience?Do you agree with what X has just said?So, Y, what is your opinion of this?

2. InterruptingIf I could just come in here./ Sorry to interrupt, but / I'd just like to say that

3. Getting clarificationI didn't understand what you said about I'm sorry, I didn't catch what you said about I'm sorry, could you repeat what you said about ?What does mean?/ I'm not sure what you mean./ I don't see what you mean./ Could wecome back to that?/ Sorry, but I'm not quite clear on / I'd like to ask you about /What did you mean when you said ?

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Could you be more specific about ?Could you expand a little bit on what you said about ?/ Could you give an example of ?/Could you explain in more detail?/ So you're telling me that I can't ?/ So what you'resaying is that ?/ So you mean that ?/ Are you saying that ?/ Am I correct in assumingthat ?/Let me just make sure your point is that If I have understood you correctly, your point is that 4. Following up a questionThat's not really what I was asking. My question is about Perhaps I didn't make my question clear. I fact what I asked was I think you've answered a slightly different question. What I would like to know is I understand that but what I actually had in mind was / Sorry, I'm still not clear about

5. Dealing with difficult questions is important but it's too complex for us to deal with here.I think the aim of this talk is to focus on rather than It's too early for us to say whether We don't have enough evidence to show that That's not something I've had time to deal with, but I'd prefer to deal with that point later.

6. AgreeingI couldn't agree more./I (quite) agree.On the whole, I think the speaker's arguments are fair.I think you're absolutely right.That's a very good point.You've got a very good point there.I fully support what you say./ I totally agree./ Exactly!

7. Doubt and reservationWell maybe possibly / I'm not so sure about that/ You may be right./ I don't think I'dsay that./ Yes, but don't you think ?/ I can see your point, but / I think that's debatable./Perhaps, but don't you think that / I see what you mean, but / I agree to some extent, but/ It seems to me .../ I tend to think

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say that./ Yes, but don't you think ?/ I can see your point, but / I think that's debatable./Perhaps, but don't you think that / I see what you mean, but / I agree to some extent, but/ It seems to me .../ I tend to think

8. DisagreeingBut don't you think that ?I see what you mean, but But isn't it really a question of But surely ?I take your point, but ,But all the evidence suggests that I'm afraid I can't agree with you on this matter.I wouldn't say that.I don't agree at all.I can't accept that.

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SECTION 2 SPEAKING

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Introducing oneself NameMy name is John Smith. AgeI am twenty (years old). Place and time of birthI was born in Braov in 1980. FamilyI have a brother/son whose name is Michael and a sister/daughter whose name is Cathy. EducationI am a final-year student at the Faculty of Physical Education and Sport at the moment. The reason for choosingto attend the courses of this particular faculty is my passion for everything related to physical development andhealth. The topic of my diploma paper is Techniques of teaching swimming to beginners. OccupationI also work as a shop assistant in a supermarket in order to support myself but I dont intend to do this for therest of my life. HobbiesIn my spare time I like/love/enjoy swimming, playing football, reading and clubbing with my friends. Myfavourite football team is Manchester United. I watch their games whenever I have the time. The last book I readwas a novel called The Wheel of Time by Robert Jordan. I dont like/dislike/hate waking up early in themorning and travelling by plane. Plans for the futureAfter graduation I would like to continue my studies and obtain a Master of Arts Degree in physical education.Meanwhile, I would like to change my job and start working as a personal coach. My plans for the future alsoinclude getting married and starting a family.

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Means of transport

1 2

3 4

5

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MEANS OF TRANSPORTTRAVELLING

TO TRAVEL1. to go on a journey or visit different places, especially places that are far away from where you live or work:

I wish I didnt have to travel so much.Matt spends much of his time travelling abroad.He is very well-travelled (=he has travelled a lot).travel to: Joe recently had to travel to Australia on business.travel in: We were travelling in Spain when Claire broke her leg.travel light (=not take many things with you when you travel): My advice is to travel light.travel the world/country etc: Bens dream is to travel the world.

2. to go from one place to another, especially in a vehicle:Did you have to travel far to get here?Most people are prepared to travel reasonable distances to work.We travelled 300 miles on Saturday.travel by car/bus/train/boat/plane: I usually travel by bus.travel on foot/horseback: The refugees had travelled on foot across the mountains for days.

3. to move at a particular speed:The car was travelling at about 50 miles per hour.TO RIDE

1. to sit on an animal, especially a horse, and control its movements as it moves along:A group of children were riding donkeys on the beach.

2. to sit on a bicycle, motorcycle, and control it as it moves along:The little kids were riding their tricycles around the playground.ride on: He rides to school on his bicycle.TO DRIVE

to control a vehicle so that it moves somewhere:Usually, my sister drives and I read the map.TO SAIL

to travel somewhere by boat or ship:He sailed to Greece aboard the SS Monterey.TO FLY

to travel by plane:fly from/to: I flew from London to Amsterdam to meet the other members of the group.

by car

byplane

by boat

by train

by bus

totravel

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Rhetorical functions Asking for opinions

What do you think about ...?What are you views on ...?What do you feel about ...?What's your opinion of ...?What are your feelings about ...?Have you got any comments on ...?Could I have your reaction to ...?Do you have any particular views on ?

