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Correlating Strength and Stiffness Data of the PENCEL Pressuremeter and Triaxial
Compression Tests in Florida Sands
by
Jacob William Jansen
Bachelor of Science
Civil Engineering
Florida Institute of Technology
2015
A thesis submitted to the College of Engineering at
Florida Institute of Technology
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of
Master of Science
in
Civil Engineering
Melbourne, Florida
April, 2017
©Copyright 2017 Jacob W. Jansen
All Rights Reserved
The author grants permission to make single copies _________________________
We the undersigned committee, having examined the attached thesis;
“Correlating Strength and Stiffness Data of the PENCEL Pressuremeter and
Triaxial Compression Tests in Florida Sands”
By
Jacob William Jansen
Hereby indicate its unanimous approval.
_________________________________________________
Paul J. Cosentino, Ph.D., P.E
Professor, Civil Engineering
Thesis Advisor
_________________________________________________
Rodrigo Mesa Arango, Ph.D.
Professor, Civil Engineering
_________________________________________________
Matthew Jensen, Ph.D.
Professor, Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering
_________________________________________________
Ashok Pandit, Ph.D., P.E
Professor, Civil Engineering
Department Head
iii
Abstract
Correlating Strength and Stiffness Data of the PENCEL Pressuremeter and Triaxial
Compression Tests in Florida Sands
By: Jacob William Jansen
Major Advisor: Paul J. Cosentino, Ph.D., P.E
The poorly graded sands found throughout Florida provide geotechnical engineers
with a difficult challenge when performing testing samples in laboratory tests.
These challenges have caused lab tests such as the triaxial compression test to be
overlooked. Since geotechnical engineers estimate strength and stiffness parameters
from basic field tests, they often produce overly conservative designs.
Understanding how the automated in-situ PENCEL Pressuremeter (PPMT) test
correlates with the triaxial compression test can reduce the time and costs
associated with laboratory triaxial testing. Results from triaxial tests yield a
Young’s Elastic Modulus, shear strength, and internal friction angle. Results from a
PPMT test yield a pressuremeter modulus, lift off pressure, and a limit pressure.
The different types of outputted data do not allow for direct comparisons to be
made between the triaxial compression test and the PPMT test. This research seeks
to correlate the outputted data.
This research involved twenty PPMT tests performed in poorly graded sands, with
loose to medium dense texture. PPMT results were compared with results from
twenty-one triaxial compression tests performed using soil removed from the test
iv
sites. The triaxial test density ranged from 20% to 65% of the soils relative density.
An equation from Baguelin (1978) was proven to correlate triaxial shear strength
with PPMT limit pressure.
Correlations indicate that triaxial elastic modulus and triaxial shear strength
correlate moderately well. The triaxial modulus is 93 times greater than the shear
strength. The PPMT modulus correlates well with the limit pressure, the PPMT
modulus is 8.3 times greater than the limit pressure in loose to medium dense sands
(R2=0.89). The triaxial elastic modulus and PPMT elastic modulus correlation
show PPMT moduli being on average 60% greater than triaxial moduli in similar
density and confining conditions. The correlations from this study indicate that data
from the triaxial compression test and the PPMT test can be correlated.
v
Table of Contents Abstract ................................................................................................................................. iii
Table of Figures .................................................................................................................... vii
List of Tables ......................................................................................................................... ix
List of Symbols ....................................................................................................................... x
1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background ............................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Objective ................................................................................................................ 2
1.3 Approach................................................................................................................ 2
1.3.1 Literature Review ........................................................................................... 3
1.3.2 Site Selections ................................................................................................ 3
1.3.3 Laboratory Testing ......................................................................................... 3
1.3.4 Field Testing ................................................................................................... 4
1.3.5 Results ............................................................................................................ 4
1.3.6 Analysis .......................................................................................................... 4
1.3.7 Conclusions and Recommendations .............................................................. 4
2 Literature Review ........................................................................................................... 5
2.1 The Pressuremeter ................................................................................................ 5
2.1.1 Pressuremeter Development......................................................................... 5
2.1.2 Pressuremeter Insertion ................................................................................ 7
2.1.3 Pressuremeter data interpretation ............................................................... 9
2.1.4 Variations of strain-controlled PMT Tests ................................................... 15
2.1.5 Pressuremeter Theories............................................................................... 17
2.2 Triaxial Testing ..................................................................................................... 18
2.2.1 Apparatus ..................................................................................................... 18
2.2.2 Test Description ........................................................................................... 22
2.2.3 Test Data ...................................................................................................... 26
2.3 Methods of determining the at rest earth pressure ........................................... 30
2.3.1 Jaky Determination, 1944 ............................................................................ 30
2.3.2 Laboratory Methods .................................................................................... 31
vi
2.3.3 In-Situ tests .................................................................................................. 33
3 Description of Test Sites .............................................................................................. 38
3.1 Test Site Locations ............................................................................................... 38
3.1.1 Florida Tech Overflow lot ............................................................................ 39
3.1.2 Southgate Field ............................................................................................ 40
4 Test Methods ............................................................................................................... 42
4.1 In-Situ tests .......................................................................................................... 42
4.1.1 PPMT ............................................................................................................ 42
4.2 Laboratory Tests .................................................................................................. 49
5 Results and Correlations .............................................................................................. 51
5.1 Soil Properties Results ......................................................................................... 51
5.1.1 Grain Size ..................................................................................................... 51
5.1.2 Optimum Moisture ...................................................................................... 52
5.1.3 Relative Density ........................................................................................... 53
5.2 Triaxial Results ..................................................................................................... 55
5.3 Pressuremeter Results ......................................................................................... 57
5.4 Correlations ......................................................................................................... 59
5.4.1 Triaxial correlations between strength and stiffness .................................. 59
5.4.2 Pressuremeter moduli and strength correlation ......................................... 60
5.4.3 Triaxial and pressuremeter stiffness correlation ......................................... 64
6 Conclusions and Recommendations ............................................................................ 68
6.1 Conclusions .......................................................................................................... 68
6.2 Recommendations ............................................................................................... 69
References ........................................................................................................................... 71
Appendix A ........................................................................................................................... 74
Appendix B ........................................................................................................................... 85
vii
Table of Figures
Figure 2-1: From right to left; Pencel, Ménard, and Texam Pressuremeter types (From
RocTest) ................................................................................................................................. 6
Figure 2-2: Typical Pressuremeter results curve (from Shaban 2016) .................................. 9
Figure 2-3: Determination of lift off pressure for a self-boring and pre-bored
pressuremeter (Mair and Wood 1987). ............................................................................... 10
Figure 2-4: PMT unload-reload cycle (From Shaban 2016) ................................................. 12
Figure 2-5 Typical Load/Unload PMT test data ................................................................... 16
Figure 2-6 Inflated probe shapes in an unconfined environment vs in a confined
environment (from Murat and Lemoigne 1988) ................................................................. 17
Figure 2-7 Durham Geo Load frame .................................................................................... 19
Figure 2-8 Durham Geo triaxial cell ..................................................................................... 20
Figure 2-9 Humboldt data aquisition unit ........................................................................... 21
Figure 2-10 Triaxial control panel ........................................................................................ 22
Figure 2-11 Idealized relation for dilation angle, Ψ, from triaxial results ........................... 24
Figure 2-13a: Typical Mohr's Circle for CD triaxial data (From Holtz and Kovacs 1981) ..... 28
Figure 2-13b: Typical Mohr's Circle for CU triaxial data (From Holtz and Kovacs 1981) ..... 28
Figure 2-14: Soft Oedometer Ring (Kolymbas, 1993) .......................................................... 32
Figure 2-15: Correlation between the SPT N values, normalized effective overburden, and
the triaxial compression phi value (DeMello, 1971) ............................................................ 33
Figure 2-16: Correlation between CPT data and the effective phi angle in sand soils
(Robertson and Campanella, 1983) ..................................................................................... 35
Figure 2-17: Chart developed by Mair and Wood (1987) to determine the phi value using
stress strain slope. ............................................................................................................... 37
Figure 3-1: General location of testing sites on the FIT campus shown by stars. ............... 39
Figure 3-2: Arial overview of the overflow test site. The transect on which tests were
performed is shown by the yellow line. .............................................................................. 40
Figure 3-3: Southgate field test site. The transect tested is shown by the yellow line. ...... 41
Figure 4-1 Pressuremeter control unit with added digital instrumentation (From Shaban,
2016) .................................................................................................................................... 43
Figure 4-2 Screenshot of the APMT user interface and data reduction .............................. 44
Figure 4-3 Typical membrane calibration curve for PPMT tests ......................................... 46
Figure 4-4 Typical volume calibration curve from a PPMT test ........................................... 47
Figure 4-5 Borehole driving guide, with thin wall driving tube (From Shaban 2016).......... 49
Figure 5-1 Grain size distributions for test sites in FIT campus ........................................... 52
Figure 5-2 Standard Proctor moisture density data from a mixed sample, optimum
moisture content was determined to be 12% ..................................................................... 53
viii
Figure 5-3 Typical Triaxial stress-strain plot ........................................................................ 56
Figure 5-4 Correlation between the triaxial initial moduli and the shear strength of the soil
at 5% strain .......................................................................................................................... 59
Figure 5-5 Comparison between the calculated limit pressure, measured initial modulus
and shear strength ............................................................................................................... 61
Figure 5-6 Correlation between PMT initial modulus and PMT limit pressure using all data
points ................................................................................................................................... 62
Figure 5-7 Limit pressure vs pressuremeter modulus for loose to compact sands ............ 63
Figure 5-8 Relationship between strength and stiffness data for both triaxial and PPMT
tests ..................................................................................................................................... 64
Figure 5-9 Predicted PMT modulus from measured Triaxial data ....................................... 65
Figure 5-10 Prediction of triaxial moduli using field measured PMT moduli ...................... 66
ix
List of Tables Table 2-1 Pressuremeter insertion recommendation table (Winter 1986) .......................... 8
Table 5-1 Summary of moisture density results from mixed samples ................................ 53
Table 5-2 Summary of maximum density tests ................................................................... 54
Table 5-3 Summary of minimum density tests .................................................................... 55
Table 5-4 Summary of triaxial test results ........................................................................... 56
Table 5-5 Averages of triaxial data, based off of density .................................................... 57
Table 5-6 Summary of PPMT test results ............................................................................ 58
Table 5-7 Averages of PPMT data based off of site ............................................................. 58
Table 5-8 Relationships and correlations between the strength and stiffness for PPMT,
triaxial, and combined data ................................................................................................. 64
Table 5-9 Correlation summary ........................................................................................... 67
x
List of Symbols Symbol Description
DPMT Pressuremeter Diameter Po Lift off pressure
G Elastic shear modulus
Vm Mean volume of the cylindrical cavity
∆V Change in volume over the corresponding change in pressure, ∆P
𝜈 Possion’s ratio Pl Limit Pressure Ei Initial elastic modulus
Er Reload elasticmodulus
σ’ Effective stress
σtotal Total stress
σ1 Maximum principle stress
σ3 Confining stress/minimum principle stress
Ψ Angle of dilation
𝜀 Measured Strain
𝛼 Failure angle
𝛷 Angle of internal friction
𝜏 Shear stress
𝐾𝑜 At rest earth pressure coefficient
𝑆𝑢𝑝 Pressuremeter shear strength
𝑆𝑢𝑡 Triaxial shear strength
xi
Acknowledgements
I would firstly like to acknowledge the faculty and staff of the Civil Engineering
Department at Florida Tech for their support in my graduate studies. I would like to thank
my committee chair, Dr. Paul Cosentino for his guidance and helping my academic
growth. Additionally I would like to Thank Dr. Alaa Shaban for his help performing the
Pressuremeter tests and helping guide my research process. Finally, I would like to thank
my parents and family for the support they provided through my time here at Florida
Tech.
