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CONSTRUCTIVISM: APARADIGM FOR OLDERLEARNERSDorscine Spigner-Littles, Chalon E.AndersonPublished online: 11 Nov 2010.

To cite this article: Dorscine Spigner-Littles, Chalon E. Anderson (1999)CONSTRUCTIVISM: A PARADIGM FOR OLDER LEARNERS, EducationalGerontology, 25:3, 203-209, DOI: 10.1080/036012799267828

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CONSTRUCTIVISM : A PARADIGM FOR OLDERLEARNERS

Dorscine Spigner–LittlesDepartment of Human Relations, University of Oklahoma,

Norman, Oklahoma, USA

Chalon E. AndersonDepartment of Psychology,

University of Central Oklahoma,Edmond, Oklahoma, USA

The collective pro�le of older learners di� ers from that of younger learners. Olderlearners tend to be highly motivated and favorably predisposed toward the learn-ing process. Older learners comprehend and retain information more e� ectivelywhen it is presented using instructional methods and classroom environments thatrecognize inherent di� erences between this population and the various groups ofyounger students. Instructional/teaching methods and techniques found to be espe-cially e� ective with older learners were identi�ed and discussed in context withthe well-established Cognitive and Constructivist Learning Theories.

Educators who are concerned about and sensitive to the educationalneeds of older learners have frequently sought to develop teaching,learning theories, and methods, which will ultimately improve educa-tional services provided to seniors. As a result of this concern there isan ongoing search among such educators to identify, develop, andimplement instructional strategies, activities, resources, and class-room environments which will improve the overall learning experi-ence of the older learner. In this article we will share some theories,methodologies, and techniques that we have developed and/or foundto be useful in our e� orts to teach older learners more e� ectively.

Address correspondenc e to Chalon E. Anderson, Department of Psychology, Uni-versity of Central Oklahoma, 100 N. University Drive, Box 176, Edmond, Oklahoma73034, USA.

Educational Gerontology, 25: 203–209, 1999Copyright 1999 Taylor & FrancisÓ

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204 D. Spigner-Littles and C. E. A nderson

Our experiences in teaching older learners have revealed that suchstudents tend to do well when allowed to have some control over thelearning environment. In most cases, older learners who return toschool are highly motivated and strongly predisposed toward learn-ing. When permitted to control their learning environments, such stu-dents tend to focus their e� orts on improving their existing skillswithin the context of their personal styles and behavioral patterns.

We have consistently found that, among students of all ages, learn-ing is most e� ectively accomplished when new information is con-nected to and built upon a student’s prior knowledge and real-lifeexperiences. This �nding appears to be especially relevant whenapplied to the older learner. We have found that teaching olderlearners is most e� ectively accomplished by actively encouraging andinviting their participation and input ; thereby capitalizing on theircollective prior knowledge and life experiences. In such an environ-ment, the instructor ideally becomes more of a facilitator and moder-ator and serves mainly to keep students focused as they share theirviews and perspectives and actively contribute to the subject matterbeing explored.

Our experiences have lead us to conclude that older learnersrespond best to collaborative learning environments, in which theinstructor and students provide and share information. In a collabo-rative setting, students are encouraged to actively participate and toopenly share their own conceptualizations regarding solutions toquestions posed by the subject matter. A collaborative setting pro-vides students with the greatest opportunity to (1) connect new infor-mation to their existing base of knowledge and real-life experiences,and (2) reconstruct and transform their prior knowledge and cogni-tive processes to enhance their understanding of the subject beingexplored.

Some of our experiences and observations parallel other well-established educational paradigms and theoretical frameworks suchas the Cognitive Learning Theory and the Constructivist LearningTheory.

