Coordination and subordination, and the relationship between grammar and discourse Mark Donohue Australian National University [email protected]

Coordination and subordination,and the relationship between grammar

and discourse

Mark DonohueAustralian National [email protected]

International Workshop on Clause Combining in and around Indonesia TUFS, 7-8 October 2012 International Workshop on Clause Combining in and around Indonesia TUFS, 7-8 October 2012

Overview

• This is not as clear-cut as is often described.

Coordination Foregrounding

Subordination Backgrounding

Coordination Foregrounding

Subordination Backgrounding

Overview

• morphology:

• morphology:

Overview

• Coordination: independent clauses

• Subordination: dependent clauses

Simple cases

• Subordinate-as-foreground:• Entering the room, they sat down.

(non-overlapping times)

• [ Dia] [ Ø [ yang datang ] ] 3SG REL arrive

‘S/he came.’~‘The (one) who came is her.’

Simple cases• Coordinate-as-background:• I’ll try and finish on time. (one action)

Tetun• Nia ti’a balu te’in hodi haa,

3SG already some cook and eatbalu hodi baa fa’en hola loit. some and go sell fetch money‘After that some is cooked to eat, some is to sell to fetch money.’

Outline• Preliminaries– Coordination, subordination,

foregrounding and backgrounding• Simple cases– Coordination = foregrounding,

subordination = backgrounding• Complex cases– Subordination = foregrounding,

coordination = backgrounding– Ø-marked clause boundaries

• Conclusions & implications






Preliminaries

• Coordination:– two clauses joined together in which both are fully

finite and fully independent; neither is dependent on the other.

• Subordination– two clauses, one of which is dependent on the

other (larger) clause for some part of its interpretation.




other (larger) clause for some part of its interpretation

&

COMP





&

Preliminaries

• Foreground– That part of a narrative that advances the main

story line, and builds sequentially on the foreground material that precedes it.

• Background– Material in a narrative that adds description, but

does not contribute to the process of story telling directly, and is not necessarily temporally ordered.

Preliminaries





Preliminaries





Preliminaries

• There was once a man who lived alone in a hut in the forest.

• He spent his time growing food to eat, and carving wood into tools to sell in the markets in the nearby villages.

• Then, one day, a tall woman dressed in a long blue dress, followed by three cats and three dogs, walked up to his hut.

• She greeted him, and told him why she had come....

Preliminaries





Coordination Subordination

Preliminaries





Foreground Background

Preliminaries

• There was once a man. • He spent his time growing food, and carving

wood into tools. • Then, one day, a tall woman walked up to his

hut. • She greeted him, and told him....


Preliminaries

• ___ who lived alone in a hut in the forest. • ___ to eat, ___to sell in the markets in the

nearby villages. • ___dressed in a long blue dress, followed by

three cats and three dogs, ___. • ___why she had come....


Preliminaries

• There was once a man …• ___ who lived alone in a hut in the forest.


Preliminaries


• There was once a man and lived alone in a hut in the forest.

• Have to use the appropriate clause-combining morphology here; relative clauses have ‘stronger’ boundaries than XCOMPs.

*!

Preliminaries

• Coordinate morphology exists, and is used with non-dependent clauses.–Coordination = foregrounded discourse

• Subordinate morphology exists, and is used with dependent clauses.– Subordination = backgrounded discourse






Coordination

• Overt conjunctions:– and, or but, and then, …

• I came home, then fed the cat and watched some TV.

• ‘Covert conjunctions’– Ø

• I came home, ___ fed the cat; ___watched some TV.

Subordination

• Overt subordinators:– Relative clauses: who, which, (etc.);

Xadjuncts: when, after, while, before (etc.);Xcomps (purpose, clausal complements): that, (in order) to

• [ While whistling ],I took [the letter [that you wrote]][ to post ].

Subordination

• Covert subordinators:– Ø

• [Ø Whistling ],I took [the letter [Ø you wrote]][ to post ].

Simple cases

• Indonesian:• Dia masuk ke rumah, terus __

duduk.3SG enter ALL house and.then sit‘He entered the house and then ___ sat down.’

