Cons Artifacts

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The Conservation of

Artifacts Made fromPlant Materials


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The Conservation ofArtifacts Made fromPlant MaterialsMaryLou E Foran Dae Pau ronkrght uth E oron


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Covr: Warao bakt tray Vnzula

Fowlr Muum o Cultural Hitory UC S77S

Corse Coornator Benta JohnsonPublatons Coornator: Irna Averie GCDesgn Ja Galagher GCITehna Ilustraton ane t Spehar Enrquez an aurie GrovePrntng Prneton nversy Press

990 The J Pa Gety TrustA rghts reserve

Lbrary o Congress Catalogng-n-Pbaton Data

Floran Mary-ou E.The onservaton o artats mae rom plant materals Maryou

E. Floran Dale Pa Kronrght uth E. Nortonnues bblographal reerenes an nexSBN 0-89236-60-3. Pant remans (Arhaeoogy)Coeton an preservaton

I. Kronrght, Dae Pa. II. Norton th E. II TtleCC79.5.P5F58 1990930 028 ' 520


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T G C I

The Gett Conservaton Insttue (GCI) an operatngprogram o the J Paul Get Trus was create n 1982 to

enhance the quat o conservaton practce n the worltoa Base on the bee that the bes approach o conservaton s nterscplnar the nsttute brngs together theknowlege o conservaors scentists an art hstoransThrough a combnaton o nhouse actvtes an collaborative ventures wth oher organzatons the nsttute pasa cataltc role that contrbutes to the conservaton o ourcuural hertage The nstute ams to rther scentcresearch to ncrease conservaton tranng opportuntesan to strengthen communcaon among specalsts.


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Chatr MryLou E Florn

ChatrMLou E. Florn

Contents

Preface X

Plant Anatomy: An Illustrated Aid to dentication

he Classaton an Nomenlature o PlantsMorphology an Development

Plant Morphology Embryon Development

Prmary ssues Arrangement o Prmary Tssues n Pan PartsBas Cell Types o Prmary ssue

Seonary TssuesOrganzaton o Seonary Tssues n a Wooy StemSeonary Xylem Seonary Phloem Pererm

Chemstry an Stture o the Cell Walleerenes

Identication of Plant and Animal Materials in Artifacts

Samplng

Preparaton an Stanng o Mrosope Sles o Basketry MateralsMaterals Supples an EqupmentCuttng Setons o the Sample Orentaton o Setons Wet-Mont Preparaton o Mrosope SlesSle Preparaton o Arhaeologal Artat MateralMethos o Observaton Stanng Samples Preparaton abelng an Storage o SlesStanars o Doumente Materals

1

223357

35892027

29

30

3132

33

33

34

34

35353737


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Chat Rut E. Norton

Chat 4Dle Pul Kronkrt

Identaton of Plant and Anmal FbersPlant Hars . . . . . . . . . .Plant eaf and Stem FbersProten Fbers of Anmal Orgn

Identaton of Pant Parts and TssueStems Rootlets, and hzomesMonoot eaves

Seondary Phloem TssueTrue Bar TssueWood TssueWood Orgn Branh Root or Trun)

Cted Referenes .Addtonal Readng

Techng f Pant Materias Used in Artifacts

Genera Proessng Proedures

Cutvaton and HarvestngDrng . . . . . . Rettng and CoongFber Extraton . . .Wettng and HeatngBleahng . . . Dyeng

General Construton TehnquesRemova of MateralReshang . . . . . .Jonng

Interworng of Fbers and ElementsDeoration and Fnshes . . . . . .Cultura Modaton of ArtfatsPlant Materas sed n Artfat Construton

Stems Truns and Rootseaves . . .Seeds and Frut

ConusonReferenes . . . .

Deteriratin f Artifacts Made Frm Pant Materias

Fators n Deteroraton . . . Conservaton as Deteroraton . .Fousng the Study of DeteroratonProertes and eves of OrganzatonProbemat Condtons . Deteroraton and Ethnograh Evdene

. 38

. 39

.

. 52

. 57

. 57

. 63

. 66. 7

. 72

. 75

. 78

. 79

3

. 8

. 8. 8 5

. 85

. 86

. 86 86 87. 87. 87. 88. 89

. 89. 97 98. 99. 991122533 3 3

139

00231


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ChapterS

Ruth E. Norton

he Pocesses of Deteioation

Physical Deteioation

Chemical Deteioation

Mechanical Deteioation

Biological Deteioation

Documenting Evidence of Deteioation: ests and Analyses

Refeences

Conservation of Artifacts Made from Plant Materials

Collection Cae . .

Ethical Consideations

Labeling tifacts

Consevation Suveys

Stoage and Display

Pest Management

Tanspotation and Shipment

Field Conservation

Consevation eatment Pocedues

Documentation

Cleaning . .

Reshaping

Deacidication

Consolidation and Restoation of Fexibility

Mending .

Restoation

Concusion

Refeences

Appendices

Mending Stuctues with Twisted and Foded Mubey Pape Stands

Dale Paul Kronkriht

2 Constuction of Stoage Boxes and Foldes

Ruth E. Norton

Chaacteistics of Adhesives

Ruth E Norton

4 Dyeing Celulosic Mateials With Fibe-Reactive Dyes

Ruth E Norton

. 45

. 46

. 165

. 75

. 78

. 82

. 1 87

195

. 96

. 1 96

. 1 97

. 200

. 20 0

. 2 05

. 2 05

. 2 08

. 2 08

. 2 0

. 2 15

. 22 9

. 2 33

. 2 35

24

. 264

. 269

. 2 70

287

. 2 87

. 29 3

. 299

. 30 1

Glossary . . . 309

Index . . 315


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Preface

Obects made from plant materas comprse a arge portion of the etnograpic

matera n colectons around te world. Conservaton of suc perishabe arti-

facts is especially problematic when they are housed in climates derent from those

n whic tey were coected, as s oen the case

A certan amount of research into the consevaton of plant materia arti-

facts has been carried out and pubsed However, to date no substantive voume

exists tat brngs togeter this scattered information from various dsciplines.

Te present publicaton, wie far from exaustive in its treatment of te subject,

attempts to ts acuna

In Juy of 1987, the Gety Conservaton Institute sponsored and osted n

Los ngees, Caifornia, a sixweek course tted The Conservation ofArtifacts Made

from Plant Materials. Recognizng te dearth of easiy accessbe reference material

for use n the course, te GCI invited three of the instructors (MaryLou Forian,

Dae Kronkrigt, and Ruth Norton) to prepare class notes syntesing te topcstley were to teach Te present volume s based on the prncipa texts prepared for

that course, wic ave snce been revsed and, where necessary, expanded to pro-

vide continuiy and consstency.

Contents

The Conservation of Artacts Made from Plant Materials is intended as an nforma

reference source for practcng consevators rather tan as a textbooktat is, t

does not provide a complete coverage of te subject of consevaon, nor does it

present a unied approac Havng been derived from te class notes of tree n-

structors, te ve capters reect each autor's persona perspective and orientation.

Chapter 1 , contributed by MaLou Foran, ntroduces plant anatomy as

t relates to the conservator's need to ident plant parts and bers aong wit teir

chemica composton This information is essenta in order to understand when

and ow deteroration occurs. Morphoogy is addressed only to te extent that t

umnates identcaton

Capter 2, also prepared by MaryLou Florian, is comprised of two separate

sections: ( 1 ) identcaton of plant bers and ( 2) identication of plant parts or

Preface l


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tissues For practica purposes, the author has limited the information to the most

common plant materias found in arifacts, with an emphasis on materias from west

ern North America Because bers of common animal origin at times are used as

decorative eements in artifacts, the author has aso included identication tech

niques for these materias She has seected actual artifact samples to illustrate this

chapter, which incudes basic aboratory techniques and stepbystep methods for

staining bers and tissues

Chapter 3, contributed by Ruth Norton, describes the maor known meth-

ods and techniques used in making artifacts from pant materias, with an emphasis

on obects made in Oceania and Southeast Asiathe area of the authors specia

expertise The topic of manufacturing technology is important because the methods

used in processing pant materials and manufacturing objects have a direct eect on

preservaion

The chapter on deterioration, Chapter 4, contributed by Dae Kronkright,

buids on the information presented in previous chapters Kronkight emphasizes

that it is the combination of multipe deterioration processes that leads to degrada-

tion of artifacts Because itte research has been done in this area, it was necessay to

infer some of the information presented from wood deterioration studiesThe fth and na chapter, like the third, was written by Ruth Norton Ad-

dressing the issue of conservation, it emphasizes the importance of nonintervention

whenever possible when dealing with ethnographic artifacts, which seve to docu-

ment the cuture of their manufacturers. The treatments discussed in this chapter are

viewed ony as astresort measures in cases where rther deterioration is considered

imminent or where restoration is required for aesthetic purposes

For the readers convenience, bibliographic references are listed at the end

of each chapter.A index and a gossary of specia terms are also incuded at the end

of the volume

The Authors

MaryLou E Florian studied bioogy and botany at the University of Briish Colum-

bia and the Universi of Texas, where she received a Master of ts degree in bot

any, with emphasis in pant anatomy She aso studied ne art at the University of

Saskatchewan and anthropoogy at Careton Universiy, Ottawa Ms Florian has

worked for the Restoration and Conservation Laboratory of the National Gaery of

Canada and was Senior Conservation Scientist at the Canadian Conservation Insti-

tute from 1972 to 197 8 Since 1 97 8, Ms Florian has hed the post of Conservation

