Constructivism in Science Education

8/7/2019 Constructivism in Science Education

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Constructivism in Science Education

Learning Objectives

After studying this chapter, the reader should be able to:

• Develop awareness of the concept of constructivism.

• Describe the implications of constructivism for the learning environment,the roles of the teacher and the students.

• Explain the role of the science teacher in the constructivist classroom.

• Realize the impact of cultural and social constructivism on classroomteaching.

CONSTRUCTIVISM—AN INTRODUCTION

Constructivism is a concept that in recent years has garneredconsiderable attentionamong science education researchers. Essentially, it is a model or metaphor of how learning takes place. Constructivism focuses on knowledgeconstruction. The potential significance of constructivism has already extended beyond research and into the science classroom.

It has to be pointed out from the outset that the constructivist view primarily concerns a particular way of conceptualizing knowledge andknowledge acquisition (that is, learning). It is a view of the nature of knowledgeand its development based on a certain epistemology (i.e., a theory of knowledge).

Constructivist epistemology hinges on three assertions:

1. Knowledge is a way of making sense of experience2. Knowledge is always an interpretation and therefore always open

touncertainty.

3. All interpretations are based on prior knowledge.

The common constructivist core is a "view of human of personalcognitive construction, or invention, undertaken by the individual who istrying, for whatever purpose, to make sense of her social or naturalenvironment (Taylor, 1993). Knowledge is not viewed as some sort of a truecopy of features the world outside but as construction of the individual.Knowledge acquisition (i.e. learning) is not the transfer of "nuggets of truth"(Kelly, 1955) to the individual but a personal construction by the individual.The learner is not seen as a passive receiver but as an active constructor of

knowledge. During the process of learning, Learners may perceive the worlddifferently, based on their own unique experiences. The learners may then sharetheir knowledge with teachers, which make the teacher and the taught active participants in the learning process.

The constructivist view comes in many variants in science educationliterature on students learning (Good Wandersee & julien, 1993). Learning isdetermined by the interplay among learners' existing knowledge, the socialcontext, and the problem that is to be solved.

Paul Ernest (1997) in his description of the many schools of thought of constructivism suggests the following implications of constructivism whichderive from both the radical and social perspectives:

• sensitivity and attentiveness towards the learner's previous



constructions;• diagnostic teaching attempting to remedy learner's errors and

misconceptions;• attention to metacognition and strategic self-regulation by learners;• use of multiple representations of mathematical concepts;• awareness of the importance of goals for the learner, and the

dichotomy between learner and teacher goals;• awareness of the importance of social contexts, such as the

difference between folk or street mathematics and school mathematics

Bruner defines constructivism as a learning theory in which learners

construct new ideas or concepts based on their current and past knowledge.

Even though there are numerous interpretations of constructivism, severalcentral ideas common to all constructivist theories surface. Cunningham

and Duffy i dentified two major similarities that are the foundation of all

constructivist theories. They are:

• Learning is an active process of constructing rather than acquiringknowledge

• Instruction is a process of supporting that construction rather thancommunicating knowledge.

Two major streams of constructivism have evolved. These two streams are‘social constructivism' and 'cognitive constructivism'. These two streamsshare the following characteristics:

• All knowledge is constructed through a process of reflectiveabstraction.• A learner's cognitive structures facilitate the learning process.• An individual's cognitive structures are constantly developing.• Constructivist learning has to have constructivist learning methods and

pedagogy to back it up.An important concept for social constructivists is that of scaffolding

which is a process of guiding the learner from what is presently known to whatis to be known. According to Vygotsky (1978), students' problem solving skillsfall into three categories:

1. skills that the student cannot perform2. skills that the student may be able to perform3. skills that the student can perform with help

Scaffolding allows students to perform tasks that would normally beslightly beyond their ability without the assistance and guidance from theteacher. Appropriate teacher support can allow students to function at the

cutting edge of their individual development. Scaffolding is therefore animportant characteristic of constructivist learning and teaching.Bringing constructivist principles into the classroom have implications

for the learning environment, the roles of the teacher, and the students.

Learning environment

Honebein (1996) describes seven goals for the design of constructivistlearning environments:

• Provide experience with the knowledge construction process;• Provide experience in and appreciation for multiple perspectives;• Embed learning in realistic and relevant contexts;



• Encourage ownership and voice in the learning process;• Embed learning in social experience;• Encourage the use of multiple modes of representation;• Encourage self-awareness in the knowledge construction process.