• (Dia masuk ke rumah, terus dia duduk)

• dan terus, kemudian, lalu, (maka), sesudah itu, …

Simple cases

• Indonesian:• Dia masuk ke rumah, terus __

duduk.3SG enter ALL house and.then sit‘He entered the house and then ___ sat down.’

• (Dia masuk ke rumah, terus dia duduk)

• dan terus, kemudian, lalu, (maka), sesudah itu, …

terus

Simple cases

• Indonesian:• Sesudah dia masuk ke rumah, dia duduk.

after 3SG enter ALL house 3SG sit

‘After he entered the house, he sat down.’• Sesudah masuk ke rumah, dia duduk.

after enter ALL house 3SG sit‘After entering the house, he sat down.’

• Sesudah dia masuk ke rumah, duduk.after 3SG enter ALL house sit‘After entering the house, he sat down.’

*!

Simple cases

• Indonesian:• Sesudah dia masuk ke rumah, dia duduk.

after 3SG enter ALL house 3SG sit

‘After he entered the house, he sat down.’• Sesudah masuk ke rumah, dia duduk.

after enter ALL house 3SG sit‘After entering the house, he sat down.’

sesudah

Simple cases





terus

sesudah

Simple cases

• Indonesian:• perempuan tinggi yang pakai gaun panjang

woman tall REL wear dress long‘a tall woman wearing a long dress.’

• (most restricted kind of clause combining in Indonesian?)

Simple cases

• Different only in involving NP-internal relations;

• Clearly subordinate.

• Perempuan yang pakai gaun datang.• Subordination

yang

NP

Simple cases

• Repeat in almost as many languages as you’d like…

…while staying mindful of the fact that some languages just don’t have much morphology

Simple cases

• Where coordinate morphology exists, a major function is to advance the narrative.–Coordination = foregrounded discourse

• Where subordinate morphology exists, a major function is to elaborate on aspects of the main narrative.– Subordination = backgrounded discourse






Consider…

• Unsurprising use of complementiser:• Kalau dia tidak datang, saya tidak ikut.

if 3SG not come 1SG not accompany‘If s/he doesn’t come, I’m not going.’

• [S [COMP Kalau dia tidak datang], saya tidak ikut ].

Consider…

• Unsurprising use of complementiser:• Ø dia tidak datang, saya tidak ikut.

3SG not come 1SG not accompany‘(If) s/he doesn’t come, I’m not going.’

• [S [COMP ____dia tidak datang], saya tidak ikut ].

Consider…

• Aside: compare:• Ø dia tidak datang, saya tidak ikut.

3SG not come 1SG not accompany‘(If) s/he doesn’t come, I’m not going.’

• with:• Dia tidak datang, saya tidak ikut.

3SG not come 1SG not accompany‘S/he didn’t come, (and) I’m not going.’

Consider…

• Surprising (?) use of complementiser:• Kalau dia, saya tidak ikut.

if 3SG 1SG not accompany‘If (it’s) her/him, I’m not going.’

• [S [COMP Kalau dia], saya tidak ikut ].

Consider…

• Surprising (?) use of complementiser:• Kalau dia (berhadir), saya tidak ikut.

if 3SG be.present 1SG not accompany‘If s/he is there, I’m not going.’

• [S [COMP Kalau dia berhadir], saya tidak ikut ].

Consider…• Aside:• Question:• Siapa yang datang?

who REL come‘Who came?’

• Answer:• Saya. * ada saya * saya ada

1SG be 1SG 1SG be‘(It was) me.’

Consider…

• Surprising (?) use of complementiser:• Kalau dia, saya tidak ikut.

if 3SG 1SG not accompany‘If (it’s) her/him, I’m not going.’

• [S [COMP Kalau dia PRED], saya tidak ikut ].

Function ≠ Structure

• Structurally:• [S [SCOMP COMP Pro PREDØ ], Pro NEG PRED ].– Subordinate: an adjunct SCOMP

• Functionally:• [TOP CASETOP Pro [S Pro NEG PRED ], ].– Superordinate: a topic function

Levels…

• Coordination:

• Subordination:

• Topic:

&

• My friend, while talking, ate a sandwich and then brushed his teeth as he hummed.