Scientist at the British Coumbia Provincia Museum in Victora, B C , Canada

Dale P Kronkright received his Bachelor's degree in American materia

culture at the University of Caifornia, Davis He aso competed a cericate pro

gram in wood micro technique and botanica systematics at the Bailey Wetmore

Laboratory, Harvard University, aer which he served a twoyear internship in inter-

pretive colections consevation with the California Department of Parks and Recre-

ation Mr Konkright has served as Assistant Conservator at the Peabody Museum,

Harvard University ( 198219 83 ) and as Museum Conservator at the Redding

Museum and Art Center in California (19831986 Currently he is Senior Objects

XII Preface


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Crvatr at th Pacic Rga Crvat Ctr, Brc Paah Bihp

Mm, H, Hawa

Rth E Nrt i a graat th Uivrity DawarWitrthr

Mm MS. prgram i Art Crvati Sh wa Oct Crvatr at th

Pacic Rgia Crvati Ctr, Brc Paahi Bihp Mm Hawa

rm 1978 t 1982. Drig a av rmth Ctr, M. Nrt pt ight

mth a Crvatr a Trair at th Natia Mm th Phiippi.Frm 198 2 t 198 7 h wa ctrr i Oct Crvat at th Carra

Cg Avac Ecat i Carra, Atraia. M Nrt i w i pri

vat practic.

Acknowledents

Scr tha ar t th wh ctrit mch thir tim a rt t

rig that thi vm appar prit t th athr, mt av, wh

xtivy rv th matria thy prpar r tachig th cr 1987 t

Bita Jh wh crat that cr a th tart th pcati pr-

c t R Syr, Aitat Cratr th Traiig Prgram, wh tvr th r cratig thi picat a aw it thrgh t cmpt

t iaa Bctt r tria wr th macript t WiamEm a

Char Swit, wh rvw th macrpt rm a citic prpctiv a,

ay, t Jat Sphar Erqz a ari Grv r th tchica itrat.

Prfce x


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1Plant Anatomy: An Illustrated dto Identifcation

E

The Classication d Nomenclature of Plants

Mary-Lou E. Florian 1


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Fure Leaf shapes.

a r i ig a txti, a th cr tm r ar r

crati i atry. Bt th marity matria, rm gra av t w

pit, cm rm arig pat

h Sprmatphyta ivii ctai tw itct grp pat, th

ymnopermea Angoperme

Gymprm ic th rar cyca, gta, a gi, a th cm

m cir tr a hr. h w a ir ar cr tr arcmmy i artiact.

Agiprmwrg patar ivi it tw ca Mcty-

a (mct) a Dictya ( ict) , a th prc

(m) r t (i) av (cty) i th Gra a ycca ar

xamp mct th harw ci tr a th at r

hmp a i cm rm ict With ach ca thr ar (Agavaca,Cmpitaca, a ) which ar ivi it gra that ic iivia

pat pci. h mcatr a patr xamp, Quercu lb (whit a)

giv th g Quercu a pci lb am h pci i th aic it a

ic pat rm cmm part, whra th g cit cy rat

pci, ch a Quercu lb a Quercu rubr

h caicat pat i a primariy th ra a rprctiv

part a trctr, which hav itt ppicati t r r iticati

artact matria. Bt thr ar m aic aatmica irc amg th

grp that ait i iticati

haphyt (aga a gi) hav a tha, which i a pat y wth-

t rt, tm, r av a witht vacar ti.

Bryphyt ( ivrrt a m) hav av a tm, t t

hav tr rt a hav imit vacar ti.

Ptriphyt (r) hav tm, av, rt rhim (rgrtm) , a wvp vacar ti

Sprmatphyt ( pat) hav tm, av, a tr rt

h aatmica trctr prmatphyt hw grat variati, t

thr ar aic irc amg grpr xamp, th i arragmt

vacar i mct tm i ctrat t th circar arragmt i ict.

h a thr irc that ai iticati ar ic i ta atr

Morpholo and Development

Plnt Moholo

Mrphgy i th rm r trctr pat part. Fr xamp, m av ar

thi a g, whi thr ar hrt a thic (Figr ) . h mrphgy

pat part ictat thir i artiact. Hwvr, ic mrphgy ca

ict t itgih i rtrpct wh y part a a r tm hav

, it i t vry t crvatr a a charactritic i th iticati

matria.

2 Pant natom


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coledonshoot

root

axlla bu

apa merstemof shoot

apcal merstemof root

Fure 1 Merstems n threeses of the deelopment of a seedplant

Fure 3 a Cross secton of adcot stem b) Cross secton of amono cot stem

Embryonic Development

O grmiati a , mryic c (mritm) ivi a irtiat t

rm c cutr ha cti a a ui ca tiu. Mritm ar cat at th

ap th rt a tm a a i u (Figur .2 ) C i pat may vary i

i rm 0 / t 50 / ( micr i qua t 000 mm) i with a 0 / 50 / (r mr) i gth Th ct h tiu ar t giv h w pat mchaica rgth, t ar watr, a t yhi a raprt matria

r rthr grh a rpruci

Th y a pat i ma up iict part r rga r,

tm, av, wr, ruit, a Th rga ar cmp irt i

u, uch a maic, trghig, prctiv, rpruciv, a . I tur,

tiu ar ma up trctra a phyigica uit ca c.

Primary Tissues

Emryic c prt i h mritm a ar activ thrughu th grwth

a pa Th tiu that ar rm m thi mryic activity ar ca pri-

mary tiu A tiu i a grup c hat cti a a uit Th tiu a

gra pa, r amp, ar primary tiu. I th pa i a pria, wmryic tiu (camium) rm ach grwig a, givig ri t w iu

tha icra th girh th pat uch tiu ar ca cary iu. Th

w a tr, r amp, i cary iu, ut h tiu h av th

am r i primary tiu uraig th arragmt a ci

th tiu i th pa ai i th iticati maria a h urtaig

hir trirai

Primary tiu ar u i tm, r, wr, a av thy ar th

iu th trapr (vacuar) , rgthig, ur prctv, rpructiv, amtaic ym. Scary grwh i uuay imi t grwth i th m a

rt. Thr th cary iu ar u i h traprt, trgthig, a

prtctiv ytm

Th tiu wihi a ym ( .g . , vacuar, trghig) hav pcic

am ra t hir pii i th pa rga a t hir pcic cti. I

ach iu thr may a ig typ c r a varity c. Th iu am

i h irt ytm a c typ ar i w a a iructi t th vca-

uary (Ta ) Dcripti h tiu a c i primary a cary

u w

bvascular bundles

epderms

Maro E Floran


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Table 11 Prma and secondaplant tsses and ther cells

Fre 14 Types of stelesa) protostele b) amphphlocsphonostele c) ectophloc sphono

stele d, e) dcostele.

a

Tissue

Transort systmxylm

hlom

Mtaboic systmmsohyll

cortx ground tissu)

ih

Strngthningsclrnchyma

colnchymaProtctiv

idrmis

ndodrmisridrm bark)

Growthmbronic

-

I I : I I I I I

=-:lv'.-

\ J =:-

4

b

Cells in Primary Tissue Cells Secondary Tissue

vssl mmbr trachidtrachid vssl mmbrrotoxym arnchymamtaxylmarnchyma

siv lmnt siv lmntcomanion cll comanon cllarnchyma

chlornchymaarnchymaarnchymaarnchymaidioblasttannin clarnchyma

br trachid trachidvascular br bundl br trachidhlom br hlom brsclrid scridcollnchyma

idrmalhyodrmalstomataltrichom

silicaglandularndodrmal

hllmhllodrm

mristmatic vascular cambiumhllogn

c d e

/ ,.