1
1 Introduction
1.1 Background In the state of Florida, the most commonly found soil is a poorly graded sand,
referred to here as Florida sands. Geotechnical investigations used to determine the soil
properties of these sands can range from simple observational tests with no sampling, to
more involved field testing and/or sampling. These more involved tests can provide the
strength and stiffness characteristics of the soil at the site can either be performed in a
geotechnical laboratory or in-situ.
A commonly used laboratory test to determine the soil strength and stiffness is the
triaxial compression test. This test uses samples transported from the site to a laboratory,
where the sample is prepared, and then tested in compression with confinement to
obtain the axial strength data. This process of sampling, drying, remolding, and testing
take between a hour and a day per test. This test has been used by engineers since the
late 1930’s, and provides a wide range of engineering data, under various soil drainage
conditions. The data from a triaxial compression test can be used to determine the
Young’s elastic modulus (E), soil shear stress (τ), and angle of internal friction (φ) as a
function of unit weight. These engineering parameters are integral parts of many design
equations used in geotechnical applications. However, instead of attempting to mimic the
conditions of an in-situ soil in a laboratory engineers have designed a device to directly
measure the soil’s strength and stiffness characteristics in-situ.
2
The pressuremeter (PMT), first successfully developed in 1956 (Ménard, 1956),
has allowed geotechnical engineers to examine soil strength and stiffness in-situ. This
device allows the radial strength data of the soil to be measured, without having to
transport soil samples and attempt to replicate site conditions in a laboratory. Cosentino
et al. (2006) automated the PENCEL pressuremeter unit, leading to a significant increase
in its use. The data from the automated PMT can be used to determine the PMT modulus
(E), rebound modulus (Er), lift off pressure (Po), and limit pressure (Pl). These data
parameters can take between 30 minutes and an hour per test. These engineering
parameters are used in some geotechnical design equations; however they are not as
commonly used. The time and cost savings to perform an automated PPMT could lead to
large savings in engineering design and construction if the relationship between PPMT
data and other more common tests can be determined.
1.2 Objective The objective of this research is to correlate in-situ soil strength and stiffness parameters
obtained from PMT tests in Florida sands with the engineering properties obtained from
the triaxial compression test.
1.3 Approach This research will use the PENCEL Pressuremeter (PPMT) in pre-bored holes to determine
the strength and stiffness characteristics of the soil. Previously determined relationships
found in literature will be used to relate the PMT data with the soil shear strength. Finally
triaxial tests of samples will be performed to determine the soils’ laboratory shear
strength and stiffness. Correlations between the PPMT and the triaxial engineering
3
parameters of the Florida sands will be determined. The steps required in this process
are outlined below.
1.3.1 Literature Review
A full review of the pressuremeter history and test procedure was performed; this
provided the background on the aspects of the pressuremeter being used, as well as prior
methods used for testing of different soil parameters. Additionally, a review of triaxial
testing and the behavior of granular material in shear was conducted to gain an
understanding of the mechanical behaviors exhibited by the soil during testing. Finally a
review of the development of methods for determining soil properties from both the
PPMT and triaxial shear test was presented.
1.3.2 Site Selections
The sites selected for field testing were selected based upon their location, uniformity,
and soil type. The two main sites that were selected contain a loose to medium dense,
poorly graded fine sandy soils (SP).
1.3.3 Laboratory Testing
Laboratory testing was used to measure data in a controlled and reproducible
environment. The soil properties and strengths were determined using the Consolidated
Drained Triaxial test (ASTM D7181). The soil gradation and USCS (Unified Soil
Classification System) classification were determined from ASTM D6913 (soil gradation)
and ASTM D2487 (USCS soil classification). In order to determine relative density a
minimum and maximum density test was performed (ASTM D4253, ASTM D4254). The
optimum moisture content was determined from the standard Proctor test (ASTM D698).
4
1.3.4 Field Testing
The sites selected in task 1.3.2 were used for field testing. A transect was set up at both
sites, with test points every 25ft along the transect. PPMT tests were performed at each
point to gather data over a very contained and uniform sample. A total of 20 test points
were accumulated in the field testing procedures.
1.3.5 Results
Results from the PPMT tests and triaxial tests were compiled into tables to compare the
data from each test. These tables included the site, modulus of elasticity, moisture
content, densities, as well as parameters specific to each type of test.
1.3.6 Analysis
Test data from both laboratory and field tests were reduced to standard and usable
engineering parameters. The data were analyzed using a Excel and R-studio, and multiple
linear regression analyses were performed with the data. Additionally, correlations to
previous methods discussed in literature were examined.
1.3.7 Conclusions and Recommendations
Using the correlations and their corresponding statistical significance, as well as the
theoretical results conclusions were made. Recommendations for further studies were
developed based on the process and findings from this study.
5
2 Literature Review This section seeks to discuss the background, development, uses and interpretation of the
pressuremeter tests and the triaxial tests. Additionally, uses and implications of previous
studies will be examined in this section.
2.1 The Pressuremeter
2.1.1 Pressuremeter Development
Geotechnical engineers have used laboratory test methods to determine the stress-strain
relationships of soils for decades. However, many problems arose from trying to extract,
transport, and test undisturbed samples in the lab. The problems associated with
transporting and testing caused geotechnical researchers to develop in-situ devices in
order to determine the stress-stain relationships of soils. By testing these relationships at
the site, researches figured the least amount of disturbance would be applied to the soil,
with the main disturbance being due to the testing process itself.
The Pressuremeter was initially developed by Kögler in 1933; however, was not
successfully deployed until Louis Ménard in 1956. This device is defined as a “cylindrical
device designed to apply uniform pressure to the walls of a borehole by means of a
flexible membrane” (Mair and Wood, 1987). Ménard’s Pressuremeter used a three cell
system, with all cells being inflated to the same pressure. The cells are rubber membranes
fixed around a metal core, and bound by two metal endplates (Mair and Wood, 1987).
The middle cell was used to take measurements, while the two cells on each side, known
6
as guard cells, were used to reduce end effects. The guard cells make the probe function
as an infinite cylinder, allowing for the assumption of plane strain to be used for analysis
(Baguelin et al, 1978).
Many different types of pressuremeter’s have been developed since Ménard’s initial
Pressuremeter. The tri-celled Pressuremeter was adapted into a mono-cell version. The
two main type of mono-celled Pressuremeter’s are the TEXAM Pressuremeter and the
PENCEL Pressuremeter. The TEXAM is approximately 2.75 inches in diameter by 18 inches
long, while the PENCEL is approximately 1.3 inches in diameter by 9 inches long. Both
Pressuremeters are shown in Figure 2-1.
Figure 2-1: From right to left; Pencel, Ménard, and Texam Pressuremeter types (From RocTest)
7
2.1.2 Pressuremeter Insertion
Results from the Pressuremeter test will vary depending on how the probe is inserted into
the soil. This insertion process will affect the stress-strain characteristics of the soil at the
site. The soil type and relative density should be considered when selecting an insertion
method.
2.1.2.1 Insertion of Pre-bored Pressuremeter
Insertion of a pre-bored Pressuremeter (PBPM) entails lowering the Pressuremeter into a
hole slightly larger than the diameter of the probe (between 1.03DPMT and 1.2DPMT). This
method is the most common for probe insertion. PBPM works best for shallow depth
testing, due to the higher probability of borehole collapse in deeper boreholes. The two
main methods of borehole preparation for the PBPM are either, drilled or pushed thin
wall sampler. Drilled methods include rotary drilling, continuous flight auger, and hand
auguring. These methods are not recommended in granular strata due to the large soil
disturbance associated with drilling. A pushed or driven thin wall sampler is best used in
granular soils. In cohesive soils, the interaction between the soil and the thin walled
sampler may cause large disturbance in the layer. In deep test sites a prepared drillers
mud is recommended to support the borehole wall (Winter 1986).
2.1.2.2 Insertion of the Self-Boring Pressuremeter
The self-boring Pressuremeter (SBPM) has an internal rotary bit leading the
Pressuremeter during insertion. The shavings are flushed with drilling mud up an internal
flushing tube, where they are collected in a settling tank. This method of insertion
requires the most effort and materials and is primarily used when inserting the probe
through cemented layers, or weathered rock (Winter 1986).
8
2.1.2.3 Insertion recommendation chart
The method of insertion of the pressuremeter should be carefully considered, as the
insertion method can alter the overall test results. The following table from (Winter,
1986) can be used as a guide for deciding the insertion method. However, additional
factors, such as the cohesiveness, depth, grain size, aggregate size for road base course,
water table, and permeability are important factors to consider.