COGNITIVE LEARNING AND CONSTRUCTIVISM

The Cognitive Learning Theory (which can be traced to Piaget,Jerome Bruner, and others) identi�es experience as a contributingfactor to relatively permanent changes in behavior while the Con-structivist Learning Theory suggests that knowledge is somethingthat individuals construct for themselves using their previous experi-

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Constructivism and Older Learners 205

ences and derived knowledge and understanding as the buildingblocks. Based on the Constructivist Learning Theory, constructivismfocuses on how people de�ne what is meaningful in their lives,(Brower, 1996; Derry, 1992).

The theory of constructivism maintains that knowledge is acquiredthrough an active process in which the individual continually struc-tures and restructures experience through self-regulated mentalactivity. It is through this self-directed interpretive activity thatknowledge is created, di� erentiated and integrated into more com-prehensive forms (Mascolo, Pollack, & Fischer, 1977). The Construc-tivist Learning Theory alters the roles between instructor andstudent in the learning process and makes the student more centralto the overall process.

Students bring to the classroom setting cognitive structures basedupon their unique individual experiences that have largely shapedeach individual’s thinking and accumulated knowledge. Althoughtheir cognitive structures may be valid, invalid, complete, or incom-plete, learners tend to select and process incoming information to �twith, connect to, or even challenge their previously constructedknowledge. In order for learning to occur and become an integrated,useful part of the learner’s memory, new information must besomehow tied to the learner’s goals, experiences, previous knowledge,values, beliefs, and/or socio-cultural factors.

Our observations of older learners tend to support the construc-tivist learning theory in that we found knowledge to be developedinternally, rather than simply transmitted by an instructor to apassive student. We also found that learning occurs most e� ectivelywhen the mind �lters incoming information, and connects that infor-mation to past knowledge and current relevance. Learners must con-struct their own schemas (Ahm, Brewer, & Mooney, 1992; Brower &Nurius, 1993; Dopkins, Pollatsek, & Nordlie, 1994) and solutions toproblems by actively revising, restructuring, experimenting with, andplacing the new information into their existing cognitive structures.As a result, e� ective learning is based on re�ections, personalinsight, and permanent change in behavior (Rathus, 1994). Informa-tion that is simply memorized and unrelated to the learner’s worldview will be quickly forgotten.

Concurring with the Constructivist Learning Theory we foundthat older learners respond best when students and teachers shareequal responsibility in the learning process and share equal respectfor one another. Similarly, the learning process for older learners isimproved when instructional methodology is developed around theneeds of the learners and when the learners �nd the subject matter to

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206 D. Spigner-Littles and C. E. A nderson

be relevant. We have consistently found that older learners thrivewhen classroom activities are structured to (1) help them develop newskills; (2) challenge their pre-conceived notions, attitudes, andbeliefs; (3) help revise their world views; and (4) encourage andpromote self-regulation in the learning process.

In pro�ling older learners we �nd a student population whosemembers have abundant life experiences along with a wide assort-ment of backgrounds and ways of thinking. Many older learnersreturn to school to enhance leisure time, to gather and disseminateinformation for e� ective living, and/or to simply keep their mindsactive and vital. Most older learners have well-formed expectationsand tend to approach their classes with commitment and a strongsense of personal responsibility. The inner motivation to develop auseful skill or new knowledge usually gives older students theimpetus to structure activity so that their learning will be active andpurposeful (Llewelyn & Dunnett, 1987).

CREATING EFFECTIVE LEARNING ENVIRONM ENTSFOR OLDER LEARNERS

Our experiences and observations have caused us to conclude thatthe following issues should be considered in developing and imple-menting an e� ective pedagogy for classes intended to meet the needsof the older learner. First, recognize that the learning process amongolder learners is most e� ective when new information is connected toand builds upon prior knowledge and real-life experiences. Whenintroduced to new subject matter, most older learners learn by com-paring past experiences with new experiences. They need to see howinformation �ts with, or is di� erent from, their internal schema(Piaget, 1972). Teaching strategies must incorporate the olderlearners’ previous life experiences into classroom activities whichencourage and permit the older learners to share their ideas andexperiences with fellow students.