Plan atomy


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a

b

c

d

e

f',

-xlm

Fur 15 Typs of vascular bun-dls: (a) radal, (b) collaral (c)bcollaral, (d) concnrcamphcrbral, () concnrcamphvasal

Fur16.

(a) Basc ssu arrangmn n monoco or dco laf shOnn cross scon. (b) N vnaon of adco la (c)Paralll vnaon of amonoco la

Collateral Vascuar Bundle. This type has separate vascular bundles with

the xylem on the nsde and the phloem next to the cortex (Figure b).

The bundles are separated by parenchyma cels Oen the protophoem

forms phoem bers for support Collateral bundles are characterstic of

the stems of dicots and gymnosperms, occasionay n some ferns and

rarely in monocots (e .g co)

Bcollateral Vascuar Bundle This type of vascular bunde has both inter

nal and external phloem (Figure c) I t is found n some dcots, for ex

ampe n Soanaceae (potato family) , Cucurbitaceae (gourd famly), and

Apocynaceae (Indian hemp famly)

Concentric Amphicribra Vascular Bundle Here the phoem surrounds

the xylem (Fgure d) . Commonly found n ferns.

Concentric Amphivasal Vascular Bundle. Here the xylemencircles the

phoem (Figure .e) Commonly found in monocots and dcots

The Leaf

Structurally, leaves and stems are quite smlar. The arrangement of primary tissue in

the stee and the arrangement of vasculartissue in the vascuar bundes are the same

in both Oen, only parts of leaves or stems are used in artifacts and their structural

smilarity can make identicaton of the plant part dcut.

Most leaves are dorsoventraly attened Between the upper and lower

epidermis lie the mesophyll tissue (photosynthetc palisade mesophyll and respira-

tory and spongy storage mesophyll) and the vascuar bundles that form veins. The

arrgement of the vascular tissue follows that given for the stem

a

uppr pdrms

_ _

.

vascular bundl

_palsad msophyll

_ spongy msophyll

\10r pdrms

b c

6 Plant Anatomy


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Fure 7 Arrangement ofprma tssue n a pcal root.

a percycle

phloem

lem

b

protolem

metalem

c

protolem

metalem

dprotolem

early metalem

late metalem

Fure .8. Derentma lem n the stele of roots: adarch b trarch c tetrarch,d polyarch

root harouter epderms

/ cortex

endoderms

phloem

lem

Leaf structure varies depending upon the environment for whch it is

adapted. Monocot and dicot leaves in cross section may appear similar, but there is a

basic dierence in the vein structure : In monocots the unbranched veins lie parael

to one another while dicots contain a reticulate network of branched veins. The

parale arrangement of veins in monocot leaves makes them excelent material for

basketry and weaving because they can easily be split into ne strands while still

retainingbrous strength

Leaves have many species-specic characteristics that aid identication.

For genera purposes however, Figure 1 6 provides a comparison of basic tissue

arrangement in ypical mature monocot and dicot leaves

The Roo

The cross secion of a root in Figure 1 7 shows the arrangement of primary tissues

and the cear separation of the external epidermis cortex, and vascular system.The epidermis is specialized for water adsorption and usually has root hairs,

which are single epidermal cels with hairlike extensions. The cortex consists mainy

of parenchyma cells with interceuar spaces. The innermost ayer of the cortex is

dierentiated intoan endodermis, the cells of which contain a waxy suberin band

caled the Casparian strip Within the endodermis is the vascuar cylinder with the

outer pericycle and internal xyem and phloem. This stee is a protostele with a

centra core of xylem surrounded by phloem

Primary xylem in the stele of roots can assume dierent patterns These are

called diarch, triarch, tetrarch, and polyarch according to the number of arms of

xyemwo, three, four, or many, respecively (Figure 1 8a bc,d

Basic Cell Types of Primary Tissue

Identication of basic cell types is essential to the idenicaion of materials used

in artfacts. Oen, only minute fragments that have ost their issue integrity are

availabe for anaysis, and the ability to recognize just one cel l may be the keyto

identicaion

May-Lo E. Foian 7


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epidermal

Fure 19. Outer layer of epidermisshowing continuous layer of epider-mal cells

Fure 110 Epidermis of a grass leafshowing stomatal complex and epidermal cells. (a) Cross section of epider-mis showing stomatal complex. b)Surface view of epidermis shing stomatal complex.

Fure 1.11 Surface view of epidermis of dierent plants showing variation in stomatal complex

Epidermis

The epiderms consutes the ayer of cells that covers the plan body. The cels take

on specic nctions, as reected in their sructure. There are proective wax epider-

mal ces, guard cells tha regulate transpiraon or ar and water vapor exchange,

and glandular and hair cells The continuity of heepdermis s nterrupted by the

minuteopenngs of the guard cels, caed stomata.

Structure ofthe Epidermal Cell

The cel wa of waxy epiderma cels is usualy hickened on the surface The waxy

materia s called cuin; it oen forms a waxy bloom or cuticle on the exposed sur-

face of the ce wal. Pectc subsances glue he cuce to he cell wall. The ncons

of the wax are waerproong, uraviolet and infrared reectance, and proection

from microorganisms.

The epidermal ce may be colored due o the presence of tannins and plan

pigments. In Figure 1 .9, the sructure of he ouer epderms shows a connuous

layer of simar epiderma cels

Stomatal Complex

Somaa are openings n he epderms. They are surrounded by speciaized epider-

ma cells caled guard cells that regulate he size of the openng or soma The

complex of the soma and wo guard ces is caled a somaa compex (Figure

1 . 10 ) Someimes epidermal cels adjacent to the somaa compex dier in shape

from oher epiderma cels; such cells are caled subsidar cells ( Figure1 . 1 1 ) . The

arrangement of he guard ces and he subsidiary cels s an ad to identication of

pan groups

Special Types of Epidermal Cells

Other tpes of cells are foundn the epidermis, such as ganduar and hair ces

Some epidermal cells may conain silca or cork. A few of these are ilustrated in

Figure 1 1 2.

a epidermal cellsubsidia cell

g

bstoma

\I uard

cell

subsidia cell

epidermal cellstoma

a c

8 Plant Anatomy


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Fure 11. Secil es of eider-ml cells: () uniserite hir (b)stellte hir, nd (c) stlkedglndulr hir

Fure 113. Prenchym cell chr-cteritics () Prenchym cellstructure (b) Phytoliths inbulrush renchym cell (c) Prenchym cel she secilized forbuoyncy.

a b c

Parenchyma Cells

The bsic cel tpe of he ebolic syste is the prenchy cel I s thinwled

cell nd ncons o produce or store srch, pigent, ol crysls, nd tnnin.

Newly fored prenchy cells contin iving proops (Fgure 1 . 1 3 .

Contents o f Prenchym Cels

Cell contens cn be n id o idencon For exple, he prenchy cells ofhe lef of the bulrush ypha latolia L contn crystllike phytolths tht re

rediy seen under he icroscope (Fgure 113b

Prenchym Cel Shpes

Prenchy cells y ssue ny dieren shpes reecng ther nction. For

expe, ef cels seen in cross section y be elonge to drw sunlight ino the

ef for ecent phoosynthesis Or prenchy ces y hve stellte shpe to

provide rge res for ir dding buoyncy to eves coonly ssocited wih

wter envronens (Fgure 1 . 1 3c Such cels re clled erenchy cells Oen

he shpes of hese ces re lso ds to identiction.