Jonassen (1994) identified eight characteristics of the constructivist

learning environment. Constructivist learning environments— • Provide multiple representations of reality.• Represent that complexity of the real world.• Emphasize knowledge construction.• Stress authentic tasks in meaningful context.• Provide real life settings.• Encourage reflection on experience.• Enable context- and content-dependent knowledge construction.• Support collaboration and social negotiation among learners.

While in traditional education, the role of the teacher is seen as that of atransmitter of knowledge, in the constructivist classroom a teacher's rolechanges significantly. The role of the teacher in the constructivist classroom

is to act as a 'guide on the side' (Brooks, 1993). The teacher's job is to provide opportunities for learners to expand their knowledge in an activeand engaged format. The teacher cannot assume that all learners have thesame background knowledge or experiences on which to build newknowledge. Instruction has to be designed to make the missing connections for learners. The teacher facilitates the constructivist learning process. Wilson andCole (1991) provide a description of cognitive teaching models which'embody' constructivist concepts. From these descriptions emerge these keyconcepts of constructivist design, teaching and learning:

1. Embed learning in a rich authentic problem-solving environment;2. Provide for authentic versus academic contexts for learning;

3. Provide for learner control;4. Use errors as a mechanism to provide feedback on learners' understanding.

Learners in this environment are active and not passive. They areencouraged to be independent thinkers and problem solvers. Learners areengaged in experiences that go beyond factual responses and provideopportunities to hypothesis, to analyze, to interpret, and predict. Another keyconcept is to encourage learners to communicate and collaborate with others,thus allowing for reinforcement and elaboration of ideas and concepts.

In general, instructional settings are designed such that they allowstudents to take responsibility of their learning processes and allow them toexperience that science knowledge which may be meaningful and significant

for them. Project type approaches, more open forms of instruction like openended experimentation, and authentic learning environments are some feasibleones. Also ideas of situated and socially shared cognition are among thesignificant supporting conditions of conceptual change that address the aimsof student-centred science instruction. The context is an integral part of whatis learned. What is learned is inseparable from how it is learned.

Taylor and Fraser (^991) have developed a "Constructivist Learning Environment Survey" to assess supporting classroom climates. The four scales of their instrument reflect key issues that are also pointed out inmany other constructivist approaches:

The Autonomy scale measures perceptions to the extent to which thereare opportunities for students to exercise meaningful and deliberate control



over their learning activities, and think independently of the teacher and other students. The Prior Knowledge scale measures perceptions of the extent towhich there are opportunities for students to meaningfully integrate their prior knowledge and experiences with their newly constructed knowledge.The Negotiation scale measures perceptions of the extent to which there areopportunities for students to interact, negotiate meaning and build

consensus. The Student-Centredness scale measures perceptions of theextent to which there are opportunities for students to experience learning asa process of creating and resolving personally problematic experiences(Taylor and Fraser, 1991).

Characteristics of a Constructivist Classroom

The common core of the constructivist view allows to interpret(and hence; understand) students' learning difficulties as revealed by the manystudies available in a consistent manner and also provides guidelines for developing more efficient teaching and learning strategies. Learning whenever it happens (and it happens also, even successfully, in moretraditionally-oriented approaches) is viewed as active construction by the

learner. But the idea inherent in constructivism of taking the students' beliefs and conceptions seriously has led towards student centred pedagogy of science instruction. The focus here is on the students, their interests, their learning skills, and their needs in a broad sense. Scienceinstruction from that perspective aims at providing students with scienceknowledge in such a way that they understand the science concepts and principles rather than learning definitions and formulas by heart. Besides, theyalso understand in which way science knowledge is of significance for themselves and for the lives of all other human beings. The focus of such ascience instruction is not solely the significance of certain content domains inthe sciences, i.e. students' introduction into the cultural heritage that scienceknowledge provides, but also for the individual and society in general.Constructivism therefore has become part of a broad movement in scienceeducation towards "science for all" so as to make science knowledge moremeaningful.

The aims of constructivist science instruction are fundamentally differentfrom more traditionally oriented approaches. Understanding science in thedeep way is aimed at in constructivist approaches which go far beyond parrotlike repetition of definitions, formulas and the like. It includes applications of science knowledge for the mentioned purposes, and also incorporates viewsabout science and meta-cognitive issue. Further, the aim is to develop areflective learner who is aware of the strengths and limitations of her or histhinking.