Giving opinionsTo my mind/To my way of thinking It is my (firm) belief/opinion/view/conviction that I (firmly) believe that I am (not) convinced that I (do not) agree that/with It strikes me that My opinion is that I (definitely) fell/think that I am inclined to believe that It seems/appears to me As far as I am concerned, I'm sure that....As I see it, ....I really do think that....I think ....I consider ....I tend to think that ....

Listing advantagesOne/Another/A further/An additional (major) advantage of is The main/greatest/first advantage of is

Listing disadvantagesOne/Another/A further/An additional (major) disadvantage/drawback of is The main/greatest/first/most serious advantage of is Another negative aspect of is

Introducing points/arguments for or against One (very convincing) point/argument in favour of /against A further common criticism of

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Man and animals

1 2

3 4

5 6

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MAN AND ANIMALSA domestic animal is one that is kept as a pet or on a farm A wild animal lives or grows on its own in natural conditions and

is not raised by humans

A pet is an animal or bird that you keep in your home and look after Types of animals

Mans attitude towards animals

help

shelter

cleanwater

territory

foodnaturalhabitat

animalsneed

harms

disre-spects

endan-gers

exploits

huntsfears

manraises

admires

breeds

protects

domesti-cates

loves

man

fish

reptiles

mammals

birds

animalscan be

turtle

dog snake

cat

rabbit

pets

lion

fox snake

tiger

wolf

wildchicken

cat dog

cow

horse

domestic

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Rhetorical functions

Asking for information Could you tell me ...? Could you tell me how to ...? Would you mind telling me ...? Do you know ...? What happens if ...? Where can I ...? When can I ...? How can I ...? Something else I'd like to know is ....

Asking for clarification/more information I didn't understand what you said about I'm sorry, I didn't catch what you said about I'm sorry, could you repeat what you said about ? Sorry, but I'm not quite clear on I'd like to ask you about I didn't understand the bit about the ... What does mean? I'm not sure what you mean. I don't see what you mean. Could we come back to that? Could you explain that again, please? What did you mean when you said ? Could you be more specific about ? Could you expand a little bit on what you said about ? Could you give an example of ? Could you explain in more detail? So you're telling me that I can't ? So what you're saying is that ? So you mean that ? Are you saying that ? Am I correct in assuming that ? Let me just make sure your point is that If I have understood you correctly, your point is that...

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Growing up/Generations

1 2

3

4

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GROWING UPAGE

1. the number of years that someone has lived:It was difficult to guess his age.The average age of the delegates was over 60.children under the age of sevenreach the age of: Shell only inherit when she reaches the age of 18.at/from the age of: At the age of 10, I went to live with my aunt.at/from an early age (=a young age): The sisters have been playing music together from an early age.at your/his/her etc age (=because of how young or old someone is): At her age, she might be expected to takethings easy.of all/different ages: The film is designed to appeal to people of all ages.difference in age: Her parents disapproved of the relationship because of the difference in age.be someones age or be the same age as someone to be as old as someone:Shes the same age as me.When youre my age, youll understand.

2. the time of life when you are allowed by law to do something:voting/retiring/school-leaving age: young people who have reached the voting age.raise/lower the age of something: They plan to raise the age of retirement for women to 65.under age (=too young by law to do something): He served wine to girls who were under age.

3. the state of being old or becoming old:His face is starting to show signs of age.with age: With age, your reactions get slower.Good wines improve with age.come of age: to reach the age when you are legally an adult.act/be your age: used for telling someone that they are behaving in a stupid way, as if they were much youngerthan they really are.GROW-UP

1. to change from being a baby or young child to being an older child or adult:Shes really starting to grow up now.I grew up in London.

2. to stop behaving like a child, and become wiser:It wasnt until my marriage ended that I really started to grow up.When will you grow up.

3. to developTO RAISE

to take care of children while they are growing up:raise a family: For most parents, raising a family is a positive challenge.born and raised: This seems strange to someone born and raised in the city.BRING UP

to look after a child until he or she becomes an adult: RAISEShe brought up three sons on her own.He was brought up by his grandmother.bring someone up to be/do something: Our parents brought us up to believe in our own abilities.

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INFANCY

TO BE BORN: The time when you are born is your birth:Her grandfather died before she was born.born in: I was born in Tokyo.born on: The twins were born on 29 August, 1962.born into: Meg was born into a large family.born to: More children are now born to older women.BIRTH: the occasion of a baby being born:We are happy to announce the birth of our son Andrew.NEWBORN: a baby who has just been bornSUCKLING: a baby or young animal that still drinks milk from its motherBABY: a very young child who cannot yet talk or walk.TODDLER: a very young child who is learning how to walk.INFANT: a baby or a very young child:Infants and elderly people are particularly at risk.