Vascular Tssue

The priry ssues of the vscur syste re he xyle, which rnsports wter

wihin the pln, nd he phoe, whch trnspors etboc producs such s

sugr cds nd prooplsic contents The xyle nd phloe ces re ssocited

with strengthenng bers nd lvng prenchy cells to for vscur bundle The

prir cell pes of the xye re he protoxyle nd etxyle trcheid nd ves

se eber cels The prr cell types of the phoe re he sieve eeents nd

copnion cels.

a rim wl

l

MayLo E Floian

livingrotolst

b c

9


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Fure 6. Vrie of picl second wll hickenings of prim lemcells nnulr bc,d helicl, e

sclrorm reicule, nd pied

a

b

sieve ple

sieve re

compnioncel

ple

sieve re

compnioncell

Fure Longiudinl view ofsieve ube showing sieve elemens wihdjcen compnion cell srfce sieveres nd sieve end ple. b rosssecion of prim phloem showingsieve elemens sieve ple, nddjcen compnion cells

Fure 8 Digrm of locion of

phloem bers in commercil linenpln sem

a b c e f g

Thus the ature xyle cels are, essentally extracellular tubes for the transport of

water and dissolved nerals.

Phloem Tissue Cels

The basic cel l types of the phloe are the seve eleents parenchya cells sceren-

chya bers and sclereids The priary and secondar phoe contain the sae

cell types, but transport offood (etabolc products) n the axal syste of the pr-

ary tssue ony occurs longitudinally, whereas the axial and radia systes n thesecondar phloe ncorporate radial transport as we

e Sieve Elements

The seve eleents, or sievetube ebers, are long cells with thn priary ce

walls and without a protoplast (igure 1 17 Protoplas ows into adacent ces

through sieve areas on the wals of the seve ces The dstinctive shapes of the sieve

areas are rarely seen in dried artifactual atera, because the cells are thinwaled

and colapse during dehydration of the proteinaceous cel contents Coparative

anatoy studies show that gynospers and ower plants have sieve cells wth sieve

areas along the length of the cell walls whereas angospers have sieve areas only at

the end was of the ce ls. The sieve ces do not have a protoplast; adacent livingcopanion ces in angospers contribute the necessary ateras for nctoning.

Sclerenchyma Phloem Fiber Cells

bers are coony located on the outsde of priary phloe. These cels are

long, with thick wals, and are used as coerca bers ( for exaple, Linum,

Cannabis Apocynum) Scereds ay aso be associated with phloe and are an

aid in identicaton (igure 1 . 18 . Details of scerenchya bers and sclereids are

discussed in the section on prary supportng tissue

epidermis corex

sclerenchym phloem bers

phloem

cmbium lem

Ma E Floan 1 1


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Fure 1.19 Coenchyma cell shapeand distribution a cross section ofcoenchyma tissue showing unevenlythickened walls of cells (bc cross sec-tion of stems showing pical distribu-tion of collenchyma (dark area in

stems, and d in a lea

a

b

Fure 120. Sclerenchyma cella bers and b sclereid.

a

L

Pid rmis

b d

Prima Supporting issue

Colenchym

Te colencya cell as relaivey so pliabe priary was and an acive proo

plas. Te cel wals are ric in pecic subsances and eicellulose wic allow

e o swel o a urgid sae for sreng. Te wall is no ignied To ake a

drooping ceer salk crisp for insance pacing i in waer will allow e colen

cya cells o adsorb waer and becoe urgid. Te ce was are unevenly ick

ened e ickes region is a e coers beween cels (Figure 1 19 a .

Colencya is locaed eier direcy benea e epideris or one or

wo cells beow i. In ses i ay for srands ribs or a connuous ring of issue

(Figure 1 19bc In e leaf blade i is associaed wi e idrib on e venral and

dorsa regions (Figure 1 . 19 d

Sclerenchym

Sclerencya issue is coposed of cels wi ick secondar was. Scerencya

cells generally ake wo forslong slender cels called bers and isodiaeric cells

called sclereidsbu ere is a wide range of ransional fors (Figure 1 20a b .

Te walls of ese wo sclerencya ces sow srong birefringence ( e abiiy o

refrac lig under crossed nicols using polarized ig

Sclereids

Sclereids (Figure 1 .2 1 are usually found as isolaed cells in a ssue and because

ey dier so uc in for and size fro oer cells are caed idiobass. Tey ay

occur in e ground issue epideris and vascular syse and vary greay in sape.

Sclerenchyma Fibers

Like e sclereids sclerencya bers are found in any plan pars. Te bers are

ong wi srong secondar wals Usualy ey occur in bundles and are wdely

used coercially Te ends of e ong bers in a bunde overlap adding sreng

(Figure 1 2 0 . In coercia appicaions individua bers or ber bundles ay

be used depending on e degree of fabricaion. In dicos scerencya bers are

coonly associaed wi se vascuar bundles suc as ploe (bas bers

(Figure 118

Te individual ber cells in longiudina view sow e ick secondary

wal e cenral luen of e cel and caracerisic nodular arkings along e

leng of e ber Tese arkings are oen species specic and aid in idenicaion

of bers. Coon sclerencya ploe bers used in arifacs include e eps

inen ikweed singing nele raie and ue (Figure 1 22 .

1 2 lant Anatomy


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Fure 1.21 Eamples of sclereidshapes: a) stem, b) lea c) uitd) seed coat in surface (upper) andlongitudinal lower) view.

Fure 1.22. Longitudinal view of individual bers om Lnumusitatssimum linen) showing characteristic nodular markings and cen-tral lumen

a b c d

In monocots, leaf bers may enclose a vascular bundle like a sheath or form

caps on one or both sdes of the bundle Ths is detailed n the section on monocot

leaves. The sclerenchyma leaf bers of monocots are commonly used as bers n

artfacts and commercial goods (manla, agave, pneapple bers, sisal, and so on ).

The sclerenchyma vascular bundle sheaths or caps are retted out or pulled mechani-

cally from the leaf tssue

Secondary Tissues

Secondary tissue is found n trees, both dcotyledons (hardwoods) and gymno

sperms (sooods) , as well as in bushes and shrubs Occasionally secondary tssue

is produced in some large biennal plants.

The secondary tssues are formed durng the second phase of plant growh,

whch increases the grth of the primary plant body. Prmary tissues are formed from

embryonic cells called apcal merstems, which are located at the tips of the shoots,

roots, and buds, while secondary tissues are formed from new embryonc cells in

stems and roots called cork cambum and vascular cambum.

The vascular cambium is located between the xylem and phloem, withn

the vascular stele, and produces new secondary xylem and phloem. Cork cambium s

located in the outer cortex and produces a perderm of mainly bark or cork cel ls,

whch take the place of the epdermis

Secondary xylem is what we cal l wood. Secondary phloem is often called

the nner bark, and periderm is the true bark. Both primary xylem and phloem,

as prevously described, consist of cells runng longtudinally. The secondary

xylem and phloem have these longitudinal cells but also have cells that radate

ouard from the central axis of the plant body. These cells make up the xylem or

phloem rays.

Prmary and secondary cells are simlar n ncton, and the same basc cells

are present, but the tissue organzaton is dierent Because the secondary tssue has

a threedmensonal structure, it is necessary to vew all three sides n order to under-stand the complete organizaton of the tssue and structure of the cel ls. To do ths,

wood is seconed on three surfaces:

cross (or transverse) section, taken across the long axis of the stem;

radial secon, a longtudinal secton taken on the radus of the crcular

stem or root

tangenta section, a longitudnal cut on the tangent of the crcumference

of the circular stem or root

May-Lou E. Foian 1 3


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Fure 1.23 Tree-dimensionalaspect of tree Ctnk or woody stem.

Organization of Secondary Tissues a Woody Stem

The threedimensiona diagram of a woody stem in Figure 1 .2 3 shows the arrange-

ment of the outer bark, secondary phoem, cambium, and secondary xylem on the

transverse surface.

The secondary xylem (wood) has two distinctive features: ( 1 ) annuar

growth rings that represent the amount of tissue formed in one growing season,

and ( 2 ) dierent cell wall thicknesses at the edges of these rings. The thinwalled

cells of eary wood tissue are formed in the spring, during the rapid growng season,

and the thickerwaed ces of late wood at the end of the growing season. The

centra region of the wood may appear darker in coor than external wood. The dark

central region is wood in which colored resins, tannins, phenolic materias, and

other substances, have been deposited to waterproof the wood and make it resistant

to decay. This central wood is called heartwood. The outer region of wood adjacent

to the cambium is lighter in coor; in life it has a higher water content and stores

carbohydrates such as starch This is called sapwood.

Secondary phloem forms on the outer side of the cambium. In some oder

tree trunks, such as western red cedar, yellow cedar, and some Eucalyptus species,this is the most externa tissue and is incorrectly caled bark. The secondary phoem

aso shows annuar growth rings, but not as distincty as in the wood. The thickness

of this tssue varies with the species.