A second consideration is recognizing that older learners tend tobe emotionally attached to the beliefs, knowledge, values, and worldviews that they have developed over a period of many years. Evenwhen faced with irrefutable information that contradicts long heldbeliefs, these learners are much more likely to reject or attempt toexplain away such new information. By doing so, they experienceproactive interference (Davis & Palladino, 1997). When dealing witholder students, learning is most e� ectively achieved when knowledgeis constructed, not transmitted. Learning will most often occur when

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Constructivism and Older Learners 207

information is relevant to the student and when the student under-stands why and how to use the new information.

Recognizing that older learners are accustomed to exercising judg-ment in setting priorities and allocating their time is a third tenant.As a result, they tend to seek more �exibility in the scheduling of andcontrol over their learning experiences. Creative teaching strategiescan o� er the older learners greater opportunities to participate in theplanning and pacing of their course work.

As a fourth tenant, recognize that when teaching older learners,instructors should ideally serve as facilitators or coaches who helpstudents to organize information around problems, questions and dis-crepant situations in order to stimulate and encourage their interestand active participation. The instructor’s instructional responsibilityis not simply to provide open-ended learning, but rather to develop aset of meaningful paths through the learning process. What seemsmost important to older learners is having instructors who can e� ec-tively assist students to develop knowledge-building skills and capa-bilities that enable students to construct their own understanding ofeach concept and relate that understanding to real-life situations.

Finally, recognize that older learners may initially anticipate andeven desire traditional teaching methods with instructors lecturingand providing feedback and some interaction. E� ective instruction tothis population may require that the instructor introduce the olderlearner to new pedagogies including self-directed learning, goalsetting, self-evaluation, project management, critical thinking, groupparticipation, and how to access information resources.

In dealing with older learners, we have found a number of teachingapproaches and strategies to be particularly useful and e� ective.Several of these techniques are utilizing e� ective questioning styles,encouraging cooperative learning, utilizing discussion groups, andencouraging the students’ active involvement.

Our older learners have consistently performed better when ins-tructors ask probing, thoughtful, open-ended questions. In most casesthe older learners respond with thoughtful input and make concertede� orts to grasp the concepts being presented. Questioning techniquesthat personally involve students ideally allow them to respond inways that re�ect their individual experiences and knowledge andpromote the sharing of such experiences and knowledge with otherstudents.

Cooperative learning, an instructional method that enhancessubject relevancy and encourages students as members of small teamsto actively assist one another in learning, has been a highly e� ectiveinstructional technique when used among older learners. The older

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learners’ high motivation and substantial life experiences tend tomake them ideal participants in small team projects and learningexercises.

Group discussions allow students to examine and investigate prob-lems from more than one point of view or perspective. In group dis-cussions, students are encouraged to express and often defend theirviews while hearing, evaluating, and questioning the views of othermembers of the group. We have found this instructional technique tobe especially useful among older learners due mainly to their highmotivation, diverse life experiences, and mature interpersonal skills.Group discussions stimulate creative thinking and provide a sociallaboratory where rules, norms, and shared success in endeavors canbe realized (Kelly, 1955).

The use of active, rather than passive, instructional methodsencourages and stimulates students, particularly highly motivatedolder learners, to willingly share responsibility for learning (Watson,1924). Instructors should continually invite them to share personalstories and experiences relevant to the subject matter.

CONCLUSION

Educators concerned with providing e� ective instruction to the olderlearner should recognize that there are certain inherent di� erencesbetween this student population and the various groups of youngerstudents. With proper planning and instructional insight, motivatededucators can capitalize on those di� erences and substantiallyimprove the e� ectiveness of instruction provided to the older learner.We have found that older learners respond best in a positive andtrusting classroom environment ; one in which all students are madeto feel welcomed, comfortable, and respected.

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Brower, A. M., & Nurius, P. S. (1993). Social cognition and individual change. NewburyPark, CA : Sage Publications.

Davis, S. F., & Palladino, J. J. (1997). Memory. In Psychology 2. (pp. 253–293). UpperSaddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

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