CHILDHOOD

CHILD: a young person from the time they are born until they are about 14 years old:The nursery has places for 30 children.only child (=someone who does not have any brothers or sisters): I was an only child and very lonely growing up. CHILDISH: behaving in a silly and annoying way, like a small childIts simply childish to refuse to talk to her.CHILDSHLY: You are a grown up, so stop behaving childishly.

TEENAGE

TEENAGER: a young person between the ages of 13 and 19:a lovesick teenagerTEENAGED: between the ages of 13 and 19:They have one teenaged daughter.TEENS: the years of your life between the ages of 13 and 19:in your teens: She became a tennis champion while still in her teens.

YOUTH

YOUTH

YOUNG: someone who is young has lived for only a short time:Shes married with two young children.YOUNG MAN/WOMAN/PERSON used about adults who are not very old:THE YOUNG: children and young adults in general:Do you think the young have an easier life nowadays?YOUNGSTER: a child or a young personYOUTH1. the time in someones life when they are young:In his youth, he travelled and saw much of the world.2. a male teenager, especially one involved in violent or criminal activities:a gang of youths3. young people in general:Sport provides a way for the nations youth to express themselves.

ADULTHOOD

ADULTHOOD: the period of your life when you are an adultADULT: someone who is no longer a child and is legally responsible for their actions:Tickets are 2.50 for adults and 1.50 for children.ADULT=GROWN-UPThe kids went to the park while we grown-ups sat in the garden.

OLDAGE

OLD: someone who is old has lived a long time:A lot of old people live alone.THE OLD=THE ELDERLY: old people.OLD AGE: the period of time when you are old:More and more people are surviving into old age.GET/GROW OLD: I hope Ill still be able to play golf when I get old.

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Rhetorical functions

Agreeing I couldn't agree more. On the whole, I think the speaker's arguments are fair. I (quite) agree. I think you're absolutely right. That's a very good point. You've got a very good point there. I fully support what you say. I totally agree. Exactly!

Disagreeing But don't you think that ? I see what you mean, but . But isn't it really a question of . But what about ? But surely ? I take your point, but . Yes, but on the other hand .... But all the evidence suggests that . I'm afraid I can't agree with on this matter. I wouldn't say that. I don't agree at all. I can't accept that.

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Having a meal

1 2

3

4 5

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HAVING A MEAL What would you like to have? Where do you usually eat?

How do you eat? What kind of diet do you eat?

What kind of food do you eat? What is you favourite food?

dairy products fruits vegetables cereal drinks meat seafood poultry (e.g. chicken, turkey) eggs

milk cream cheese butter ice cream yogurt

apple orange pear plum apricot peach grapes

peas beans onion garlic carrot radish potato

wheat maize oat (ovz) rye barley (orz)

tea coffee milk juice wine brandy beer

salmon

soups

Frenchfries

roastbeef

sausagebacon

poultry

cakespizza

I likeeating

healthy

comfort

home-made

fast

conveni-ence

tinnedfrozen

food

vegetarian

varied

low-calorie

balanced

crashhealthy

diet

a healthydiet

like ahorse

like a bird sensibly

healthily

properlywell

to eat

out

in at home

at arestaurant

at afriends

to eat

a meal

sth to eat

a snacka picnic

supper

dinner

lunchbreakfast

to have

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Rhetorical functionsMAKING COMPARISONS

comparative superlativeadjectives with one syllable adj + -er (+ than) the + adj + -est

e.g. cheap

ending in silent e: safeending in a consonant + y: dryending in a single vowel + a singleconsonant: big

The hamburger is cheaper than thecheeseburger.omit final e: e.g. saferchange y to i: drierdouble the final consonant: bigger

The hot dog is the cheapest.omit final e: e.g. the safestchange y to i: the driestdouble the final consonant: thebiggest

adjectives with two or moresyllables

more + adj the most + adjexpensive The hamburger is more expensive

than the hot dog.The cheeseburger is the most

expensive.irregular adjectives

goodbadfaroldlittle

many/much

betterworse

further/fartherolder/elder

lessmore

the bestthe worst

furthest/farthestoldest/eldest

leastmost

THANMary is better than Monica.Mary is a better player than Monica.JUST AS AS - things compared are equalMary is just as good as Cathy.NOT AS AS - things are compared negativelyCathy is not as good as Mary.MORE, LESSThis game is more interesting than the last one.I think this game is less interesting than the last one.COMPARINGX is like YX and Y are similarX is similar to YX is the same as YX resembles Y

with respect to W.as regards W.as far as W is concerned.regarding W.in that W is the same.in terms of W.

Both X and Y cost W.X is as expensive as W.X costs the same as Y.X is the same price asY.

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X has a Y.Similarly, it has a W.Likewise, it has a W.Correspondingly, it has a W.It has a W, too.It also has a W.

CONTRASTINGX differs from YX is unlike YX and Y differX is different from YX contrasts with Y

with respect to W.as regards W.as far as W is concerned.regarding W.in terms of W.