The periderm, when present, is the outside tissue of the stem. This tssue is

composed of the circuar bands of outer phellem or bark cels, the middle cork cam-

bium or embryonic tissue, and inner pheoderm cells or secondary cortex. On the

transverse and radial surface, the parenchyma cells of the wood and phloem rays are

seen as continuous lines of ces running out on radii of the circular stem. The wood

and phloem rays run continuousy through the xylem and phoem. On the tangen-

tial surface the rays are seen as individual cells in cross section. The shape of theserays varies with species. Al the cels of the secondary tissue have secondary walls

wth the exception of the parenchyma ray ces.

wood (seconda xlem)

rayscambium

outer

inner barkliving tissue of seconda phloem)

4 Plan Anatomy


31/351

a b

pits

arif rm

peration plate

bordered pits

Fure 124 Comparison of (a) atracheid and (b) a vessel member.

Fure 125. Fiber tracheids of dicotwood in (a) longitudinal view and(b) cross section.

Secondary Xylem

Cell Types

The three cel tpes of secondar xye nclude ( 1 the waterconductng trachear

eleents the tracheds and vesses; (2 supportng bers; and (3) the etaboc

ssue ray parenchya cels.

Tracheary Elements

The bers of wood pup paper are falar to ost everone. Here the word ber s

used to refer to all the wood cells ost of whch are trachear eleents Tracheds

are the an trachear ces of sowood and vessel ebers are the an tracheary

cels of hardwood. Thus tracheds and vessel ebers serve to dstngush the wo

types of pulp paper. The ost sgncant derence n the wo types of cells s that

the vessel ebers are open at the ends whch have perforaton plates allowng free

oveent of water fro one ce to another whereas the tracheds lack perforatons

or openended walls. The coun of vesse ebers s caled a vessel . The orphol

ogy of the perforaton plate s used for dentcaton of hardwood speces (Fgure1 .24 . The water oves fro one trached to another by bordered pts on ther

radal was. The bordered pt s ade up of pt pars on the secondar wals of wo

adjacent cells whch buge out lke wo nverted saucers. Between the pts s the

dde aella copex whch acts as a vave ebrane to open or close the pts.

The presence of bordered pts always ndcates a gynosper wood There are also

pts on the radal was of vessel ebers but they do not have the coplex bor-

dered pt of the tracheds The sze arrangeent and orphoog of these pts are

used to ad dentcaton of hardwood speces.

Fiber Tracheids

Fber tracheds are berlke tracheds n the secondar xye of hardwoods ( dcots They der fro sowood tracheds n havng thcker wals and pts wth entcuar

openngs rather than crcular openngs. The secondary cell wall ay be gned and

n dcot reacton wood the cells are rch n gelatnous heceuose and are caled

geatnous bers (Fgure 1 .2 5

Parenchyma Cells

The parenchya cels var consderably n shape and cel content. The wood rays

are ade up of groups of parenchya ces that are specesspecc n cel sze and

arrangeent. Wthn the rays the parenchya cells ay be of wo derent tpes

(heterocelular ether procubent or uprght n orentaton or they ay a be

the sae (hoocellular . The ray cells have sple pts jonng the to adjacent

tracheds and vesses.

Cmparisn f Swd and Hardwd Structures

The foowng are ony a few of the salent anatocal derences of wood that are

used as ads to dencaon. dentcaton keys are gven n the references. The

keys are usually dchotoous keys whch eans that at each step there are two

chocesthat s the presence or absence of a specc characterstc. If the character-

stc s not present then one proceeds to the next two aternatves

Mary-o E . Floran1 5


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Fure 26 Tranerse secion of sec-onda lem showing a resin canalih (a) hickwalled epihelial celsand (b) hinwalled epihelial cells

Fure .27 Types of pi pairsoccurring in he cross elds ofconerous woods: (a) piceoid(b) cupressoid, (c)axodioid(de) fenesral pinoid

Fure .28 Variaion in size anddisribuion of essels in hardwood

growh rings: (a) diuse poro wihlae wood essels smaller han earlyood (b) duse porous wih lae andearly wood essels similar in size (c)

ring porous.

b

racheid

r

resin canal

}r

R

I

hin walledepihelial cell

rhickwalledP

epihelial cell

a b c

@ @

I

a b

:1

I I

d

:01I I

i

c

e

0

on

Soood Coniferous Wood

Al sowoods hav trachids no vssls ar prsnt. Bordrd pits ar prsnt on th

radial wals of th trachids.

Th following faturs vary with softwood spcis

Rsin canals ay b prsnt or absnt; pithlial clls scrtory cls that

produc rsin ay b thin or thickwalld (Figur 1 2 6

Pitting in d crossings o f ray parnchya clls and trachids ayb on offour typs (picoid cuprssoid taxodioid and fnstra

ilustratd in Figur 1 27

ay trachids thick wad clls that run radiay along th outsid o f thray parnchya and hav bordrd pits and no protoplast ay b prs-

nt or absnt.

Hrdood

A hardwoods hav vsss and thickwald brs Th arrangnt and variaton

in siz of th vssls ar faturs usd for idntication. Within a growth ring thvssls ay b a on siz or ay vary in siz fro arg arly wood vssls to sall

lat wood vssls (Figur 1 .2 8 Th vsss ay b distributd vnly throughout

th growth ring (dis porous or concntratd along th bginning of a growth

ring (ring porous.

Prforation plats ar ofvarious shaps Th prforaton plat ay b a

sip opning ( sipl or th pat ay hav para bars of various tcknsss

(sclarifor across it (Figur 1 29

Plant atomy


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Fure 1.29 ariation in perforation plate of eel member(ab) imple perforation plate(cde) ariation in clarorm

peration plate.

Fure 1.30 Pitting pattern on eel radial all (a) clarorm (b)oppoite and (c) alternate.

Fure 131 Hardood ray hapeand cell arrangement (ab) longand hort homocellular ray (tan

gential) (c) bieriate heterocellularray (tangentia (d) multieriate

homocellular ray (tangential) (e)homocellular ray (radial) and heterocellular ray (radial).

a b

a b

a b

C(cG


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Fre 132 Cmarin f rnk,r, and branh wd xlem eenin r ein a he ame magna-in. a rnk wd hw verialand hriznal arrangemen f eland nly ne grwh ring b Rwd hw vare f many grwhring, large, hinwalled raheidand many arenhyma wd ray Branh wd hw grwhringare and mall hikwalledeland enral ih

Fre 133 reedimeninal rre f enda hlem f weernred edar hwing layer f ber beween w ieve elemen and aarenhyma el a Tranere,b radial and angenial view

a b c

Secondary Phoem

Te primary and secondary ploem contan te same cell types (see section on

primar phoem tissue cells) Te ce types of te secondar ploem are te sieve

elements and te companion ces of te sieve elements, te scerencyma bers, te

sclereids, and te parencyma cells (ongitudina and ray). Conferous phoem and

icot poem are similar in structure. Tey are composed of alternate layers of bersseparated by sieve element cels and parencyma ces (Figure 1 .33 ) . e presence of

te tinwaled parencyma cells adjacent to strong bers allows te tissue to sepa

rate easily into seets of cels is is te reason tat it is used as a brous material in

artifacts Te newly formed secondar ploem adjacent to te vascular cambium is

living tssue and te cells are nctional in food storage and transport Oder second-

ar poem tat as taken over te nction of protective barkas gone troug

cellular canges. e bers remain te same size and sape, te sieve eements co

lapse, but te parencyma cels enlarge and produce tannin and polypenoics to

waterproof te tissue. is older secondar poem fragments easily and is not used

in makng artifacts

ieve member

maninarenhyma ell

b

c

ieve area n ieve elemen

r

arenhyma

1 8 Pant Anatomy


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ure 134. ree-dimensionaldiagram of the cork cells of thephellem of birch e long axis ofthe cells is around the tree trunk

Fure 1 .35 Transverse suace oftrunk of large conerous tree shOingirregular rhytidome of the bark

tangential

Periderm

0

l

, '

I

radial

The periderm s the protective bark of secondary orign The basic cels of the per-derm are the cork cambium, whch is embryonic tssue that gives rise to the phelem

cels toward the outside and pheoderm cels toward the secondary phoem Phel

lem cells are commonly caled cork cells Pheloderm cells are parenchyma cels.