Levels…

Consider…

• Surprising use of complementiser (?):• Kalau hujan, saya tidak ikut.

if rain 1SG not accompany‘If it rains, I’m not going.’

• [S [COMP Kalau hujan ], [S saya tidak ikut ] ].

Consider…

• Surprising use of complementiser (?):• Kalau hujan, saya tidak ikut.

if rain 1SG not accompany‘If (it’s) rain, I’m not going.’

• [S [COMP Kalau hujan ], [S saya tidak ikut ] ].

Consider…

• A complementiser (?):• Kalau nasi, saya lebih suka.

(if) rice 1SG more like‘I prefer rice.’

• [S [COMP Kalau nasi], saya lebih suka ]. ?

• [S [TOP Kalau nasi], saya lebih suka ]. ?

Consider…

• A relativiser:• Saya makan nasi yang di-masak ibu.

1SG eat rice REL ACT-cookmother‘I’m eating the rice that mother cooked.’

• [S saya makan [NP nasi [RC yang dimasak ibu ]]].

Consider…

• A relativiser:• Saya makan yang di-masak ibu.

1SG eat REL ACT-cookmother‘I’m eating what mother cooked’

• [S saya makan [NP Ø [RC yang dimasak ibu ]]].

Consider…

• A relativiser, but…• Apa yang di-masak ibu?

What REL ACT-cook mother‘What did mother cook?’

• [S [NP apa ] [NP Ø [RC yang dimasak ibu ] ] ].

• [S [NP ] = [NP ] ].

• ~ “What mother cooked is what?” ~

• Both kalau and yang have clear subordinating uses;

• Both kalau and yang function in main clauses in ways that have foregrounding, main clause uses, while retaining subordinate clause structures.

Palu’e

Palu’e

• Complementising clitic, -jo:• Koko-jo ia phana, aku-pli phana.

if-COMP 3SG go 1SG-also goes‘If she’s going, I’ll go too.’

• Aku cu’u-jo ia ka’a phana.1SG know-COMP 3SG NEG go‘I know that she’s not going.’

Palu’e

• Complementising clitic, -jo:• Aku cu’u-jo ia ka’a phana.

1SG know-COMP 3SG NEG go‘I know that she’s not going.’

• [S Aku cu’u [COMP -jo [S ia ka’a phana] ] ].

Palu’e

• Aku nra ia.1SG feel 3SG‘I love her/him.’

• Aku nra [COMP -jo [S ia ka’a phana ] ].1SG feel -COMP 3SG NEG go‘I remember that she’s not going.’

Palu’e

• Aku nra ia.1SG feel 3SG‘I love her/him.’

• Aku nra [COMP -jo [S ia ka’a phana ] ].1SG feel -COMP 3SG NEG go‘I think/feel (that) she’s not going.’

* ‘I remember that she’s not going.’

?

Palu’e

• Aku phela ia.1SG see 3SG‘I see her/him.’

• Aku phela [COMP -jo [S ia ka’a phana ] ].1SG see -COMP 3SG NEG go‘I saw (that) she didn’t go.’

?

Palu’e

• Overt complementiser to subordinate;but optional.

• Complementiser grammaticalised to show lexical meaning differences:– love/think/remember: nra ____ vs. nra-jo ____

• If a morpheme is subcategorised for by a verb, can it still be subordinate?

Foregrounding subordination

• Morphology and syntax that are used for subordination

• can also be used in discourse functions that are more typical of non-subordinate clause combinations

• These new discourse functions do not affect the subordinate nature of the morphosyntax.






Coordination to background

• Less common?(not discussed in, eg., Mithun 2008)

• Run and find out!• Go and find out!• Try and find out!

• Go and have a good time!• We’re going into town and have a good time!

Coordinate?Purposive?


• Go and have a good time!• We’re going into town and have a good time!

• We went into town and had a good time.• We’ll go into town and have a good time

• Something’s sure and sweep me of my feet– (David Byrne, Talking Heads, ‘Burning down the

house’ – 1983)

to haveto


• Indonesia irrealis clauses:• Saya rasa haus, mau minum air.

1SG feel thirsty want drink water‘I’m thirsty, (& I) want to drink water.’