Table 2-1 Pressuremeter insertion recommendation table (Winter 1986)
9
2.1.3 Pressuremeter data interpretation
The Pressuremeter test method produces a stress-strain graph, similar to that of many
materials tests. There are three distinctive sections that make up this graph, these are
listed and explained below.
Initial phase: is a re-establishing curve portion at which the membrane becomes into a
full contact with the walls of a borehole (from point A to point B),
Elastic phase: is a straight-line portion during which the change in volumetric-strains of
the membrane are assumed to be constant (from point B to point C),
Plastic phase: is a nonlinear curve portion at which the stressed soil cavity increases
significantly with a little increase in applied pressure (from point C to Point D).
Figure 2-2: Typical Pressuremeter results curve (from Shaban 2016)
10
2.1.3.1 Lift off pressure
To estimate the lift off pressure (Po) is estimated from the curve where the tangent line
from the initial phase intersects the tangent line from the elastic phase on a pre-bored
PMT test, while it is the displacement of the graph above the strain axis on a self-boring
PMT test. The data reduction process is typically done by hand, drawing the two tangent
lines on a scale graph and visually determining this stress point. A hand analysis method is
highly variable, and may be best represented as a range instead of a single point. The lift
off pressure can be approximately related to the in-situ horizontal at rest earth pressure
for pre-bored tests. It is however not practical to predict the horizontal earth pressures
due to the relaxation and disturbance of the surrounding soil during the boring process.
The following figures show the methods of determining the lift off pressure (Mair and
Wood, 1987).
(a): SBPMT Curve (b): PBPMT
Curve Figure 2-3: Determination of lift off pressure for a self-boring and pre-bored pressuremeter (Mair and Wood 1987).
11
2.1.3.2 Initial Elastic Modulus
The straight portion of the curve between the lift off pressure and the plastic zone (figure
2-2 section BC) is the soils elastic response region of the sample. Soil is considered elastic
in this region due to the straight line nature of this curve. Lamè (1852) proposed that the
radial expansion of a cylindrical cavity in an infinite elastic medium is shown with the
following equation:
G = Vm (∆P
∆V) (2-1)
where:
G : Elastic shear modulus Vm : Mean volume of the cylindrical cavity ∆V : Change in volume over the corresponding change in pressure, ∆P
The shear modulus is found in the initial elastic portion of the pressuremeter curve, which
makes it prone to influence from soil disturbance (Baguelin, 1978). To account for the
influence of soil disturbance, an unload reload cycle is preformed to determine the reload
modulus; these cycles are shown in Figure 2-4. The entire portion of the unload-reload
cycle could be used to determine the shear modulus; however a single section over the
anticipated strain region can be used to get a more precise modulus.
12
The initial elastic modulus can be related to the shear modulus by using Possion’s ratio
(𝜈). This relationship is as follows:
G =E
2(1 + 𝜈) (2-2)
Therefore, Young’s elastic modulus can be directly measured by substituting Equation (2-
2) in Equation (2-3) as given below:
E = 2(1 + 𝜈)Vm (∆P
∆V) (2-3)
Possion’s ratio is often assumed to be 0.3 in non-saturated soil, 0.4 in mostly saturated
soil, and 0.5 in fully saturated soil.
Figure 2-4: PMT unload-reload cycle (From Shaban 2016)
13
In many cases, however, it is not practical to plot PMT data using volumetric expansion
(∆V), instead radial strain should be used. Radial strain is used instead, because of the
differences in probe volumes can cause inconsistent results between different
apparatuses. Instead, Briaud (1986) suggests that the strain be represented in radial
strain units (εr). The conversion between volumetric strain and radial strain can be easily
made, when using the assumption that the fluid being used in the pressuremeter is
homogenous and incompressible. A change in volume, converted to a change in radius
(∆R) can then be inserted into the following equation to determine the radial strain.
εr = 2πRf − 2πRo
2πRo=
Rf − Ro
Ro=
∆R
Ro (2-4)
where:
Ro : Initial cavity radius
R𝑓: Final cavity radius
ΔR: Change in radius
Using this radial strain, the equation for the area of a circle, and the assumption the
probe expands with a uniform circular cross section, Equation 2-4 can be combined with
Equation 2-3 to determine the incremental Young’s modulus of elasticity in terms of the
radial strain. This is shown in Equation 2-5 below.
14
E = (1 + 𝜈)(𝑃2 − 𝑃1)[(1 +
ΔR2
𝑅𝑜)
2
+ (1 +Δ𝑅1
𝑅𝑜)
2
]
[(1 +ΔR2
𝑅𝑜)
2
− (1 +Δ𝑅1
𝑅𝑜)
2
]
(2-5)
where:
Ro : Initial cavity radius
υ : Poisson’s ratio
P1 : Cavity radial stress at the beginning of the pressure increment
P2 : Cavity radial stress at the end of the pressure increment
ΔR1: Increase in probe radius at the beginning of the pressure increment
ΔR2: Increase in probe radius at the end of the pressure increment
This initial modulus is ideally uniform through the initial elastic phase of the stress vs
strain plot. However, there is typically variation between adjacent data points, therefore a
large segment of the elastic portion of the curve is usually used in order to decrease any
noise in the data.
2.1.3.3 Limit Pressure
The limit is defined as the pressure reached for the infinite expansion of the cylinder
(Briaud, 1986). This is the point where no additional pressure is needed to be applied to
continue to apply strain to the soil. The limit pressure (Pl) typically cannot be reached in
the normal testing procedure, due to the large strain that is applied. Baguelin (1978)
defined the limit pressure as the point where the cavity is twice the initial size (Vf=2Vo).
There are many different ways to extrapolate the data to reach the limit pressure, many
of these methods were developed by Baguelin (1978), however the most reliable is to
15
extrapolate the data by hand (Briaud 1986). The limit pressure is shown in Figure 2-2 at
point D.
Although disturbance caused by the borehole can have a large effect, up to 20%, on Po
and E, the limit pressure is typically not influenced from borehole disturbance, due to the
large applied strains in the determination of the limit pressure (Briaud 1986). Soil at radial
distances up to 1.6Ro can be remolded into a disturbed annulus without affecting the limit
pressure (Baguelin, 1978). It should however be noted, that the disturbance should be
minimized in order to provide accurate data.
2.1.4 Variations of strain-controlled PMT Tests
The Pressuremeter is a device that lends itself to testing sites in multiple ways, ranging
from a single load/unload test to an in depth cyclical and creep test. These will be
discussed with their uses and interpretations. The tri-celled probes use stress controlled
procedures, while mono-cell probes use strain controlled procedures. This study will focus
on the mono-cell, strain controlled tests.
2.1.4.1 Load/unload test
The load-unload strain controlled sequence test is the quickest strain controlled test in
pressuremeter testing. Once the borehole is created, and pressuremeter inserted, the
volume is increased using equal incremental volumes until the probe’s maximum volume
is reached. Each incremental reading is recorded after the pressure in the probe stabilizes.
Once the maximum volume is reached, the volume is reduced using equal volume
increments.
16
The load/unload test will provide a lift off pressure (Po), initial elastic modulus (Ei), limit
pressure (Pl), as well as a rough value of a reload modulus (Er). A typical data graph of this
test is shown in Figure 2-5.
Figure 2-5 Typical Load/Unload PMT test data
2.1.4.2 Unload-reload loop
The pressuremeter test with an intermittent unload reload loop is another type of strain
controlled PMT test. Briaud (1986) added the single unload reload cycle to improve the
PMT test for pavement testing. The probe is inflated to a pressure “P” then incrementally
deflated to “0.5P”. The probe is then gradually re-inflated and the test continues to its
limit pressure, or max volume, whichever occurs first. By initiating the unload/reload
loop, the entire curve was able to be graphed, as well as provided more reliable data. This
test was shown in Figure 2-4.
17
2.1.5 Pressuremeter Theories
2.1.5.1 Plane Strain Assumption
All pressuremeter theories base many of the assumption that the pressuremeter expands
in the bounds of plane strain conditions. Holtz and Kovacs( 1981), say that plane strain
conditions occur when one dimension is significantly longer than the other relative
dimensions. By having one dimension significantly longer, it allows this axis to be called
infinite, and analysis can be done in only one direction. The plane strain assumption with
the pressuremeter relies on an infinitely long cylinder expanding in only the radial
direction. End effects can play a large role in changing the assumption of an infinite
cylinder. Figure 2-9 below shows a PPMT probe as slightly egg shaped when inflated in
the air. However, Murat and Lemoigne (1988)show that the PPMT probe becomes much
more cylindrical when it is inflated in a confined environment.
Figure 2-6 Inflated probe shapes in an unconfined environment vs in a confined environment (from Murat and
Lemoigne 1988)
18
2.1.5.2 Shape Effects of PMT Probe
The shape of the pressuremeter probe plays a large role in determining the quality and
reliability of data. The ratio of length to diameter is known as the slenderness ratio or the
L/D ratio. This ratio is important in monocell probes to be able to use the assumption of
an infinite cylinder. This dimension is not as important with tri-cell probes, because the
guard cells reduce the end effects that are present on monocell devices.
Hartman (1974) shows that the maximum error in soil modulus will occur when the L/D
ratio is equal to 1, or the probe is spherical. This error is shown to be 33% larger than the
actual soil modulus. Current probes have an L/D ratio much greater than 1, meaning the
error in soil modulus is much less than the 33% found in spherical probes. An L/D ratio of
greater than 6.5 will yield an error of less than 5% for soil modulus, and in many cases can
be neglected (Briaud, 1986). Even though the modulus has little change with the L/D
ratio, the limit pressure is more greatly influenced by a change in slenderness. Laier
(1973) found that a decrease in the L/D ratio by a factor of two increased the Pl by a factor
of 1.28. This can lead to errors in the Pl of 10% to 15% between different types of probes,
under the same test conditions.
2.2 Triaxial Testing Triaxial testing is to be performed to determine the laboratory properties of the soils
being examined in this study.
2.2.1 Apparatus
The triaxial apparatus consists of four main components, a motor controlled load frame, a
triaxial cell, triaxial panel, and a data acquisition unit. A thorough understanding of each is
critical for the operator.