barks contain the same cells, but there are dierences in ce size and arrangement

that aid in identication

Cork cells of the pheem are heavily suberzed cell was. Suberin s a waxy

substance whose chemcal characterstcs are discussed in the secton on the chems-

try of cell walls Tannins give the browntored coor to the cell walls of certain

treesfor example cherry bark The pheem develops in growth rings simlar to

wood The thickwaled late cels adjacent to the thinwalled early cells are weakponts that aow the bark to exfoiate o a tree trunk as in brch bark ( Fgure 1 34 )

It is ony the phellem of the periderm that is used for decoration and construction

of artfacts Some of the confers and eucayptus trees lose the perderm aer the rst

years of growth, and the secondary phloem tes over the nction of the bark.

n some od coniferous trees, such as pines, the perderm is made up of od

dead tissue that is irregular and corky and is caed the rhytidome (Fgure 1 .3 5)

M-L E. Florian 9


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Chesy and Srucure of he Cell Wall

A basic understanding of te cemicals in te cell wall is necessary to understand

te reasons for te use of specic plant materials in artifacts as well as teir inerent

weaknesses and reactions wit conservation treatments. Many conservation treat-

ments use cemicals tat coud dangerously alter te cemicas in te ce was and

cause rter deterioration. Even suc a simpe treatment as wasing wt watermay ave deleterious eects on some watersouble materias Tus a knowledge

of te cemicals in plant materias is necessary before logical treatments can be

devised Te majority of te folowing text on te cemistry of te cel wa as

been excerpted from an article by te autor (orian 1987 but te empasis as

been atered for tis manual .

The Chels of the Cell Wll

Cellulose

Location

Cellulose microbrils are embedded in an amorpous matrix of emicelulose

pectin smal amounts of protein and sometimes lignin in primar and secondar

cel walls.

Structure and Organization

Celuose is a carboydrate polymer made up of gucose monomers in long

cainlike molecules Many of tese ong cains form brous poymers tat involve

dierent evels of organization (moecules macromolecules microbrils

macrobris .

Te mecanical strengt of cellulose is a result of te strong bonds between

te glucose units te great lengt of te molecues and te strong intermoecular

bonding of te macromolecular cains Celulose is a igly polar polymer Tis

means tat one side of te molecule is negatively carged and te oter side is posi

tivey carged Tis expains te strong intermoecular bonding.

Crystalline and orphous RegionsCellulose as regions caled micees in wic te ong cellulose moecules t tigty

togeter over a long region and are ed strongly togeter by teir own ydrogen

and otr secondary bonds. Te micelles are te crystaline regions of te molecule

Te long celulose moecules may pass troug te miceles into an amorpous

region were te cellulose cans are not eld togeter but lie more or less atrandom Solvents and enzymes rarely can penetrate micelles wereas tey may

easily penetrate te randomy oriented moecues in te amorpous region. Mate

rials tat penetrate te amorpous regions are readily bonded to te available ydro-

gen's dipolar and secondar bonds and cause sweling cemica reactions and

even dissolution of te cellulose. Te more micear te regions te more insoluble

te cemica.

20 Plant Anatomy


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Hydrtion nd Seling

n hydrated celuloe water oecue are held by econdary force but ot abun-

dantly by chain egent in aorphou regon cauing welng. Dry ceuloe i

inexbe or brite, but celluoe with 12% oture content (MC at 60% to 80%

R i quite exble . Water therefore act a a paticizer for celluloe .n ot dehydrated organic coloid rehydration i poible But wth

waterlogged celluoe the trong intercelluloe bond brng the oecue tightlytogether durng dehydraton einating oiture and caung extree hrnkage;

thi ake it ipobe to rehydrate One of the greatet probe with conerva

tion of celuloc aterial how to retain ucient oture beween the cel luloe

olecule to retain exbty and prevent extree hrinkage

hen welling extree the ce tructure detroyed and the celu

loe no onger talline The change fro crytanty to aorphou tate can be

oberved by polarized ight. Crytalline region how potive brefrngence the

abity to refract ight whie aorphou region have negatve birefringence

A iple deontration of the crytalne tate of celuoe can be ade by

uing two heet of polarizing l one placed between the ource of light and theicrocope and the other between the obect and the eye The lght paing

through the polarizing l vibrate in only one pane f the two polarizing

are at right angle to each other with regard to their plane of polarization, no lght

penetrate and the ed n the polarzng icrocope appear dark. f a crytaine

tructure uch a celluloe i placed between the two polarizing l oe light

reache the eye Becaue of it crytalline nature and the aociated property of lght

refraction the celluloe change the pane of poarzation of the lght that reache

the polarzing l above the obective and thu perit oe ght to pa through

it and enter the eye.

Extree weing of celluloe ay occur in trong alkaline oution ( 1 0%

to 22% KOH. Under thee extree condition celluloe ay wel enorouly but

wll not dove. On dryng thi ceuoe adopt a derent crytalline tate called

Ceuoe a copared to natve Ceuoe .

Eect of p H nd Slts on Seling

Reearch on the role of pH and alt on the welling of wood pup and uperaborb

ent cotton how that the wellng i greatet at about neutraity and i depreed at

both low and hgh pH vaue At all pH vaue weling i rther reduced by the

preence of alt. Th phenoenon due to the ootic gradient caued by the

preence of bound onzable group in the acroolecuar network of celluloe. n

pure water they are in exce n the celuloe; thu the water ove in to ati theootc gradient cauing wellng

Exree pH value releae bound ionzable group thu changing the

ootic gradent and reducing weing. The addition of neutral alt equalze the

ootic gradient and alo reduce weling.

Mau E. Floan 2 1


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In reference o conseration reaens of plan ber aerias if suc ae

rials are placed in deionzed or fres waer excessve swelng ay occur. Suc swell-

ing ay cause rreversble bond breakage and deforation of e cellulose bers

gving e weaker ecanica srengt and greaer ceical solubity.

I is ineresing o noe a in e paper ndusry e use of reduced absorp-

on a ow pH as recenly been exploed o produce bo an econocal drying

process and a conversion of e acd groups of sule and kra pulps fro e freeacid o e sodiu sals wic resuls in a 20% o 30% increase in e ensile

sreng of e paper. Cerainly s inforaon as soe iplicaons for conserva

tion of ceuosc aerials.

Depolymerization of Cellulose

Cellulose can be depolyerized and broken ino souble onoer uns only under

extree conditions. Tis process ay occur very slowly by oxdaion acid ydro

lyss or gaa radiaion. s rae ay be increased by oisure ig eperaure

and lig.

Biodeterioration

Enzyatic degradation does occur readily wi cellulyic bacera and ngi bu e

icroorganiss require condensed or free waer for grow. n wood icroscopic

anayss of te daage sows bacerial piting and ngi digestive trougs n cell

wals algned along e angle of deposition of e ceuose acrobrils and in bor

dered pis. Te celluose as been enzyaically dissolved. Tis would cause loca

pyscal weakening of e cell wal Brown ro ngi of wood enzyacally reove

al e celulose and leave e brown gnin; ence e nae brown ro

gnn

Location

Lignn is found only n cell walls of and pans and os coonly in perennial

pans I ipars rigidity o e cel wal provding sreng for uprg grow.

Lgnin akes up 1 5% o 35% of e ceica consuens of supporting tissue and

60% o 90% of is ocaed n e idde aela priary wal copex Lesser

aouns are locaed in e secondary and eriary wals

Lignin in ce walls varies in aoun depending on e ce or tissue type

and species origin. For exaple 19% o 25% is presen in ardwood bers and 25%

o 3 0% in sowood bers Epideral airs suc as coon ars and collencya

cels (a priary ecancal tissue ay no conan any ignn. Along wi eicelu-

loses and pectins gnin lls e inersces between ceuose crobrils. I appears

ta because of is nsolublity lgnin is ceicaly bound o e eicelluloses

Lgnin and carboydrae poyers n e ce wal proec eac oer by blocking

solvensor a leas rearding er enrance. In woods w eiceuose oss te

gnin is exposed o ceica cange Analysis of waerlogged woods usually sows a

decrease in eicelluloses Lignin is exreely perssen i as been found in neary

nora aouns aloug ceicaly aered n 1 00llionyearold wood fro a

land burial sie. Lignn s e precursor of coa.