• Saya jalan ke pasar mau beli beras.1SG go ALL market want buy rice‘I’m going to the market to buy rice.’

Tetun

Clausal vs. phrasal

• Clausal conjunction with hodi:• Feto Ikun ksotir di’ak n-odi matenek.

woman tail fortune good 3SG-and cleverAmi ksotir lalek hodi beik1PL fortune lack and stupid ‘Youngest sister was fortunate and clever. We are unfortunate and stupid.’

hodiand

Clausal vs. phrasal

• Clausal conjunction with hodi:• Ha’u k-mama ai-kakaluk k-odi

1SG 1SG-chew wood-power 1SG-andtaka nia-kan ain tohar ne’e.cover 3SG-POSS leg broken this‘I chew medicine, and cover his broken leg (with it).’

‘I chew medicine, and use it to coverhis broken leg.’

Clausal vs. phrasal

• Clausal subordination with hodi:• Ita soru hodi dakar sira

1PL weave ‘and’ look.after 3PL‘We weave while looking after them.’

• Nia karian n-odi n-a-to’o3SG work 3SG-‘and’ 3SG-CAUS-enoughnaha ba uma laran.baggage go house inside‘He works to supply things for in the house.’

One

(Topicalising to coordination)

• One:• No n-aplere n-i moru.

3PL 3PL-run 3PL-go house‘They ran to the house.’

• No n-u au moren.3PL 3PL-eat sago house:LOC‘They ate sago in the house.’


• One:• Moru sa(,) no n-aplere n-i __.

houseTOP 3PL 3PL-run 3PL-go‘The house, they ran to (it).’

• Au sa(,) no n-u __ moren.sago TOP 3PL 3PL-eat house:LOC‘Sago, they ate (it) in the house.’


• One:• Moren sa(,) no n-u au.

house:LOC TOP 3PL 3PL-eat sago‘In the house, they ate sago.’

• *Moren sa(,) au sa no n-u au. house:LOC TOP sago TOP 3PL 3PL-eat sago ‘In the house, they ate sago.’


• One:• No n-i moru sa,

3PL 3PL-go house ‘TOP’no n-u au.3PL 3PL-eat sago‘They went to the house, and ate sago.’


• One:• No n-i moru.

3PL 3PL-go houseSa, no n-u au.‘TOP’ 3PL 3PL-eat sago‘They went to the house, and ate sago.’


• Not as common as ‘subordination function raising’,butstill attested.

• Often structurally ambiguous.






Consider…

• Purposive complement clause:• Saya pergi untuk makan nasi.

1SG go COMP eat rice‘I’m going to eat rice.’

• [S Saya pergi [COMP untuk makan nasi] ].

Consider…

• Purposive complement clause:• Saya pergi makan nasi.

1SG go eat rice‘I’m going to eat rice rice.’

• [S Saya pergi [COMP Ø makan nasi] ].

Complex cases

• Quoted speech:• Saya tahu bahwa dia sudah masuk.

1SG know that 3SG already enter‘I know that s/he’s already entered.’

• Saya tahu dia sudah masuk.

Complex cases

• Perception complements (+):• Saya lihat orang yang lari.

1SG see person REL run‘I saw the person who had run.’

• Saya lihat orang lari.• [NP Pro ] [VP V [NP N [RC REL V ] ] ]• [NP Pro ] [VP V [NP N ] [XCOMP __ V ] ]• [NP Pro ] [VP V [SCOMP COMP [NP N ] [VP V ] ] ]

Consider…

• Overhead in Hasanuddin airport, Makassar:• Sudah boarding, masih check-in!

already boarding still check-in‘(They’re) already boarding (the aircraft)(and he’s) still checking in!’

• ‘(Even though they’re) already boarding, (he’s) still checking in!’

Consider…

• Sudah boarding, masih check-in!already boarding still check-in

• ‘(They’re) already boarding (the aircraft)(and he’s) still checking in!’

• [S [S Sudah boarding ], (&) [S masih check-in ] ]!

Consider…

• Sudah boarding, masih check-in!already boarding still check-in

• ‘(Even though they’re) already boarding, (he’s) still checking in!’

• [S [COMP Ø Sudah boarding ], masih check-in ]!