19
2.2.1.1 Load frame
A variable speed motor is attached to the load frame so a variable load rate from 0.0001
inches per minute to 0.2 inch per minute can be used during testing. This range allowed
for a large range in the strain rate to be applied to the samples.
Figure 2-7 Durham Geo Load frame
20
2.2.1.2 Triaxial Cell
The triaxial cell, from Durham Geo Slope Indicator Inc., can be used to test samples from
1.3” in diameter to 4.2” in diameter; as well as samples up to 9” in height.
2.2.1.3 Data Acquisition Unit
The Humboldt Data acquisition unit ® is calibrated with 1000 lbs, 5000 lbs, and 10,000 lbs
load cells. This system allows for tests to be performed with greater accuracy, depending
on the total load applied to the sample. In addition, the data acquisition unit includes a
displacement transducer with an accuracy of 0.0001 inches.
Figure 2-8 Durham Geo triaxial cell
21
2.2.1.4 Triaxial Panel
The triaxial panel is used to measure the cell pressure and volume changes in the sample.
Pressure regulators in the panel allow for pressure control to 0.1 psi, and volume
increments of 0.1 ml.
Figure 2-9 Humboldt data aquisition unit
22
Figure 2-10 Triaxial control panel
2.2.2 Test Description
The triaxial test can be performed under a variety of load, sample, and drainage
conditions. These features allow for a variety of types of tests to be conducted, allowing
for a broad spectrum of data to be collected. Tests of undisturbed samples can be
performed by extruding the sample from a Shelby tube directly into the sample
membrane. However, many times samples are remolded into the sample membrane.
Remolding of samples allows for tests to be performed at a wide variety of densities. The
three main types of triaxial tests are; Consolidated Drained (CD), Consolidated Undrained
23
(CU), and Unconsolidated Undrained (UU). These tests are discussed in the following
sections.
2.2.2.1 Consolidated Drained (CD)
During Consolidated Drained (CD) test, or ‘S’ test, the soil is consolidated prior to shearing
by opening the drainage valve to the specimen (figure 2-11), and applying a hydrostatic
confining pressure to the soil. This hydrostatic pressure is equal in all directions,
producing isotropic consolidation (Holts and Kovacs, 1981). Consolidation occurs until
volume change in the sample has stopped. The drainage lines remain open during shear
testing to allow for volume change to occur. The load which applies the normal stress
during shear must be applied slowly and the loading rate is based on the permeability of
the sample, in order to prevent pore pressures from building.
Since drainage is permitted during shearing the effective stress (σ’) is equal to the total
stress (σtotal). When effective stress equals total stress the Mohr’s circle analysis is
simplified. If these two stress’ are not equal, then the total stress circle is shifted by the
value of pore water pressure shown in Figure 2-13b.
2.2.2.1.1 Behavior of Sands during CD tests
The CD test allows for volume change to occur during shear, making the initial void ratio
of the sample important (Holtz and Kovacs, 1981). A sample with a high void ratio is
‘loose’ while a sample with a lower void ratio is ‘dense’. Additionally, the sample must be
fully saturated to observe volume change during shear. The volume change is measured
using a burette attached to the sample. When a loose sand is sheared, the void ratio will
decrease from the initial loose void ratio, down to a constant, characteristic, void ratio
24
(Holtz and Kovacs,1981). This characteristic void ratio is known as the critical void ratio, it
is the “ultimate void ratio at which continuous deformation occurs with no change in the
principle stress difference (σ1-σ3)” (Casagrande, 1936). Dense sands display the opposite
affect. The volume of dense sands will decrease slightly during shear, then the volume will
increase as the sample dilates until its critical void ratio is reached (Holtz and Kovacs,
1981). The ultimate values of the deviatoric stresses (σ1-σ3) should be the same for both
loose and dense sands (Hirschfeld, 1963). Volume change vs. strain graphs can be used to
determine the angle of dilation (Ψ). This angle can be used to determine the liquefaction
potential of sands, as well as losses of strength in sands (Holtz and Kovacs, 1981). These
trends are shown in figure 2-14.
Figure 2-11 Idealized relation for dilation angle, Ψ, from triaxial results
25
2.2.2.2 Consolidated Undrained
The Consolidated Undrained (CU) test, also known as the ‘R’ test, requires the same initial
set up as the CD test. Once the sample is prepared and saturated, the drainage valve is
opened, and a hydrostatic confining pressure is applied to the sample to consolidate it.
Once volume change stops, the drainage valve is closed. When drainage is not allowed, no
volume change can occur during shear. In the CU test the pore water pressure is typically
measured, allowing the effective stress to be calculated. This test may be either a total or
effective stress test (Holtz and Kovacs, 1981). Because both total and effective stresses
are determined, this is the most common triaxial test performed. Testing labs also prefer
this test because the load can be applied at a more rapid rate, since drainage is not
allowed during shearing.
2.2.2.2.1 Behavior of Sands in CU tests
By preventing volume change and the tendency of soil in shearing to change volume,
other than when initially set to critical conditions, will cause either a positive or negative
pore water pressure to develop (Holtz and Kovacs, 1981). In a Mohr’s circle analysis of a
CU test, the pore pressure will shift the total stress circle along the sigma axis. The pore
pressure shift is shown in Figure 2-13b below. Both circles have the same diameter,
because total deviator stress is equal to effective deviator stress. Even though the
deviator stress remains constant, the shift along the sigma access significantly changes
the friction angle (Holtz and Kovacs, 1981).
26
2.2.3 Test Data
The triaxial shear test will produce multiple types of data for analysis. These are all
determined from data reduction methods. The modulus of elasticity (E), Mohr’s circle and
failure envelope, friction and failure angle, and the angle of dilation can be determined
from the triaxial test.
2.2.3.1 Modulus of Elasticity
The Modulus of Elasticity can be determined as either strain based or volume based.
Strain based moduli, known as deformation modulus, is calculated from load and
displacement. This is shown in Equation 2-6.
𝐸 =𝜎
𝜖 (2-6)
where:
E : Deformation elastic modulus σ: Applied deviatoric stress 𝜀 : Measured Strain
Additionally, in triaxial tests where the change in volume is measured, the shear modulus
(G) can be determined. The shear modulus relates the applied stress to the volumetric
strain of the sample. This is shown in Equation 2-7.
27
G = ∆P
(∆V𝑉0
) (2-7)
where:
G : Elastic shear modulus V0 : Initial Volume of sample in test ∆V : Change in volume over the corresponding change in pressure, ∆P
2.2.3.2 Mohr’s Circle
The data from the triaxial tests can be used to construct Mohr’s circles. The Mohr’s circle
analysis can be used to determine the shear and normal forces at any plane in a sample.
In addition, the friction angle, and failure angle can be determined graphically from this
analysis. The circle is constructed using two points. The first point is the confining stress
applied to the sample, while the second point is the sum of the confining stress and the
deviator stress. These two points are the principle stresses, and represent the points of
zero shear in the sample. Examples of Mohr Circle’s for CD, and CU tests are shown in the
figures below.
28
Figure 2-13a: Typical Mohr's Circle for CD triaxial data (From Holtz and Kovacs 1981)
Figure 2-13b: Typical Mohr's Circle for CU triaxial data (From Holtz and Kovacs 1981)
29
2.2.3.3 Angle of Internal Friction
The angle of internal friction can be found from the Mohr’s circle analysis above. It can be
determined by drawing a line from the origin to a tangent point on the Mohr’s circle. All
granular soils will have a cohesion of nearly zero, as well as normally consolidated clays
(Holtz and Kovacs, 1981). However, over consolidated clays will have a cohesion value due
the preconsolidation hump. This angle can be measured directly from the plot, or can be
calculated through trigonometric relations. It is however, easiest to measure directly from
the plot. The angle of internal friction will intersect with the failure angle at the same
tangent point on the circle. The failure angle (α) can be calculated as:
𝛼 = 45° +𝛷
2
(2-8)
The failure relationship can be derived from the obliquity relationships, where the
inclination of the Mohr failure envelope is at its maximum (Holtz and Kovacs, 1981).
In addition to using the Mohr’s circle approach from triaxial testing, the friction angle can
be determined from a direct shear test. The direct shear test will yield a shear and normal
force at failure. These two values can be used to determine the friction angle
geometrically.
𝛷 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1(𝜏
𝜎) (2-9)
where:
Φ : Friction angle τ: Shear stress at failure σ : Applied stress at failure
The relationship is only applicable to granular soil, where the cohesion of the soil can be
assumed to be zero. If there is cohesive material, multiple trials must be conducted, and
30
the cohesion can be determined from the intercept with the shear axis. Additionally, the
friction angle can be determined from each test using a trigonometric relationship, using
the confining stress and the maximum applied stress of the test. This relationship is
shown in Equation 2-10:
𝛷 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1(𝜎1 − 𝜎3
𝜎1 + 𝜎3) (2-10)
where:
Φ : Friction angle σ1: Applied stress at failure σ3 : Applied confining stress at failure
The benefit of this form of the equation is a direct calculation from triaxial data. This
allows for more data points be found for each set of tests, one phi value per confining
stress. The use of the Mohr’s Circle and the listed geometric relationships can provide the
majority of engineering data for a given soil.
2.3 Methods of determining the at rest earth pressure
2.3.1 Jaky Determination, 1944
In 1944 Dr. Josef Jaky derived a theoretical equation for determining the coefficient of
earth pressure at rest. His method used an infinatly long prismatic soil section with side
slopes at the natural angle of repose, which Jaky assumed to be equal to the angle of
internal friction (phi). Jaky then used a series of differential equations to determine a
mathematical relationship between the angle of internal friction and the at rest earth
pressures.
31
Jaky’s initial solution to the differential equation’s simplified into what is shown in
Equation 2-11. However for Φ values between 20 and 45 degrees, the second portion of
Equation 2-11 simplifies to 0.9. Since most soils have Φ values withing 20 to 45 degrees,
Jaky simplified the equation to what is shown in Equation 2-12.
𝐾𝑜 = (1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛷) (1 +
23
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛷
1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛷) (2-11)
where:
Φ : Friction angle Ko: At rest earth pressure coefficient
The final equation was then simplified to:
𝐾𝑜 = 0.9(1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛷) (2-12)
In a follow up paper in 1948, Jaky drops the 0.9 from the equation leaving the equation
that is currently used by many engineering texts.