22 lant Anaomy


39/351

Structure nd Orgniztion

Lignin is composed of a group of similar very arge amorphous aromatic poymers

wth lttle opportunity for crosslinkage or crystalinity. Because t cannot be ex-

tracted from cel l walls without chemcal alterations the exact structure of native or

rstformed protolgnin in cell walls is not known. Because of dierences in ther

molecuar structures ignins are divided nto three categories: sowood hardwood

and grass or annual plant ligin.Rectivity

Lgnin is a highly reactive substance with free groups (hydroxyl methoxy and

carbonyl that readly undergo bondng. In the analysis of many ancient woods

extracted lgnin shows an ncrease n methoxy content over modern wood.

Soubility

Lignn s insouble in water and is less hygroscopic than celuose or hemceulose.

It is sensitive to akaline degradaton.

Physicl Chrcteristics

Lignin mparts rigdity to cell walls but abnormay high amounts n cell walls causebrittleness. Lgnn s thermopastc it softens at 80 C to 120 C and liquies at

140 C to 145 C. Chemcay atered ligin loses its thermoplastic qualities.

Hemcellulose

Loction nd unction

Hemiceluloses are ocated in all layers of the cel wa. They are concentrated in

primary and secondary was mixed with gnin and cellulose and are aso present in

the celuose free middle lamella associated wth ignin

Exactly how hemicellulose associates with cellulose is not completely cear

but t s considered to be found in cel wals in more or less ntimate associaton with

cellulose. Lignin bonds chemically to hemiceluose but not to cellulose. It appears

that hemicelulose is a protective colod acting as a hydrated amorphous matrix

surroundng cellulose brls preventing aggregaton hydrogen bonding and

cocrystallization of the celulose bers.

Remova of hemicel luloses has been shown to ncrease the crystallity of

bers indcating increased cellulosecellulose bondng. Cellulosehemiceuose as

sociation is exbe whereas celuosecellulose bonding is rigid with low strength

propertes. In the paper ndustry pup wth hemicellulose has greater wet strength;

it is also used for surface nshing of some papers.

The amount of hemceulose in cel walls varies with the dierent cell typesand plant species. For example the hemcelulose content n wood (xyem is 25% to

40% in jute bers 25 % n cotton hair 1 % and on ivory nut cell wals 90%.

Ma-o E Floian 23


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Structure nd Solubility

Hemiceuloses are amorphous carbohydrate poymers. They are short chains,

usuay branched sructures, wihou microbriar strucure They consis of a

mixure of several dieren monomers or residues (the penose sugars, Dxylose,

Dmannose, Dgucose, Dgaacose, Larabinose) and uronic acids (0mehyl

Dgucuronic acid, Dgucuronic acid + D gaacuronic acid) The amounts and

seecion of the residues vary with pant species The characeristc feature of ahemiceuoses is the presence of he acidic Dgucuronic Dgalacuronc acid

residues The uronic acids allow large amounts of water to be absorbed during

hydraton They have a similar roe to hyauronic acid in animal tissue and the acids

in pectn.

Hemiceuoses are solube in alkaine condiions and some of the low

moecularweight poymers may be extraced by waer They are readiy hydroyzed

by acids and he enzymatic acivi of baceria and ngi.

Pctic ubstncs

Loction nd unctionPectic substances are ocated mainy in the midde amelae and primary wa. The

amounts of the pectic substance vary greatly wih ce types For example, wood

(xyem) conains 0. 5% o 1 5% ( of dry weigh), bark 7% to 30%, coton (primary

wal) 9%, and coenchyma (supporting cells in sems and leaves) 5% Pecic sub

sances are hydrophiic and act as a moecuar cooid in cel wals They can form

ges; the rigidiy of the ge depends on he engh of the poymer They form a part

of he coninuous amorphous matrix beween ceuose microbris in primar wals.

They give rigidiy to cell wals, acing as boh intercellular cement and cemen be

tween the amorphous cutice and the surface of epiderma ces For plant pars, such

as eaves, commony used in artfacs, he interceuar cementing feature of the pectic subsances is of utmost importance oss of he pecic subsances may cause oss

of tissue integrity and the cutice The pectic subsances may aso pay an imporant

role in permeability of he ce wal o ions n vivo studies show ha Na, K, Ca, Fe,

and P04 are absorbed in he pectinike substance of the cutice

Structure nd Rectivity

Pectic substances are linear poymers made up of poygaacuronic acids and are usu

ay caled poyuronids They are negativey charged and acidic in nature. Pectic sub

stances are a group of reaed subsances (proopectn, pectin) The terminoogy of

these substances depends on their soubiity and chemica structure

Proopectin is the naive rstformed pectic substance in plant issue It iswaer insouble and probably derives is insoubiity from being compexed with cal

cium ions I can be dissoved by using sequestering agents or cacium binders such

as ammonium oxalate in acid and aso by hot diute akaine conditions

Pectin is solube in warm water and, on cooing, is capable of forming gels,

as in jam or jelly Pectin is made of two chemically dieren acids, pecic acid and

the more abundant pectinic acid The primary dierence between the two is in the

amount of mehoxy side chains, which are formed on changing the COOH group

o COOCH group Pecic acids are ow in mehoxyl conten, insolube in acid, and

lan Anatomy


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Editor)s Note:Artifacts comprised of parts of deciduous tees and shrubs have two very important

diagnostic features that allow their identication when the pants are not in eaf

These features are evident on the branches and persist on bark stripped from the

tree or shrub Lentces are spong areas in the cork surfaces of stems and branches

that aow an exchange of gasses between interna tissues and the outer atmosphereTranspiration aso occurs through these pores as the loss of water as vapor n young

stems these are represented by stomates ( stomata) and with age they become heav

ily suberied as they are incorporated into the periderm of vascuar plants They

may consist of a single ayer of ces ( as in Sambucus, the ederberry bush) or they

may exhibit mutipe ayers when seen in transverse section (as in Aristolochia,

Dutchman's pipe) Viewed macroscopicay they var in sie and coor and exhbit

diverse patterns of distribution When combined with other extea features on a

stip of bark these are exceent in providing a diagnosis of the plant species in ues

tion O bark Quercus), for example has arge conspicuous entices on the

young branches

A second feature that proves usel in wintering deciduous pants is the scar

e by the absent eaf abscission ayer forms in order to sea the area eft aer

the leaf drops This is initiated ear in the growing season so at the time of abscis

sion the resuting eaf scar is cean and reveas a characteristic shape within which

specic patterns of vascuariation are evident These pattes are formed by the

position of the vascuar bundes that formery suppied the leaf with nutrients and

carried away photosynthates to other parts of the plant The number sie shape

and vascuaration patterns of tese eaf scars are exceent diagnostic toos in ati

facts utiiing arge strips of bark such as baskets Guides to tees and shrubs of

the temperate areas of the word rely heaviy on lentices and eaf scars for botanica

identicationA third categor of diagnostic evidence derived from macroscopic examina

tion of bark is bud scae scar rings n deciduous hardwoods the termina growth

ceases at the end of each growing season At the tip of the shoot there is a termina

bud constituted by overlapping primordia eaves and in some instances a oral pri

mordium The scaes tat cover these areas of termina growth (eaf and ora meri

stems) are usually covered with a heav cutice and may aso have copious amounts

of resins ( as in Populus popar) At the resumption of the next season's growth

the scales fal o and growth resumes eaving a ring where individua scales were

attached This area is known as the bud scale scar ring The sie of individua scaes

the number of scales as reveaed by the scars the sie of the ring and the distancebetween these rings are a usel in identiing bark of unknown origin t is impor

tant to remember that the distance between the bud scae sca rings may in part be

a nction of the growing season

Plat Aatomy


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References

Cuter D.C

198 Applied plant anatomy London Longman Group Ltd

Dicher DL

194 Approaches to the identcaton of angiosperm eaf remains e Botanical Review40(1 ) : 1-15

Esau K

1965 Plant anatomy. New York: John Wey and Sons

19 Anatomy of seed plants. New York John Wley and Sons

Forian M -LE

198 Deterioration of organic materias other than wood In Conservation of marine

archaeological objects C Pearson, ed London Butterworths

Hayward HE

1938 e structure of economic plants. New York MacMian

Metcafe CR

1963 Comparative anatomy as a modern botanica discipline (Systematc anatomy of

monocots) In Advances in botanical research, Vo 1 R.O Preston, ed New York

Academc Press

Panshin AJ, and C de Zeeuw

190 Structure dentication uses and properties of the commercia woods of the United

States and Canada In Textbook of wood technology, Vol 1 New York McGraw-H

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Sampling

Samping means to remove from an artifact minute pieces of the materias to be

used for identication. The rst premise of samping is an awareness of the precious

ness of the artifact and of the ethica issues invoved. That is, samping must not de

stroy the aesthetics or stabiity of the artifact, introduce consing too marks, or

destroy potential research information

The purpose of samping must be ceary dened in advance. Vaid reasons

for samping incude:

Documentation (verication, research, and authenticity)

Restoration (using compatibe materias for repair)

Conservation treatment (understanding materia/treatment interaction)

It must be ceary understood that samping shoud be done ony when required for

vaid and specic purposes.