X costs 1,174, whereas Y costs W.X costs 1,174, while Y costs W.X costs 1,174, but Y costs W.X costs 1,174, in contrast to Y, which costsW.X is more expensive than Y.X is not as expensive as Y.X costs more than Y.X is expensive tobuy.

On the otherhand/Incontrast/However,it is W.

Although X isexpensive buy

It is W.

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Sports

1 2

3 4

5 6

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SPORTS What sports do you do? Do you wear any special clothes or footwear?

Do you prefer team or individual sports?

Can you name any extreme sports? What are the benefits that people can derive from practisingsports?

agility

flexibility

fitness stamina

social-izing

strengthhealth

benefits

para-chuting

skydiving

rockclimbing

skate-boarding

snow-boarding

surfingbungeejumping

extremesports

motocross

golf

archeryboxing

weight-lifting

swim-ming

athleticsgymnas-tics

individualsports

baseball

water polo

hockeyrugby

volley-ball

handball

basket-ball

football

teamsports

a cap

spikes

a gumshield

skis shortsgloves

a mask

trunkstrainers/sneakers

I wear

basket-ball

boxing

skate-boarding gymnas-

tics

snow-boarding

athletics

footballtennis

I do

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Rhetorical functions

Describing places/landscapesRead the following texts paying attention to the words written in bold.1. Oxford is an exceptionally old university town, on the river Thames, about 60 miles from London.Unlike modern university towns, where you usually find the university on the edge of the town, or on itsown campus, Oxfords centre is the university; and all around the crossroads at the very heart of Oxford,Carfax, there are grey stone Colleges and other university buildings. In the centre you can also findinteresting old pubs and paved passages. There are a lot of churches, and one or two really large andinteresting buildings, such as the Ashmolean Museum, the round library, the Bodleian and the RadcliffeCamera, with its domed roof. Like all English towns, there are parks, and one The Parks, is the leafy homeof university cricket in the summer months. As you leave the centre and go towards the outskirts ofOxford you can see industrial estates and car factory in one direction; and in another, attractive (andexpensive) suburbs. There is, in fact, quite a lot of industry in Oxford.2. My hotel room looks out across a main road which runs beside the river. To the left, about half a miledown the road there is a splendid-looking castle situated majestically on a small hill. The road bends rightpast this and crosses the river over a stone bridge, entering a small village, whose church dominates theskyline. This village is set on a small hill, and beyond there are rolling hills right to the horizon,intersected by one or two valleys.

Useful language: Location: down by the river/railway-station

on the River Thamesnear the bus stationin the centreon the outskirtsin the suburbsin the countrysidebelow mevery neara few metres awayin the distanceon the horizonon the skylineon the leftto my rightIt is situated The village lies in a valley.The village is set on a small hill.

Existence: There is/areThere has/have always/never beenThe statue stands thereYou can find/discover/see a farm.

Special features:one of the of the most interesting places

is the is famous/popular for its history

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Tourist attractions

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3 4

5 6

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TOURIST ATTRACTIONS What do you like visiting? What tourist attractions are there in this area?

What entertaining opportunities does this area provide? What outdoor activities can tourists enjoy in this area?

How would you like to spend your holiday? What sort of accommodations do you have to offer?

caravans

cabins

acampsite

a pension

a hotel

a lodge

We offeryou

gosightseeing

sunbathe gocruising

gotrekking

gocamping

I wouldlike to

waterfalls

aquariums

cathedralsmuseums

historicalplaces

oldbuildings

castleschurches

Thereare

rockclimbing

ponytrekking

canoeingsurfing

sailing

swim-ming

Touristscan enjoy

playbilliards

go toconcerts

goclubbing

go to thetheatre

watchfilms

You can

waterfalls

aquariums

cathedralsmuseums

historicalplaces

oldbuildings

castleschurches

I likevisiting

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Rhetorical functions Describing people1 Faces and bodies

Loose, wavy brown hair hangs down to her waist at the back. She has a fringe over her forehead that almosthides her pale blue eyes. The nose not her best feature is long but not ugly. She has a regular set of whiteteeth and she is full-lipped.

Her round face looks rather sallow in complexion; she isnt very tall or slim, and she walks with slightlyrounded shoulders. When I knew her she must have been in her early thirties, and she even had one or two tell-tale wrinkles round the mouth.2 Clothes

I first met him at a small party and he was dressed in a rather ill-fitting suit with patches on the elbows;underneath there was an opened-necked striped shirt. After that I dont think I ever saw him in a suit again. Hemostly wore casual clothes faded jeans, T-shirts, and open sandals.

He has a long coat on.Hes wearing an elegantsuit.Shes dressed in a longdress.