2.3.2 Laboratory Methods
2.3.2.1 Triaxial
The Ko value can be determined multiple ways with the triaxial test data. The simplest and
quickest way to determine the at rest pressure coefficient is to use a Mohr’s circle
analysis to determine the phi angle, and then the angle can be plugged into one of the
equations derived by Jaky.
A more complex approach to find Ko is to determine the horizontal and vertical pressures
during shear with no volume change. By not allowing volume change in the sample the
stresses are characteristic of the at rest condition. The confining stress must be adjusted
32
during axial loading so no compression or dilation occurs. When the horizontal pressure is
adjusted with the vertical pressure, Terzaghi’s assumptions of σh/σv can be directly
measured.
2.3.2.2 Soft Oedometer Ring
The Soft Oedometer Ring (SOR) is a laboratory test apparatus used to obtain the
engineering parameters of soils (Kolymbas, 1993). The SOR consists of a load frame, strain
and load gauges, and an extensible metal ring. By using the SOR, the problems with non-
homogeneous deformations found within triaxial testing are greatly reduced, due to the
shallow depth of the ring (0.75”-1.5”). By keeping the depth of the ring small, load is
transferred equally throughout the soil structure, as well as the skin friction between the
ring and soil sample is reduced. The SOR is shown in Figure 2-14 below. The SOR test
method can work efficiently to determine the Ko value of a soil, because it measures
horizontal and axial strain directly. There is no need to use correlations and equations to
determine the at rest condition. However, to avoid failing the soil into an active condition
the test must occur far below the stress limits (Kolymbas, 1993).
Figure 2-14: Soft Oedometer Ring (Kolymbas, 1993)
33
2.3.3 In-Situ tests
2.3.3.1 Standard Penetration Test
The Standard Penetration Test (SPT) is an in-situ test which requires a 140 lbs hammer to
be dropped from a height of 30 inches to drive a sampler tube through a soil stratum. The
number of blows required to drive the sampler head 12 inches into a soil layer is reported
as the ‘N’ value as blows per foot. There is no strong method for determining the Ko value
from the SPT. However, DeMello (1971) produced an empirical correlation between the
Φ’ value of an uncemented sand in triaxial compression and the N value from SPT tests.
This Φ’ can then be used in the Jaky (1941) equation to determine a reasonable Ko value.
The chart from DeMello (1971) is shown in Figure 2-15 below.
Figure 2-15: Correlation between the SPT N values, normalized effective overburden, and the triaxial compression phi value (DeMello, 1971)
34
2.3.3.2 Cone Penetration Testing
The Cone Penetration Test (CPT) was developed in the 1950’s and is under constant
improvement, from a mechanically driven analogue device to the current hydraulically
pushed digital version (Schmertmann, 1978). The latest CPT cone is an electric device that
is instrumented to record the cone resistance (qc) and the side friction (fsc) as it is
hydraulically pushed through the soil. An empirical correlation similar to the SPT
correlation was determined by Robertson and Campanella (1983). Their correlation uses
the value of qc, as well as the effective stress in order to make a correlation to a Φ’ value
from a triaxial compression test. This chart is shown in the figure below. Once the Φ’
value is determined from the Robertson correlation, this value may be used in the Jaky
(1944) equation to determine the Ko value.
35
Figure 2-16: Correlation between CPT data and the effective phi angle in sand soils (Robertson and Campanella, 1983)
2.3.3.3 Pressuremeter
Lift off pressure is the existing or in-situ horizontal pressures. The most common
pressuremeter method of determining the at rest earth pressure is to use the lift off
pressure. This method however is highly variable to the quality and type of the borehole.
Different boring methods produce different amount of borehole disturbance, causing
variability in the lift-off pressure. To reduce the amount of disturbance, a self-boring
pressuremeter can be used to determine more accurate lift-off pressures.
36
Another method, called the strain slope method, uses the slope of the log-log stress strain
diagram to correlate an angle of internal friction. By using the slopes of the elastic portion
of the stress strain diagram, and assuming a critical value phi angle (between 30 and 35
degree’s for sands), the chart shown in Figure 2-17 can be used to determine an angle of
internal friction. By using the angle determined from the chart, the at-rest earth pressure
coefficient can be determined from the Jaky (1944) method. The strain slope method was
developed by (Mair and Wood, 1987); however this method is most reliable with a self-
boring pressuremeter. This method can be used with pre-bored and pre-driven
pressuremeters, however the larger the disturbance of the soil, the less reliable the
results will be. This method still assumes a value needed to determine the angle of
internal friction, making this method subject to borehole disturbance as well as
assumptions based on the soil type.
37
Figure 2-17: Chart developed by Mair and Wood (1987) to determine the phi value using stress strain slope.
38
3 Description of Test Sites
3.1 Test Site Locations Two test sites were used on the campus of the Florida Institute of Technology (FIT) in
Brevard County, FL. The first site was located east of Country Club Rd in the remaining
undeveloped lot, and the second site North of East University Blvd and East of SR 507
(Babcock St.) in the current Southgate intramural fields. The site locations are shown in
Figure 3-1 below. These two sites contained a stratum, greater than 5 feet, of a poorly
graded sand material, with similar densities throughout the sites, and varied densities.
These two sites were chosen due to their accessibility for testing, the range of densities
found at the site, and thin layer of vegetation.
39
Figure 3-1: General location of testing sites on the FIT campus shown by stars.
3.1.1 Florida Tech Overflow lot
The first site tested was at the grass overflow lot on the southwest corner of the Olin
Complex on the FIT campus (Figure 3-2). A 250 ft transect was measured to allow for
reproducible tests (Figure 3-2). An overflow lot was selected due to previous compaction
from vehicular traffic; slightly increasing densities of the top strata at this site. There is
very little variation in the soil gradation across the site, which will cause the moisture
40
density, and minimum and maximum densities to be similar across the soil (Holtz and
Kovacs, 1981). The moisture contents of the soil at this location varied from 11% to 21%,
this variation was due to water table flow direction, and grass cover holding moisture in
some area’s while exposed sand in other areas.
Figure 3-2: Arial overview of the overflow test site. The transect on which tests were performed is shown by the yellow line.
3.1.2 Southgate Field
The second site test was the southgate field, located at the corner of Babcock st. and
University Blvd. Similar to the first testing location, this is a grass covered field located on
the FIT campus (Figure 3-3). The major difference is that the southgate field does not
41
experience vehicle traffic on its surface, making the density at this site lower than at the
overflow lot site. The soil present at this site is a poorly graded sand soil (SP) with a
gradation similar across the length of the test site. The moisture content in this location
ranged from 10% to 30%. This large variation was due to rainstorms between testing
days.
Figure 3-3: Southgate field test site. The transect tested is shown by the yellow line.
42
4 Test Methods The tests methods were separated between in-situ and laboratory tests. The testing
procedures for each method are described here.
4.1 In-Situ tests
4.1.1 PPMT
The PPMT test is comprised of three different parts: saturation, calibration, and testing.
The basic procedure involves calibrating the pressuremeter unit, preparing the test site
and borehole, and conducting the test. The test involves water being forced through
tubing into a probe using a crank handle and piston housed in box called the control unit.
4.1.1.1 Control Unit
The PPMT control unit used to perform the tests, has been instrumented with digital
sensors that are an upgrade, developed by Cosentino et al (2006) to improve the accuracy
of the results. These digital instruments are used to measure and record the pressure and
volume during testing, as shown in Figure 4-1. These items, as well as the standard
measurement items, are housed in a plastic case.
43
The linear string potentiometer and pressure transducer, which yield volume change and
pressure respectively, were added to digitally and accurately record the applied volume
and corresponding pressure. These instruments are connected to a data port, where the
outputs can be viewed with a computer. The instrumentation process can be found in
Cosentino et al (2006) (PP. 54-57). In addition to the digital instruments, the following
components are contained in the pressuremeter control unit.
A 138 cm3 screw piston
A 2500 kPa dial pressure gauge
A volume indicator
Several valves and tubing
4.1.1.2 Automated Pressuremeter Software
The digital instrumentation added to the pressuremeter needed to be read by a software
package. The calibrated digital outputs from the pressure transducer and the
Figure 4-1 Pressuremeter control unit with added digital instrumentation (From Shaban, 2016)
44
potentiometer were inputted into a Labview ® based software package called The
Automated Pressuremeter Software (APMT) (Cosentino et al, 2006). By using a Labview ®
based software, an easy to use graphical user interface (GUI), shown in Figure 4-2, was
developed.
The APMT software records the data from the calibration processes, test and site
parameters, and field test data. These inputs are then reduced in the program to produce
a final data curve. The raw data is shown in Figure 4-2 as the red line, the reduced data is
shown in blue. Data is then outputted in a comma separated value (CSV), for use in other
data management programs.
Figure 4-2 Screenshot of the APMT user interface and data reduction
45
4.1.1.3 PPMT Calibration
The PPMT calibration process consists of three main steps: saturation, membrane
calibration, and volume calibration. These steps are necessary to ensure the PMT is
properly operating and for proper data reduction.
4.1.1.3.1 Saturation
The entire PPMT system must contain no air voids, the saturation process is intended to
ensure no air voids are present during testing. The cylinder is filled and emptied multiple
times with de-aired water. While the cylinder is still connected to the de-aired water
source, the tubing and probe are inflated using the de-aired water. The tubing and probe
are lightly agitated to pass any air bubbles to the valve at the end of the probe. De-aired
water is pushed through this valve to remove the air bubbles. This inflation and agitation
process is repeated until no air bubbles can be detected in the system. The probe is then
deflated and the PMT control unit is disconnected from the de-aired water source. A full
description of the saturation process is given in ASTM 4719-07.
4.1.1.3.2 Membrane Calibration The membrane calibration is used to measure the pressure exerted by the flexible
membrane at any given volume. The membrane calibration is performed using the APMT
program. With the probe placed at the same elevation as the control unit, and the
membrane able to expand unobstructed, the probe is expanded in 5 cm3 increments.
Pressure readings are recorded from the APMT software at every volume increment.