In Table 1.1 some key contrasting aspects of traditional and constructivistscience education are given. This table stems from a holistic constructivist

approach.

Table 6.1 Contrasting Traditional and Portfolio Cultures in Science Classrooms(from Duschl and Gitomer, 1991, 849)



Traditional Science

Culture

Portfolio Science Culture

Logical Positivism Epistemology

Low student input/nonactive image

Scientific meanings received Low

level of Scientificrealism/semantic conception

epistemology Observation/theoretical

distinction untenable.

High student input/active image

Scientific meanings negotiated

High level of reflection

Uses strategic/principled knowledge

Role of teacher

Disseminator of scientific knowledge Crafter of scientific knowledge Nonparticipant in construction of scientific Participant in construction of knowledknowledge about science.Strict adherence to prescribed curriculum Modify and adapt prescribed curriculum

Scientific knowledge Knowledge about scienceWhat we know How and why we know

Emphasize fully developed final form Emphasize knowledge growthexplanations and explanation developmentBreadth of knowledge Depth of knowledgeBasic scientific knowledge Contextualized scientific knowledgeCurriculum units discrete Curriculum units connected

That Duschl and Gitomer (1991) call ‘Portfolio culture’. The term portfolio culture is meant to convey an image of

a classroom learning environment that reflects a comprehensive interplay between teacher, student, and curriculum.

Role of Teacher in a Constructivist Classroom

Constructivists believe that for knowledge construction to occur, a certain type of Learning

View of science

Strict hypothetical-deductive scientific method Partial Scientific method

Observation/theoretical

Curriculum goals

Role of learner



environment must be created. Strommen and Lincoln (1992), for the purpose, use the term"'child-driven learning environment." In a constructivist learning environment, children havethe ability to create their own ideas and collaborate with their peers, transforming the role of a peer from a competitor to a resource. Teachers' pedagogical content knowledge has proven to bethe key factor in new teaching and learning approaches under a constructivist perspective

The characteristics of a constructivist classroom are:• Shared knowledge between teachers and students• Shared responsibility among students and teachers• Small heterogeneous classrooms• The teacher as a guide and facilitator in instruction, depending on the knowledge level

of the students.

Teachers wishing to use student's prior knowledge in order to create appropriate lessonscan use prior knowledge interviews. This can be a short qu prior to starting a new unit or just aclass discussion. In a constructivist model, it is very important to know what the students alreadyknow. Students use prior knowledge to help make sense of the new knowledge being constructed. T helps students think critically and make informed decisions. Rice and Wils(1999) believe that only a constructivist classroom will foster a learning environment that will elicit

these desired responses.Jonassen (1991) isolated the following design principles:

1. Create real-world environments that employ the context in which lean is relevant;

2. Focus on realistic approaches to solving real-world problems;

3. The instructor is a coach and analyzer of the strategies used to solve these problems;

4. Stress conceptual interrelatedness, providing multiple representation perspectives on thecontent;

5. Instructional goals and objectives should be negotiated and not imposed

6. Evaluation should serve as a self-analysis tool;

7. Provide tools and environments that help learners interpret the mi

perspectives of the world;

8. Learning should be internally controlled and mediated by the lea

Brooks and Brooks (1993) as well as Yager (1991) summarize characteristics of aconstructivist teacher. Thus a constructivist teacher should:

1. Become one of the many resources that the student may learn fro the primary sourceof information.

2. Engage students in experiences that challenge previous conceptions of their existingknowledge.

3. Allow student responses to lead the lessons on and seek elaboration of students'initial responses.

4. Seek student ideas before presenting teacher ideas or before studying ideas fromtextbooks or other sources.

5. Encourage students to challenge each other's conceptualizations and ideas.

6. Allow student some thinking time after posing questions.

7. Encourage the spirit of questioning by asking thoughtful, open-ended questions.

8. Use cognitive terminology such as 'classify,' 'analyze', and 'create' when' framing tasks.

9. Encourage thoughtful discussions among students.

10. Promote student leadership, collaboration, location of information andtaking actions as a result of the learning process.



11. Encourage and accept student autonomy and initiative.

12. Be willing to let go of classroom control.

13. Not separate knowing from the process of finding out.

14. Insist on clear expression from students.

15. Extend learning beyond the class period, classroom and the school.16. Focus on the impact of science on each individual student.

When students can communicate their understanding, then they have truly learned.

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Constructivism in Science Education