3 Facial and bodily expressionsPeople often think of him as looking irritable but that must be because of his somewhat pink complexion and

his bloodshot eyes. He flaps his hands quite a bit and rarely looks relaxed or calm.However, his face changes dramatically when he smiles, perhaps it is more of a boyish grin than a smile and

it alters ones view of him immediately.He is frowning / scowling.He often has a grin on his face.He is / looks / seems / feels happy / angry/ puzzled / surprised / frightened / sad /tired / in love / embarrassed / bored /disappointed / guilty / worried / anxious /hurt / excited / frustrated / annoyed / guilty.He looks as if hes going to burst intolaughter.Jack smiled as though he was enjoying ajoke.

4 Character and habitsShe has the irritating habit of biting her nails but apart from that she is always positive and welcoming, once

you know her well. If you dont, you might think her a bit stand-offish, but she isnt really. Actually, she isnt allthat bright and often appears intensely puzzled by life.

She is always She has the habit of

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Transport in the city

1 2

3 4

5

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TRANSPORT IN THE CITY How do you go to work? What do you take to get to work?

How long does it take (you) to get to work? Words usually associated with traffic

What can we do to solve the problems caused by the intense traffic in large cities?

use carspropelled byelectricity

ban traffic fromthe city center

build moresuspensionpassages

build moreundergroundpassages

use publictransport insteadof personal cars

ride bikes insteadof driving cars

We can

lights

island

wardenrush-hour

cone

conges-tion

noisejam

traffic

taxi

tube

train trolley

tram

bus car

I take the

long

20minutes

half anhour

45minutes

one hour

It takes(me)

by taxi

on foot

by tubeby train

bytrolley

by tram

by busby car

I go towork

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Rhetorical functions

Changing the subject/moving on If we can now turn to .... Can we move on to the next point now. I'd like now to move on to . Turning now to. Moving on now to Having looked at , I'd now like to consider . I now want to turn to .... The next point is . Another interesting point is . The next aspect I'd like to consider is . I'd now like to turn to . What do you think about X?

63

Pollution

1 2

3 4

5 6POLLUTION

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Word family People can

Topics connected to pollution

Our actions can

Word family

Rhetorical functions

protect

preserve

pollute

destroy

damage

affect

environ-ment

sanc-tuary

re-cycling

defor-estation global

warming

climatechange

bio-hazard

smogg. houseeffect

pollution

exhaust

effluent

acidrain noise

toxicwaste

sulphurdioxide

CFCcarbondioxide

pollu-tants

tackle

reduce

prevent monitor

cut

controlcombat

pollution

pollutant polluter

topollute

pollution

environment

environmental environmentally environmentallyfriendly

environmentallysensitive area environmentalist

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Evaluating That's a good idea. That's a very good point. You've got a good point there. I agree entirely. That's exactly what we need. I'm not sure what you mean by .... That's an interesting point, but .... You might be right. That's all very well, but .... I'm not so sure about that. Yes, but don't you think .... I can see your point, but .... You seem to have forgotten .... Very interesting. How exactly do you propose to ..? I don't see how you can argue that ... I can't accept that at all.

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Holidays

1 2

3 4

5

67

HOLIDAYS

campsite

pension

cabinlodge

hostel

inn

motelhotel

accom-modation

village

season resort

home

camp

holiday

retreat

time-out

breather respite

rest

breakcomfort

relax-ation

specialinterest

adven-ture

sight-seeing sun-

bathing

cruising

camp-ing

back-packing

package

holiday

holidayactivities

walking sightseeing sunbathing walking trekking hiking rock climbing

68

Rhetorical functions

Giving further information Furthermore, .... An additional point is .... Another point is .... A further point is .... A similar point is .... In addition, .... Moreover, .... Similarly, .... Apart from ..., .... Not only , but .... We can add .... I could add that .... Further, .... As well as...,.... Besides, .... ..., as well. ..., too. ..., also.

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Celebrations

1 2

3 4

70

CELEBRATIONS

ShroveTuesday

Lent

HolyWeek

GoodFriday

EasterSunday

bunnyegg

Easter

stock-ing

Eve

dinnerDay tree

carol

card

cakebox

Christ-mas

witness

dress

vowshoney-moon

hennight

brides-maid

bestman

bride-groom

bride

wed-ding

pyjama

theme

fancydress

birth-day

slum-ber

cos-tume

cocktail

officebach-elor

party

Anni-versary

Easter

Christ-mas

Birthday

Happy

christen-ing

wed-ding

New YearsEve

Easter

Christ-mas

celebra-tions

71

Technology

1 2

3 4

72

TECHNOLOGY

Improvements in Destructive aspects

The effects of technology can be Words combined with technology

Word family

state-of-the-art

nano

bleedingedge high

military

soft-ware

cutting-edge

compu-ter

tech-nology

perilous

harmful

dam-aging negative

good

positive

healthyben-eficial

effects

pesti-cides

privacyinvasion

unem-ployment

doping

atomicbomb

pol-lution

tech-nology

entertain-ment

space ex-ploration

manu-facturing

data pro-cessing

travel-ling

communication

medi-cine

tech-nology

technology

technocracy technocrat technological technologi-cally

technologist technophobia technophobe

73

SECTION 3 GRAMMAR

74

Please solve the Placement Test below. Then correct it in red pencil according to theKey.Mark it and bring the results for the teacher to see and comment.Name: _______________________________ Date: ____________________Placement Test for Elementary, Intermediate, First Certificateand Advanced Language PracticeCircle the answer which bestanswers the question or fits thespace.0. Where are you from?A Im France. B Im fromFrance. C French. DIm French.