Readings should be taken for the entire range of the predicted test volume, 95 cm3 is
typically a sufficient volume for this calibration. A typical membrane resistance curve is
shown in Figure 4-3
46
Figure 4-3 Typical membrane calibration curve for PPMT tests
4.1.1.3.3 Volume Calibration The last step in the calibration process is a volume calibration. The volume calibration
yields the change in the system volume during testing. As pressure increases during
testing the tubing, piston, and other components of the system can expand; this
expansion is accounted for with the volume calibration. The probe is fitted into a rigid
metal sleeve, and the volume is incrementally increased at a rate of 5 cm3 until full
contact is made with the metal sleeve. Once full contact has been made (see Figure 4-4),
pressure is incrementally increased at a rate of 500 kPa until 2500 kPa is reached. For data
reduction, the point where full contact is made (usually a sharp increase in pressure), is
set to the origin and then represents the volume change in the system.
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95
Pre
ssu
re (
kPa)
Volume (cm3)
47
Figure 4-4 Typical volume calibration curve from a PPMT test
4.1.1.4 PPMT Field Test
The PPMT field test procedure follows, in general, the procedures presented in the ASTM
D4719-07 using the equal volume method. Slight variations were made between the
ASTM method, in particular in the borehole creation, and the volume increments used.
1) Place control unit at desired test location, and attach probe and computer to the
control unit.
2) Secure the borehole driving guide (Figure 4-5) to the location using soil nails, or
equivalent method to prevent shifting of the guide during the boring process.
3) Drive thin walled boring tube (outside diameter 1.3”) through the guide sleeve
using a 5 pound sledge hammer, taking care to remove and empty the sampler
periodically throughout the boring process. By emptying the sampler, the chances
of soil plugging the tube reduces.
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Pre
ssu
re (
kPa)
Volume (cm3)
Full contact made
with calibration
sleeve
48
4) Collect a moisture content sample from the base of the bore hole.
5) Slide the PPMT probe into the hole immediately after the boring is complete to
reduce the chances of the borehole caving in.
6) Using the APMT software, select the appropriate calibration data files to associate
with the test. Input the general test data required (date, location, borehole
number, control unit height, and test depth).
7) Select ‘run Automated PMT test’ from APMT software menu. Then increase the
volume in the probe by 5 cm3, selecting ‘take reading’ on APMT screen after each
increase in volume. Repeat this step until the limit equilibrium (Pl) is reached or
the unit hits its maximum volume.
8) Reduce the volume 2 cm3 per increment, selecting ‘take measurement’ after each
increment until a volume of 0.75 x Vmax is reached for the rebound slope.
9) Select ‘Save test’ from APMT test screen to complete the test.
49
Figure 4-5 Borehole driving guide, with thin wall driving tube (From Shaban 2016)
4.2 Laboratory Tests
Laboratory tests were used to classify and determine soil properties, including USCS soil
classification methods, grain size analyses , moisture density relationships, minimum and
maximum densities, and consolidated drained triaxial tests. Each test procedure will be
briefly discussed, along with deviations from the corresponding ASTM methodology.
4.2.1.1 Unified Soil Classification (ASTM D2487)
Soil at each site was classified using the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS). The
procedure for the USCS classification follows the flow chart in the ASTM D2487
procedure.
50
4.2.1.2 Grain Size Analysis (ASTM D6913)
The grain size analysis was performed to compare the soil gradation at each test site.
Samples were taken from each site, dried, and organic material removed for each. The
grain size analysis was performed according to ASTM D6913.
4.2.1.3 Standard Proctor (ASTM D698)
A standard proctor test was performed on the soil samples received from the field. This
test allowed the optimum compaction moisture to be determined for the relative density
testing.
4.2.1.4 Relative Density (ASTM D4253, D4254) The minimum and maximum density was determined to compare data on a percentile
scale. Using both dry and optimum moisture conditions, the maximum and minimum
density was determined.
4.2.1.5 Consolidated Drained Triaxial (ASTM D7181) Mechanical properties of the soil were determined by using a consolidated drained (CD)
triaxial test. The test was run in accordance with ASTM D7181, the method of sample
compaction is not specified in ASTM D7181; the method used for compaction is given
below.
1) Calculate the total mass of soil needed for a set value of dimensions (1.4” x 2.8”)
2) Define three equal lift heights and separate the total mass of soil into three equal
parts.
3) Using gentle tamping and vibration, compact each lift in the mold until the final
height for each lift is met.
4) After seating the top cap onto the sample, verify the final height and diameter.
51
5 Results and Correlations
5.1 Soil Properties Results Laboratory classification, moisture density, and relative density of the soil were
performed to properly classify the soil, and allow for the soil to be grouped into
appropriate categories for correlations. Results of these tests are given in the following
sections.
5.1.1 Grain Size
All soils in this study were found to be poorly graded sand (SP) according to the Unified
Soils Classification System (USCS). The grain size analyses are shown in Figure 5-1. The
research and testing were performed on SP type soils, results and correlations were made
only on data from SP soils. The average coefficient of uniformity (Cu) is 2.5 and the
average coefficient of curvature (Cc) is 1.3. The low Cu value (Cu< 6) show a uniformly
graded soil, and a Cc value between 1 and 3 shows the soil is not gap graded. These shape
parameters show that uniformity is the reason the sand is poorly graded, not gap graded.
52
Figure 5-1 Grain size distributions for test sites in FIT campus
5.1.2 Optimum Moisture
Standard proctor tests (ASTM D698) were performed on soil from the overflow lot test
site to determine the optimum compaction moisture of the soil. This moisture content
would then be used to determine the compaction water content for the maximum
relative density test. The results of the standard proctor tests are shown in Figure 5-2. The
maximum wet proctor density is 126 pcf when compacted at 12% moisture content,
producing to a 113 pcf dry density. The shape of the moisture density curve shows a steep
drop off in density when the soil is compacted dry of optimum, while a smaller loss of
density is experienced when the soil is compacted wet of optimum. Therefore the relative
density test should be performed at optimum moisture density, however deviations
should err to wet of optimum.
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
0.010.1110
Pe
rce
nt
fin
er
Sieve Size (mm)
Grain size distribution FIT campus
Overflow lot North
Overflow lot Center
Overflow lot South
Southgate Field
# 4 #40 #100
53
Table 5-1 Summary of moisture density results from mixed samples
Trial MC Wet
Density Dry
density
% pcf pcf
1 7% 117 109
2 8% 122 112
3 12% 126 113
4 16% 125 108
5 21% 122 101
Figure 5-2 Standard Proctor moisture density data from a mixed sample, optimum moisture content was determined to be 12%
5.1.3 Relative Density
The minimum and maximum relative densities were determined in order to determine
the consistency of the soil tested. The soil from the test site, as well as in the triaxial tests
ranged from loose to medium dense (20% to 65% relative density). The relative density is
important to consider, because the behavior of sands change as the relative density
increases. Additionally, the PPMT soil strengths corresponded with loose to medium
dense, as defined by Briaud (1986).
110
112
114
116
118
120
122
124
126
128
0.0% 5.0% 10.0% 15.0% 20.0% 25.0%
We
t D
en
sity
(p
cf)
Moisture Content
Standard Proctor Results
54
5.1.3.1 Maximum Density
To determine the range of densities to perform triaxial tests, minimum and maximum
relative density tests (ASTM D4253/4253) were performed. The test was performed at
both oven dry conditions and near optimum moisture content. A maximum density of 137
pcf was determined with a moisture content of 14%. The water content is very close to
the 12% determined from the standard proctor test. Additional compaction effort will
result in greater density at a greater moisture content (Holtz and Kovacs, 1981). A
summary of the maximum density tests are shown in table 5-2 below.
Table 5-2 Summary of maximum density tests
Sample W.C Wet Density Dry Density
% pcf pcf
1 0% -- 102
2 0% -- 103
3 0% -- 104
4 11% 122 110
5 14% 137 120
6 13% 135 119
7 13% 136 120
5.1.3.2 Minimum Density
In order to determine the relative density of the samples the minimum relative density
was determined. Minimum relative density tests are performed at oven dry conditions, as
per ASTM D4254. A summary of the minimum density tests are shown in Table 5-3 below.
55
Table 5-3 Summary of minimum density tests
Mold Weight
Mold Volume
Total Weight
Soil Weight
Density
lbs ft3 lbs lbs lbs/ft3
9.63 0.033 12.47 2.84 85.2
9.63 0.033 12.48 2.85 85.5
5.2 Triaxial Results Consolidated drained (CD) triaxial tests were performed on the SP samples from the FIT
test sites. Confining stresses of 5 psi, 10 psi, and 15 psi were chosen for testing to allow
for better quality data to be collected. Tests at low confining stress (less than 3 psi) often
have too much noise in the data to allow for accurate data analysis. The raw data was
recorded using the Humbolt Data Acquisition software and reduced using Microsoft Excel.
The initial modulus (from Equation 2-6), and the normal stress at 5% strain were
determined. The normal stress at 5% strain was chosen as the deviator stress because this
value corresponded best to the maximum applied normal stress. While in a few cases
larger applied stress’ at different strains were found, the stress at 5% was always within
one psi of maximum normal stress. A typical triaxial stress strain plot is shown Figure 5-3.
To develop the Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope the normal stress at 5% strain was set as
the deviator stress (σ1- σ3); confining stress was set as the minor principle stress (σ3). The
shear stress was determined by using half the deviator stress at 5% strain. The major
principle stress (σ1) was determined by adding the deviator stress to the confining stress.
A typical Mohr’s circle and failure envelope is shown in Figure 2-13. The angle of internal
friction was determined by using Equation 2-10. The results of the 21 triaxial tests are
summarized in Table 5-4 below.