• While opening the door, I spoke to Melissa.• While entering the room, I spotted Melissa.• While entering the room, I spotted Melissa.• Entering the room, I spotted Melissa.

• Entering the room, I ordered a coffee and waited.

Tukang Besi

Tukang Besi

• Ku-’ita-’e na mia.1SG-see-3 NOM person‘I saw the person.’

• No-tinti na mia.3R-run.SI NOM person‘The person ran earlier.’

Tukang Besi

• Ku-’ita-’e na mia [ t<um>inti i aba ].1SG-see-3 NOM person run.SI OBL earlier‘I saw the person who had run earlier.’

• Ku-’ita-’e no-tinti na mia.1SG-see-3 3R-run.SI NOM person‘I saw the person who had run earlier.’~ ‘I saw a person running.’

Skou

Skou

• Simple clauses:• Pe=ueme=ing_a pe=ti pá.

3SG.F=woman=the 3SG.F=go house‘The woman went to the house.’

• Pe=ueme=ing_a hóe pe=p-ang.3SG.F=woman=the sago 3SG.F=3SG.F-eat‘The woman ate sago.’

Skou

• Relative clauses:• pe=ueme pe=ti pá=ing_a

3SG.F=woman 3SG.F=go house=the‘the woman who went to the house’

• pe=ueme hóe pe=p-ang=ing_a3SG.F=woman sago 3SG.F=3SG.F-eat=the‘the woman who ate sago’

Skou

• Coordinate clauses:• Pe=ueme=ing_a pe=ti pá

3SG.F=woman=the 3SG.F=go househóe pe=p-ang.sago 3SG.F=3SG.F-eat

‘The woman went to the house and ate sago.’

=pa=and

=ko=and

=te=and

Skou

• Coordinate clauses:• Pe=ueme=ing_a pe=ti pá

3SG.F=woman=the 3SG.F=go househóe pe=p-ang.sago 3SG.F=3SG.F-eat

‘The woman went to the house to eat sago.’

Ø-marked clause boundaries

• Summary slide






Conclusions

• Structure = Function– Easiest to analyse;– There have to be some of these.

• Structure ≠ Function– Caught between grammaticalisation?– Long-term stable?

• Structure is indeterminate?– Especially when there’s no overt morphology.

The End

Thank you

The End

Thank you

Important point:

• Morphology dedicated to indicating clauses in combination are prone to refunctionalisation.

• The subordinate clauses are still subordinate, grammatically.This is not grammaticalisation of subordinate clause morphology into dependent clause uses.

• I will try to do well in my exams.

• I will try and do well in my exams.

• Saya coba makan baik-baik.

• I’m going down the shops to go and get some chocolate.

• * I’m going down the shops and go and get some chocolate.

• I’m going to try to finish the essay.• I’m going to try and finish the essay.• Run fast and win!• Run fast to win!

• I’ll try to fix it.• I’ll try and fix it.

• I’ll go to buy it at the shops.• I’ll go and buy it at the shops.

• I’ll go to the shops to buy it.• I’ll go to the shops and buy it.

Overview

• Coordination and subordination are often described as serving foregrounding and backgrounding functions;

• This is not as clear-cut as it’s often described.• Subordinated clauses can often serve a

foregrounded function; can coordinated clauses also serve a backgrounding function?

• When ellipsis applies to coordinators and subordinators, what else can we expect?

Simple cases

• Something’s sure and sweep me of my feet– (David Byrne, Talking Heads, ‘Burning down the

house’ – 1983)

• We’re going into town and have a good time.

• We went into town and had a good time.• We’ll go into town and have a good time.• We go into town and have a good time.

Tukang Besi

• Palu’e• Kami phote nio,

1PL.EX pick coconutthuka, __ khla __,__ kha __ __ psa __,ascend split eatchew.flesh__ nala vae-ne __ ninu __,

take water-3GEN drink__ psa i-ne, …

chew.flesh flesh-3GEN‘We picked some coconuts, climbed (up for them),split them, ate and chewed, took some water to drink, chewed the (coconut) flesh.’

Documents

Coordination and subordination, and the relationship between grammar and discourse Mark Donohue Australian National University [email protected]