1. How old are you?A I have 16. B I am 16.C I have 16 years. D I am 16years.

2. Are you having a nice time?A Yes, Im nice. B Yes, Imhaving it. C Yes, I am.D Yes, it is.

3. Could you pass the salt please?A Over there. B I dont know.C Help yourself. D Here youare.

4. Yesterday I went __________ bus tothe National Museum.A on B in C byD with

5. Sue and Mike __________ to gocamping.

A wanted B said Cmade D talked

6. Whos calling, please?A Just a moment. B Its DavidParker. C Ill call you back.D Speaking.

7. They were __________ after thelong journey, so they went to bed.A hungry B hot Clazy D tired

8. Can you tell me the __________ tothe bus station?A road B way Cdirection D street

9. __________ you remember to buysome milk?A Have B DoCShould D Did

10.- Dont forget to put the rubbishout.

- Ive __________ done it!A yet B still C

already D even

11. You dont need to bring__________ to eat.

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A some B a food Cmany D anything

12. What about going to the cinema?A Good idea! B Twice amonth. C Its Star Wars.D I think so.

13- What would you like, Sue?- Id like the same __________

Michael please.A that B as C for

D had

14. __________ people know theanswer to that question.A Few B Little CLeast D A little

15. Its not __________ to walk homeby yourself in the dark.A sure B certain Csafe D problem

16. __________ sure all the windowsare locked.A Take B Have CWait D Make

17. Ill go and __________ if I canfind him.A see B look C tryD tell

18. Whats the difference __________football and rugby?

A from B with C forD between

19. My car needs __________ .A repairing B to repairC to be repair D repair

20. Tim was too __________ to askMonika for a dance.A worried B shy Cselfish D polite

21. I havent had so much fun__________ I was a young boy!A when B for Cduring D since

22. Sorry, I dont know __________youre talking about.A that B what Cwhich D why

23. Im afraid you __________ smokein here.A could not B dont have toC are not allowed to D cantbe

24. Everyone wanted to go out__________ John.A apart B unless Chowever D except

25. Honestly! I saw a ghost! Im not__________ it up!

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A having B laughingC making D joking

26. Eat everything up! I dont want tosee anything __________ on yourplate!A left B missing Cput D staying

27. Take the A20 __________ theroundabout, then turn left.A right B as far as Calong D heading north

28. I really hope you can find a__________ to this problem.A result B way Cconclusion D solution

29. Could you watch my bag while Igo and get a cup of tea?A Of course! B Never mind.C If you dont mind. D It doesntmatter.

30. In my country, it is __________the law to watch an X-rated film if youare under eighteen.A under B against Cover D beyond

31. Rebecca had to __________ theinvitation, as she was busy studying forher exams.A take off B put backC turn down D get away

32. Police __________ that a terroristgroup might be behind the kidnapping.A suppose B fancy Csuspect D accuse

33. When Christopher smiles, he__________ me of his grandfather.A remembers B recallsC rethinks D reminds

34. The wonderful smell of freshly__________ coffee hit us as weentered the store.A crushed B smashedC ground D pressed

35. Mikes dad wouldnt __________him go to school with a red streak inhis hair.A allow B permit Caccept D let

36. If only I __________ made thatphone call!A wasnt B didnt Chadnt D havent

37. I like Mary for her friendly smileand her __________ of humour.A sense B manner Cway D impression

38. These shoes are very __________for walking in the mountains.A practical B functionalC realistic D active

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39. __________ of the credit for oursuccess has to go to the Chairman,Peter Lewis.A Several B Much CEnough D Sufficient

40. We were surprised that over 500people __________ for the job.A wrote B applied Cenquired D requested

41. The children watched in excitementas she __________ a match and lit thecandles.A scratched B struckC rubbed D scraped

42. Sorry about Kates strangebehaviour, but shes just not used to__________ lots of people around her.A had B have Chaving D has

43. Ivan kept running very hard__________ none of the other runnerscould possibly catch him.A even though B howeverC despite D as

44. I did this painting all __________my own, Dad, said Milly.A by B with C forD on

45. You __________ better check allthe details are correct before we send it

off.A would B had Cshould D did

46. This game is __________ to be forfive year-olds, but I think a two year-old could do it!A expected B requiredC obliged D supposed

47. Just put this powder down, and itshould __________ any more antsfrom getting in.A prevent B avoid Crefuse D forbid

48. When Jonie __________ to dosomething, you can be sure shell do it,and do it well.A gets on B takes upC sets out D brings about

49. __________ we get to the top ofthis hill, the path gets much easier.A At the time B EventuallyC Once D Finally