56
Figure 5-3 Typical Triaxial stress-strain plot
Table 5-4 Summary of triaxial test results
Sample Density Confining Pressure
Initial Moduli
Deviator Stress (5% ε)
Friction Angle
Shear Stress (5% ε)
pcf psi psi psi deg psi
1 100 5 1306 18.3 40.3 9.2
2 100 10 1760 35.3 39.7 17.7
3 100 15 2674 45.4 37.0 22.7
4 100 5 1257 15.5 37.4 7.8
5 100 10 2455 32.4 38.2 16.2
6 100 15 2625 50.8 39.0 25.4
7 100 5 1040 16.8 38.8 8.4
8 100 10 1594 31.7 37.8 15.9
9 100 15 2607 40.7 35.1 20.4
10 90 5 1029 19.6 41.5 9.8
11 90 10 2448 37.8 40.8 18.9
12 90 15 2812 55.5 40.5 27.8
13 90 5 691 18.2 40.2 9.1
14 90 10 1253 36.0 40.0 18.0
15 90 15 1746 47.5 37.8 23.8
16 90 5 880 13.7 35.3 6.9
17 90 10 1513 24.1 33.1 12.1
18 90 15 1877 33.7 31.9 16.9
19 105 3 870 15.2 45.8 7.6
20 105 5 990 25.3 45.8 12.7
21 105 7 1340 29.5 42.7 14.8
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
0% 5% 10% 15% 20%
Stre
ss (
psi
)
Strain
5% Strain
Deviator Stress at 5% strain
Ei
57
Table 5-5 Averages of triaxial data, based off of density
Density Confining Pressure
Average Initial
Modulus
Average Normal Stress
Average Shear Stress
Average Phi Angle
pcf psi psi psi psi degrees
100
5 1201.0 16.9 8.4 38.8
10 1936.3 33.1 16.6 38.6
15 2635.3 45.6 22.8 37.0
90
5 866.7 17.2 8.6 39.0
10 1738.0 32.6 16.3 38.0
15 2145.0 45.6 22.8 36.7
5.3 Pressuremeter Results Twenty pressuremeter tests were performed using the PENCEL Pressuremeter. Ten PPMT
test were performed in the overflow lot (OF) and ten were performed in the Southgate
field (SG). These ten tests were performed along the transects shown in Figure 3-2 and
Figure 3-3, spaced twenty-five feet apart. The APMT software was used to determine the
three soil parameters, initial modulus, limit pressure, and lift off pressure. The results of
the twenty PPMT performed are summarized in Table 5-6.
58
Table 5-6 Summary of PPMT test results
Site Number Depth Initial
Modulus Limit
Pressure Lift off
Pressure Briaud’s
Classification1
-- -- ft psi psi psi
OF 101 2.48 1695 260 7.98 Dense
OF 102 2.44 1779 206 7.25 Compact
OF 103 2.48 1913 165 5.80 Compact
OF 104 2.48 1612 166 5.51 Compact
OF 105 2.41 1651 173 8.70 Compact
OF 106 2.41 1534 151 4.06 Compact
OF 107 2.54 1280 146 5.80 Compact
OF 108 2.34 1299 179 5.08 Compact
OF 119 2.48 2910 212 7.25 Compact
OF 120 2.48 2425 184 6.53 Compact
SG 201 2.48 650 78 5.80 Compact
SG 202 2.48 790 73 2.90 Compact
SG 203 2.51 841 70 3.63 Loose
SG 204 2.48 585 57 5.08 Loose
SG 205 2.51 719 63 6.96 Loose
SG 206 2.48 543 54 2.61 Loose
SG 207 2.54 710 59 3.63 Loose
SG 208 2.54 721 60 3.63 Loose
SG 209 2.54 727 56 2.90 Loose
SG 210 2.54 665 56 3.05 Loose 1 Soil texture classifications from Briaud 1986
Table 5-7 Averages of PPMT data based off of site
Site Average
Initial Modulus
Average Limit
Pressure
Average Lift off
pressure
-- psi psi psi
OF 1810 184 6.40
SG 695 63 4.02
59
5.4 Correlations
5.4.1 Triaxial correlations between strength and stiffness
The correlation process began by examining the relationship between the initial triaxial
modulus (Ei) and the triaxial shear (Su) strength of the soil. The results are plotted in
Figure 5-4. The most promising relationship was produced by power regression was
produced as shown in Equation 5-1. The triaxial initial modulus is about 100 times greater
than the shear strength. This correlation was developed from 21 tests in SP sands ranging
from 20% to 65% of relative density.
𝐸𝑖 = 167𝑆𝑢0.84 (5-1)
𝑅2 = 0.72
Figure 5-4 Correlation between the triaxial initial moduli and the shear strength of the soil at 5% strain
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Tria
xial
In
itia
l Mo
du
lus
(psi
)
Shear Strength (psi)
60
5.4.2 Pressuremeter moduli and strength correlation
An equation developed by Baguelin (1978) (Eq 5-2), was used to relate the PPMT limit
pressure to the shear strength. This relationship was used to calculate shear strengths
from the field measured PPMT limit pressures.
Baguelin’s equation was used, instead of developing a site specific equation due to
limitations in testing capabilities. A separate, in-situ, shear testing apparatus, such as a
vane shear test probe, would be needed to develop a site specific shear versus limit
pressure equation.
The calculated shear strengths (Eq 5-2), with confidence intervals, were then added to the
triaxial modulus versus shear strength plot (Figure 5-4). The confidence intervals of 95%,
99%, and 99.9% were then compared for both limit pressure versus shear and initial
modulus versus shear. In Figure 5-5 the 99.9% confidence interval (α=0.001), which
includes the 85% of measured data, shows the confidence intervals of the two data sets
overlapping at a limit pressure of 200 psi. A confidence interval of 99.9% was used
because it considers more data in the analysis than a 95% confidence interval, which only
uses 60% of measured data. Since a limited number of data points were measured,
reducing the total number of points used by 40% may significantly bias the results.
Measured and predicted values begin to differ significantly for dense and very dense
sands (> 50% for Dense sand, >85% for Very Dense sand).
𝑆𝑢 = 0.21 × 𝑃𝑙0.75 (5-2)
61
Figure 5-5 Comparison between the calculated limit pressure, measured initial modulus and shear strength
The relationship between the pressuremeter initial modulus was then compared to the
limit pressures, allowing for a correlation to be made between the PMT limit pressure and
the PMT initial modulus. This relationship is shown in Figure 5-6, and the regression
equation is.
𝐸𝑝𝑚𝑡 = 8.6 × 𝑃𝑙 + 180 (5-3)
𝑅2 = 0.75
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
1 10 100
Lim
it p
ress
ure
(p
si)
Init
ial m
od
ulu
s (p
si)
Shear strength (psi)
Triaxial Data
Confidenceinterval
Power ( LimitPressure)
62
Figure 5-6 Correlation between PMT initial modulus and PMT limit pressure using all data points
When the data for only loose to compact sands (limit pressure <200 psi and Initial
modulus < 2000 psi) the regression correlation increases, as well as the relationship
between these values reduces from 8.6 times greater to 8.3. The data for the loose to
compact sands are shown in Figure 5-7 and the regression equation is shown in Equation
5-4.
𝐸𝑖 = 8.3 × 𝑃𝑙 + 180 (5-4)
𝑅2 = 0.89
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Pre
ssu
rem
ete
r M
od
ulu
s (p
si)
Limit Pressure (psi)
63
Figure 5-7 Limit pressure vs pressuremeter modulus for loose to compact sands
The correlation between the PMT limit pressure and the triaxial initial modulus was
compared to the limit pressure vs PMT initial modulus correlations from Cosentino et al.
(2007). Cosentino et al. found the PMT initial modulus was 8 to 16 times greater than the
PMT limit pressure, with lower density soils ranging toward 8 times greater, and very
dense soils ranging toward 16 times greater. Figure 5-6 shows the triaxial initial modulus
is 8.6 times greater than the PMT limit pressure, while Figure 5-7 shows the modulus is
only 8.3 times greater. The ratio determined in testing is within the range Cosentino
presented for loose soils, verifying the relationship in Equation 5-4. Since the densities
from the two field test sites do not overlap, there is a void in the data, most prominent on
the limit pressure axis.
The shear strength and the initial modulus for both the PPMT and triaxial tests were
plotted together to show that the strength parameters have similar influence on both the
triaxial and PPMT initial modulus. The relationship between the strength and stiffness for
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
0 50 100 150 200
Pre
ssu
rem
ete
r M
od
ulu
s (p
si)
Limit Pressure (psi)
64
both PPMT and triaxial data is a power relationship, with stiffness increasing as strength
increases as shown in Figure 5-8.
Figure 5-8 Relationship between strength and stiffness data for both triaxial and PPMT tests
Table 5-8 Relationships and correlations between the strength and stiffness for PPMT, triaxial, and combined data
Data Power equation R2 Linear equation R2
PPMT 𝐸𝑖 = 121 × 𝑆𝑢1.14 0.88 𝐸𝑖 = 185 × 𝑆𝑢 − 152 0.76
Triaxial 𝐸𝑖 = 167 × 𝑆𝑢0.84 0.72 𝐸𝑖 = 93 × 𝑆𝑢 + 232 0.73
Combined 𝐸𝑖 = 223 × 𝑆𝑢0.77 0.74 𝐸𝑖 = 88 × 𝑆𝑢 + 440 0.63
5.4.3 Triaxial and pressuremeter stiffness correlation
Equations 5-2 and 5-4 were then used to develop a predicted PMT modulus from each
measured triaxial shear strength. Equation 5-2 was used to predict the limit pressure
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
1 10 100
Init
ial M
od
ulu
s (p
si)
Shear strength (psi)
Triaxial Data
PMT Modulus
65
from the measured triaxial shear strength. Using these limit pressures the PMT modulus
was then predicted using Equation 5-4. These predicted PMT moduli and corresponding
triaxial moduli are shown in Figure 5-9. The resulting predicted PMT modulus is on
average 68% larger than the measured triaxial modulus, indicating a triaxial modulus
could give a more conservative design value. The results of predicting the PMT modulus
from the triaxial modulus are shown in Figure 5-9.
𝐸𝑃𝑀𝑇 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 1.68 × 𝐸𝑡𝑟𝑖 − 250 (5-5)
𝑅2 = 0.72
Figure 5-9 Predicted PMT modulus from measured Triaxial data
Assuming Equation 5-5 can be used to predict moduli from PMT limit pressures, the
correlation was worked the opposite direction. The triaxial initial modulus was predicted
using the measured field PMT moduli. Using Equation 5-4, the limit pressure was
determined from PMT moduli, Baguelin’s Equation (5-2) was then used with the predicted
limit pressure to determine the shear strength, and then finally the corresponding triaxial
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Pre
dic
ted
PM
T m
od
ulu
s
Measured Triaxial Modulus (psi)
Predicted PMT modulus using Triaxial data
66
modulus was determined from the shear strength Equation 5-1. Figure 5-10 is a plot of
these data, producing a linear relationship between the triaxial and PMT moduli. The
regression equation (Eq 5-6) has a very strong correlation and indicates the triaxial moduli
on average 50% less than the corresponding PMT moduli.