50. Fifty-seven? No, that __________be the right answer!A cant B mustnt Cwouldnt D neednt

51. __________ happens, Ill alwaysbe there for you!A However B WhatC Whatever D No matter

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52. Can you __________ to it that noone uses this entrance?A see B deal Censure D get

53. A __________ debate ensued, withneither side prepared to give way to theother.A warm B heated Chot D boiling

54. Ive drunk milk every __________day of my life, and its never done meany harm!A particular B individualC single D one

55. The version of the film I saw hadbeen __________ censored.A strongly B deeplyC great D heavily

56. He promised to phone me at nineoclock exactly, and he was as__________ as his word.

A true B good C rightD honest

57. There has been so much media__________ of the wedding that Imcompletely fed up with it.A circulation B attentionC broadcasting D coverage

58. If I were you I would __________clear of the area around the station lateat night.A stick B steer C stopD stand

59. Turning back now is out of the__________ .A agenda B matter Cquestion D possibility

60. Joes fear of enclosed spaces__________ from a bad experience hehad when he was a child.

A stems B leads Cstarts D flows

KEY

1 B2 C3 D4 C5 A6 B7 D

8 B9 D10 C11 D12 A13 B14 A15 C16 D

17 A18 D19 A20 B21 D22 B23 C24 D25 C26 A27 B28 D29 A30 B31 C32 C33 D34 C35 D36 C37 A38 A39 B40 B41 B42 C43 A44 D45 B46 D47 A48 C49 C50 A

51 C52 A53 B54 C55 D56 B57 D58 B59 C60 A

Interpretationof marks

115Elementary

Language Practice1630

IntermediateLanguage Practice3145 FirstCertificateLanguage Practice4660

AdvancedLanguage Practice

73

Grammar Progress Test 1a1 Underline the correct word or phrase in each sentence.0 What time go you/do you go to bed on Saturdays?1 I want a new computer, but I didnt save/I havent saved enough money yet.2 Dont worry, Im not going to be/I wont be late.3 Its very hot in here. Shall I/Will I open the window?4 How long have you been waiting/are you waiting?5 When I was younger I was going/I used to go to the seaside every summer.6 Ive lived/I lived in Barcelona all my life.7 While I was cleaning/I had cleaned my room I found this old photograph.8 You look sad. What are you thinking/do you think about?9 I go/Im going to my parents house next weekend. Do you want to come?10 Ive been looking for my bag, but I still didnt find/I still havent found it.11 I like your new room! When have you painted/did you paint it?12 Where will you be working/do you work next year?13 I know the play is boring, but we cant leave until it will finish/it finishes.14 Im seeing/I will see the doctor tomorrow at 10.00.15 Where are you go/are you going on holiday?

2 Put each verb given into the present simple or continuous, or the pastsimple or continuous.

0 Ugh, dont show me that picture! I (hate) hate mice!1 Where (you go) ______________________ for your holidays last year?2 At the moment Helen (read) ______________________ a book written by a

Brazilian author.3 I left school around 5.00, (play) ______________________ football for a while,

then went home.4 Mary (listen) ______________________ to the radio when her friend Barbara

called.5 Mary (turn off) ______________________ the radio when her friend Barbara

called.6 In her free time Helen (read) ______________________ a lot.7 Where (you spend) ______________________ your holidays next year? In

France.8 What (you do) ______________________ when the rain started? We went

inside.

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9 When they arrived in the park a lot of people (play) ______________________football.

10 People (become) ______________________ more and more interested in solarenergy.

11 Where (you spend) ______________________ your holidays? Usually inFrance.

12 She (become) ______________________ rich in the fashion industry and retiredto Majorca.

13 What (you do) ______________________ when the rain started? We wereplaying tennis.

14 At the moment I (stay) ______________________ at a friends house.

3 Complete the second sentence so that it has a similar meaning to the firstsentence.

0 Steve left before my arrival.When I arrived, Steve had already left .

1 This is my first visit to Italy.Ive ___________________________________________________________ .

2 Your taxi arrived a moment ago.Your taxi has ____________________________________________________ .

3 The film started before my arrival.When I arrived, the film ___________________________________________ .

4 Would you like me to call back later?Shall ___________________________________________________________.

5 Simone has been learning English for two years.Simone started ___________________________________________________ .

6 I last went to Spain in 1998.I havent ________________________________________________________ .

7 After the exam well go for a pizza.When the exam __________________________________________________ .

8 I intend to speak to my boss tomorrow.Im ____________________________________________________________ .

4 Put each verb given into the past simple or the present perfect.0 A: Whats the matter?

B: I (cut) have cut myself.1 A: What did you do on your holiday?

B: We (go) ______________________ to the disco most nights.2 A: How is the holiday going?

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B: Great! We (go) ______________________ to the disco most nights.3 A: Did you carry on working at the shop after your argument with the manager?

B: No, I (leave) ______________________ .4 A: Are you still working at the shop?

B: No, I (leave) ______________________ .5 A: Why are the police here?

B: There (is) ______________________ an accident.6 A: Why did the metro stop running yesterday evening?

B: There (is) ______________________ an accident.7 A: How are the unemployment figures this year?

B: They (rise) ______________________ by 2%.8 A: How were the unemployment figures last year?

B: They (rise) ______________________ by 2%.

76

Grammar Progress Test 1b1 Underline the correct word or phrase in each sentence.0 That cant be right! I dont believe/Im not believing it.1 I was here/Ive been here since the beginning of June.2 No, I cant see the bird. Where are you looking/do you look?3 Your secret is safe with me. Im not going to say/I wont say anything.4 Its raining. Shall we/Will we take a taxi?5 Im meeting/I will meet Lisa for lunch tomorrow.6 Ive wanted to go to Paris all my life, but I still didnt go/I still havent been

there.7 Im going to tell her, but I didnt see/I havent seen her yet.8 I play/Im playing tennis with John and Chris at the weekend. Do you want to

join us?9 I think we have time for a coffee before the train arrives/will arrive.10 I havent seen you before. When have you started/did you start working here?11 Where will you be going/do you go for your holidays next year?12 While I walked/I was walking through the park a dog ran up to me and bit me.13 Look out of the window! How long has it been snowing/is it snowing?14 When I was a baby I was carrying/I used to carry a yellow blanket everywhere I

went.15 When the film will end/ends, lets have a coffee.

2 Put each verb given into the present simple or continuous, or the pastsimple or continuous.

0 What (usually you do) do you usually do at the weekend?1 What (you get) ______________________ for your birthday last week?2 What are you doing? I (check) ______________________ this letter for

spelling mistakes.3 I got to the station at 3pm, (wait) ______________________ for half an hour,

then came back here.4 George (watch) ___________________ the television when I arrived at his flat.5 At the moment inflation (increase) ______________________ slowly.6 James (turn on) ______________________ the television so we could watch the

football match.7 Every day Helen (check) __________________ her emails when she gets home.8 Where (you go) ______________________ ? To the shops. Do you want to

come with me?

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9 What games (you play) ______________________ when you were young?Hiding from people, trying to catch people, all the usual things.

10 When I arrived at the checkout a lot of people (wait) ______________________in the queue.

11 Buy one next year prices (go down) ______________________ quite fast atthe moment.

12 Where (you go) ______________________ on Saturday afternoons?Shopping, with my mother.

13 Prices (go down) ______________________ quite fast when other, similarmodels started to appear.

14 What game (you play) __________________ just now? We were playingchess.

3 Complete the second sentence so that it has a similar meaning to the firstsentence.

0 Michael took a deep breath and dived into the water.After Michael had taken a deep breath, he dived into the water.

1 The plane landed a few moments ago.The plane has ___________________________________________________ .

2 Ive been playing the guitar for three years.I started ________________________________________________________ .

3 After the start of the match, youll hear a lot of noise.When the match __________________________________________________ .

4 This is my first time in the United States.Ive ___________________________________________________________ .

5 Would you like me to get you a drink?Shall ___________________________________________________________ .

6 I last saw Naomi in February.I havent ________________________________________________________ .

7 I intend to email Paul this evening.Im ____________________________________________________________ .

8 I thought the film looked familiar.I thought I ______________________________________________________ .

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4 Put each verb given into the past simple or the present perfect.0 A: When are you going to write to your grandmother?

B: Dont worry. I (already write) Ive already written to her.1 A: Why was your flight late?

B: There (is) ______________________ a delay.2 A: Why isnt our departure time showing on the screen?

B: There (is) ______________________ a delay.3 A: Did you go to a nightclub after the meal in the restaurant?

B: No, I (come) ______________________ home.4 A: Thanks for calling, John. Are you speaking from work?

B: No, I (come) ______________________ home.5 A: Sandras just arrived.

B: Yes, I know, I (see) ______________________ her.6 A: Sandra came into the office yesterday.

B: Yes, I know, I (see) ______________________ her.7 A: How are you feeling today?

B: My temperature (go) ______________________ down.8 A: How did you know you were getting better?

B: My temperature (go) ______________________ down.

79

Grammar Progress Test 2a1 Underline the correct word or phrase in each sentence.0 If wed be/were late for class, our teacher will be angry.1 The teacher told/asked me if Id finished the test.2 My mobile phone needs recharging! I wish the battery wasnt/isnt flat.3 Peter must have left/cant have left the flowers for me. Hes been away.4 If I won/win the lottery, Id travel round the world.5 Your shoes are too small. You could/Youd better take them back immediately.6 Rita left a message to say that she would join/had joined you in the pub tonight.7 I think I must left/must have left my bag on the bus.8 If youd done/you did more revision, you wouldnt have failed the exam.9 I said/told to Steve that Id meet him at the swimming baths later.10 I was giving/was given the necklace by my aunt.11 I asked her if she would be/was from Switzerland, and she said no.12 I havent got an umbrella! If it rains, Id get/Ill get wet.13 I didnt know/wouldnt have known if you hadnt told me.14 We showe