𝐸𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 0.5 × 𝐸𝑝𝑚𝑡 + 330 (5-6)
𝑅2 = 0.91
Figure 5-10 Prediction of triaxial moduli using field measured PMT moduli
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Pre
dic
ted
Tri
axia
l Mo
du
lus
(psi
)
Measured PMT Modulus (psi)
67
Table 5-9 Correlation summary
Description Equation R2 Equation
number Triaxial modulus vs triaxial shear 𝐸𝑖 = 93 × 𝑆𝑢 + 230 0.73 5-1
Limit pressure vs PMT modulus in loose to compact sands
𝐸𝑖 = 8.3 × 𝑃𝑙 + 180 0.89 5-3
PMT modulus conversion from triaxial data 𝐸𝑃𝑀𝑇 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 1.68 × 𝐸𝑡𝑟𝑖 − 250 0.72 5-4
Triaxial modulus conversion from PMT data 𝐸𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 0.5 × 𝐸𝑝𝑚𝑡 + 330 0.91 5-5
68
6 Conclusions and Recommendations
The research objectives in this study were to correlate the data from PPMT tests to the
data produced from laboratory triaxial testing. The parameters used from the PPMT tests
were the limit pressure and the initial elastic modulus, because these parameters were
least influenced by the insertion process. The parameters used from the triaxial tests
were the shear strength, angle of internal friction, and the initial elastic modulus. These
parameters were used because of their common use in many geotechnical design
calculations. The following conclusions and recommendations were made based on the
test results.
6.1 Conclusions
All conclusions made would be applicable only to loose to medium dense, poorly graded
sand soils.
1) From the triaxial testing, the shear strength can be predicted with moderate
accuracy (R2 of 0.73). This relationship is needed to relate shear strength from
PPMT data to initial triaxial modulus.
2) Using both previously developed correlations and correlations developed from
testing, the triaxial initial modulus is on average 60% less than the PPMT initial
modulus, when using PPMT data corresponding to limit pressures less than 200
psi. The triaxial initial modulus can be predicted with more certainty using field
69
PPMT data (R2 of 0.91) than the PPMT initial modulus being predicted by using
triaxial data (R2 of 0.72).
3) The shear strength and limit pressure equation developed by Baguelin (1978) falls
within one standard deviation of the triaxial and shear strength correlation
developed in this study (α=0.001) in the range of 200 psi limit pressure or less.
6.2 Recommendations Although strong correlations were developed from the testing, recommendations are
made to ensure accurate use of the correlations and recommendations for further studies
of this topic.
1) Due to large deviations, greater than one standard deviation, in the correlations
when the soil initial moduli is greater than 2000 psi or the PPMT limit pressure is
greater than 200 psi, as shown in Figure 5-5, it is recommended that these
correlations only be used when soil limit pressure is below 200 psi and the initial
modulus is less 2000 psi. These values correspond with Briaud’s loose to compact
soil, or the USCS loose to medium dense soils.
2) In order to insure accuracy when using these correlations, it is recommended that
the correlations be used with testing in poorly graded sand soil. The consistency
of the soil tested should be classified as loose to medium dense.
70
3) It is recommended for further studies that densities between 65% and 100% of
relative density be used in order to verify that these correlations are accurate
irrespective of the soil density.
71
References
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74
Appendix A
Pressuremeter Data
75
A 1- Overflow lot 101
A 2- Overflow lot 102
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25%
Stre
ss (
kPa)
Strain
Overflow lot site 101
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25%
Stre
ss (
kPa)
Strain
Overflow lot site 102
76
A 3- Overflow lot 103
A 4- Overflow lot 104
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25%
Stre
ss (
kPa)
Strain
Overflow lot site 103
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25%
Stre
ss (
kPa)
Strain
Overflow lot site 104
77
A 5- Overflow lot 105
A 6- Overflow lot 106
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25%
Stre
ss (
kPa)
Strain
Overflow lot site 105
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25%
Stre
ss (
kPa)
Strain
Overflow lot site 106
78
A 7- Overflow lot 107
A 8- Overflow lot 108
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25%
Stre
ss (
kPa)
Strain
Overflow lot site 107
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25%
Stre
ss (
kPa)
Strain
Overflow lot site 108
79
A 9- Overflow lot 119
A 10- Overflow lot 120
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25%
Stre
ss (
kPa)
Strain
Overflow lot site 119
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25%
Stre
ss (
kPa)
Strain
Overflow lot site 120
80
A 11- Southgate 201
A 12- Southgate 202
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25%
Stre
ss (
kPa)
Strain
Southgate site 201
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25%
Stre
ss (
kPa)
Strain
Southgate site 202
81
A 13- Southgate 203
A 14- Southgate 204
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25%
Stre
ss (
kPa)
Strain
Southgate site 203
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25%
Stre
ss (
kPa)
Strain
Southgate site 204
82
A 15- Southgate 205
A 16- Southgate 206
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25%
Stre
ss (
kPa)
Strain
Southgate site 205
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25%
Stre
ss (
kPa)
Strain
Southgate site 206
83
A 17- Southgate 207
A 18- Southgate 208
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25%
Stre
ss (
kPa)
Strain
Southgate site 207
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25%
Stre
ss (
kPa)
Strain
Southgate site 208
84
A 19- Southgate 209
A 20- Southgate 210
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25%
Stre
ss (
kPa)
Strain
Southgate site 209
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25%
Stre
ss (
kPa)
Strain
Southgate site 210
85
Appendix B
Triaxial Data
86
B 1- Overflow lot center (90 pcf 5psi)
B 2- Overflow lot center (90pcf/10psi)
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
0% 2% 4% 6% 8% 10% 12% 14%
Stre
ss (
psi
)
Strain (in/in)
Overflow lot center (90 pcf/5 psi)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
0% 2% 4% 6% 8% 10% 12% 14% 16%
Stre
ss (
psi
)
Strain
Overflow lot center (90 pcf/10 psi)
87
B 3- Overflow lot center (90pcf/15psi)
B 4- Overflow lot north (90pcf/5psi)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
0% 2% 4% 6% 8% 10% 12% 14% 16% 18%
Stre
ss (
psi
)
Strain
Overflow lot center (90 pcf/15 psi)
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
0% 2% 4% 6% 8% 10% 12% 14%
Stre
ss (
psi
)
Strain
Overflow lot north (90pcf/5psi)
88
B 5- Overflow lot north (90pcf/10psi)
B 6- Overflow lot north (90pcf/15psi)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
0% 2% 4% 6% 8% 10% 12% 14%
Stre
ss (
psi
)
Strain
Overflow lot north (90pcf/10psi)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
0% 2% 4% 6% 8% 10% 12% 14% 16%
Stre
ss (
psi
)
Strain
Overflow lot north (90pcf/15psi)
89
B 7- Overflow lot south (90pcf/5psi)
B 8- Overflow lot south (90pcf/10psi)
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
0% 2% 4% 6% 8% 10% 12% 14% 16% 18%
Stre
ss (
psi
)
Strain
Overflow lot south (90pcf/5psi)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
0% 2% 4% 6% 8% 10% 12% 14% 16% 18%
Stre
ss (
psi
)
Strain
Overflow lot south (90pcf/10psi)
90
B 9- Overflow lot south (90pcf/15psi)
B 10- Overflow lot center (100pcf/5psi)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
0% 2% 4% 6% 8% 10% 12% 14% 16%
Stre
ss (
psi
)
Strain
Overflow lot south (90pcf/15psi)
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
0% 2% 4% 6% 8% 10% 12% 14% 16%
Stre
ss (
psi
)
Strain
Overflow lot center (100pcf/5psi)
91
B 11- Overflow lot center (100pcf/10psi)
B 12- Overflow lot center (100pcf/15psi)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
0% 2% 4% 6% 8% 10% 12% 14% 16% 18%
Stre
ss (
psi
)
Strain
Overflow lot center (100pcf/10psi)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25%
Stre
ss (
psi
)
Strain
Overflow lot center (100pcf/15psi)
92
B 13- Overflow lot north (100pcf/5psi)
B 14- Overflow lot north (100pcf/10psi)
0
5
10
15
20
25
0% 2% 4% 6% 8% 10% 12% 14% 16% 18%
Stre
ss (
psi
)
Strain
Overflow lot north (100pcf/5psi)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
0% 5% 10% 15% 20%
Stre
ss (
psi
)
Strain
Overflow lot north (100pcf/10psi)
93
B 15- Overflow lot north (100pcf/15psi)
B 16- Overflow lot south (100pcf/5psi)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
0% 2% 4% 6% 8% 10% 12% 14% 16% 18%
Stre
ss (
psi
)
Strain
Overflow lot north (100pcf/15psi)
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
0% 2% 4% 6% 8% 10% 12% 14% 16% 18%
Stre
ss (
psi
)
Strain
Overflow lot south (100pcf/5psi)
94
B 17- Overflow lot south (100pcf/10psi)
B 18- Overflow lot south (100pcf/15psi)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
0% 5% 10% 15% 20%
Stre
ss (
psi
)
Strain
Overflow lot south (100pcf/10psi)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
0% 5% 10% 15% 20%
Stre
ss (
psi
)
Strain
Overflow lot south (100pcf/15psi)
95
B 19- Mixed sample (105pcf/3psi)
B 20- Mixed sample (105pcf/3psi)
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
0% 2% 4% 6% 8% 10% 12% 14%
Stre
ss (
psi
)
Strain
Mixed sample (105pcf/3psi)
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
0% 2% 4% 6% 8% 10% 12% 14%
Stre
ss (
psi
)
Strain
Mixed sample (105pcf/3psi)
96
B 21- Mixed sample (105pcf/7psi)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
0% 2% 4% 6% 8% 10% 12% 14% 16%
Stre
ss (
psi
)
Strain
Mixed sample (105pcf/7psi)