Some artifacts simpy do not have materia that can be samped without

destroying some aspect of the artifact, such as very tighty woven basketry without

oose ends or fragmented areas.

Sampling Procedures

1 . Because oneis samping a precious artifact, it is essentia to protect it from dam

age whie samping. One needs to ensure that the sampe is fromthe specic

component needing identication and that it is recorded appropriatey. The rst

step is to cean an area in preparation for the artifact and to coect the necessary

equipment:

singe-edged razor bade

forceps cear adhesive tape

scape

cotton goves

index crds

water botte with eye dropper

abes

gass microscope sides

magniing ens

gass coversips (22 mm, No. 1 ) scissors

coor pencis/pens

2 . Pace the artifact in a cean area. Carey study its construction using cotton

goves to hod it. Look for a sma piece of material that can be removed with

out interfering with any aspect of the artifact. The fragment remova shoud not

destroy the research potentia, aesthetics, integrity, or stabiity of the artifact Re

cord the spot on an index card. To prevent contamination or consion, make a

diagram or photo of the artifact; ceary mark the component, coor and region

3 Identication ofPlant and Animal Materials


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Picea oot wood; oss angna and adial stons; safanin 0 and

toudin bu stains

uja plicata sonda phlo; oss angna and ada stions;

safanin 0 and toluidn bu

Populus Epilobium o Erioporium has; who ounts; phoogluno

sain on

rtica, ana oton and inn bs; whol ounts; phloogluino

stan onl

Prunus u bak; sudan III o fi hloid

Mterils, Supplies, nd Equipment

upplies

iosop glass sds ( fostd nds)

gass ovslips (22 No ) slid abs

bibuous pap

sngldgd azo blads o stainlss st pnil knif

olutions and Use

Doppng bottls of

wa

oluidin bu ( dihoat; pia and sonda ssu)

aniln blu (pon san)

safanin 0 (nonsp pant tissu)

sudan III (subn ui and ol sain)

iodn potassiu iodd (sah stain)

xn ( fo lang)

Poun/Canada basa ( fo pannt slds)

hl lohol (fo dhdation)

phloogluino (gnin stain)

boophno bu (pon stan)

f sulfat (tannn stain)

5 sodiu hdoxid (fo swing ations)

25 hdohloi ad ( ignn stain oponn)

0 5 a aid (boophnol bu oponn)

Mirosope quipment

sto dissting iosop

opound iosop

polaizing lnss fo opound iosop

dentaton of ant and mal Mateals


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lns pap

donstaton osop with aa and No 5 bakandwht

Poaod

Cutting Sections of the Smple

Man of th saps ovd wll not b ontd o thn nough to b vwddt wth th osop, and wll qu sonng Rov th sapl fo

th ndx ad. n an ass, th a adhsv tap an b ut fo th ad and

plad on th osop sd wth th sapl sd up Pla th sapl to b s-

tond on a gass sld n a sal dop of wat Pla th sd und th dssng

osop axu x)

Obsv th aon ofth atal to wat Swlng ndats a potn

ata, whas unfoldng o opnng out suggsts a plant ata Rod on th

ndx ad an ations of th sapl; ths a b an potant aid to dnta-

on Lav fo a fw nuts to alow t to son.

Obsv and od dstnv ophologal fatus of th atal,

suh as:

on o ut sufas, whh ndat fabaion thods

ntat sufas upp and low pds, o out pds of uastutu

Exfolation of tssu las

Makings ood gons, sufa pattns, paalll vasua bundls

Plant pat laf, st, bs

Wh obsvng th sapl und th osop, pla th ndx ng of

th ft hando ght hand f handdon th sap wth th p of th ng

na holdng th dg of th sapl aganst th sd Hold th sngdgd

a blad btwn th thub and ndx ng of ou f hand and pla

th fsh uting dg of th blad on th sap wth th sd of th blad aganst

th ngnal

o ak a oss stion, sld th azo blad down th nail and ak a

ss of uts though th dg of th atal wthout ovng th sap, but

pushng th blad had aganst th nai, bal ling th dg of th blad abov

th top of th sapl Chk und a opound osop to dtn f th

stons a tu oss sons Us th sa podu fo ada and tangna

uts Ont th sap so that ou a alwas utting down, f possb Sots

t s nssa to tak a sufa ut. To do ths, hold th sapl as abov, but sd

th azo blad at ov th sufa awa fo ou ng, gnt nking th su-

fa of th sap bfo sldng th bad

Orienttion of Sections

Laf o st of onoots, hzods oss stion

Wood, banh, oots : oss, tangnal, and ada stions

Sonda pho, u bak oss stion

M E Fon 33


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Seed hais: whole mounts

ibes : whole mounts o oss setion and plant tssue fagments

Oen t is possibe to ut oiented setions detly fom the atifat f

these ae emoved they should be paed diey on gass slides (not on index ads)

and oveed with a gass oveslip that an be attahed by adhesive tape fo tempo

a stoage When euied fo stainng o othe poedues the tape an be ut and

the oveslip emoved

Wet-Mount Preprtion of Microscope Slides

Remove the unut poton of the sample and eplae on the index ad The next

step is to make a wetmount miosope slide While obseving unde the disseting

miosope use dsseting needes to sepaate the small setions

f whole mounts of hais o bes ae euied a small fagment of the ma-

teial is plaed n a dop of wate on the glass slide With dissetng needles sepaate

the bes and spead ove an aea of the ove glass

o seons and whole mounts f thee is ganula dt o extaneous mate-

ial t to emove it befoe plaing he oveslip on the sample To plae the ove-

slip on the sampe plae at a 5 angle to the side and touh the edge of the dop

of wate then et it fal down sowy so as to push out the ai Obseve unde the

ompound mosope if thee s an a bubbe o spae pae a smal dop of wate

at the edge of the oveslip it will move in unde the oveslip

Slide Preprtion of rcheologicl rtifct Mteril

Beause the mateia may be bitle d deteioated and oveed with soil stan-

dad hstologal tehniues may not be usel fo slide pepaaons n suh ases

the most suessl tehniues ae simple feehand seoning and when neessapogessve suashing

ist plae the fagment n a dop of wate on a miosope slde Then

unde a disseng binoula miosope thin ( appoximatey 0 ) e tansvese

tangential and adia setions ae ut wth a singeedged azo bade The setions

ae e in the wate oveed with a glass oveslip and obseed detly unde the

ompound ght miosope n most ases no the teatment is eued n a

few ases the mateial is stained with safanin o toluidine bue fo ontast o dehy

dated and eaed with xyene to enhane line details

f the setions ae heavily enusted wth soil hey ae geny suashed and

pogessivey obseed unde the miosope unl the ellula stutue beomes appaent Ganua soil shoud be emoved befoe suashng The suashing tehniue

involves plaing bibulous pape ove the oveslp holding it down mly at the

edge of the oveslip with the nges and tapping the pape ove the ovesip wth a

had ease o the end of a peni

f the mateial is so fable that oiented setions ae impossbe the mate-

ia s plaed on a glass side in a dop of wate and teased apat with disseting

needles then oveed wth a gass oveslp and suashed as desibed above n

dentiation of lant and nimal Materias


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xtm cass of v fiab matia, t matial may b placd in motn mbd

ding wax to consoidat it Xyln must b usd to ca waxmbddd sctions

Methods of Observation

Light Microscopy

T matial is obsvd und t micoscop wit tansmittd ligt and/ocossd nicos (poaizd igt). Obsvd fatus suc as tssu oganizaion, cllu

a stuctu and dtais, bifingnt patt and coo, psnc of cystas, and so

on, sould b codd on t indx cad o in a log book.

Phoography

Potomicogaps using backandwit Poaoid m in a cama attacd to t

micoscop o SEM may b takn in som cass to documnt distinciv o unusua

fatus, fo tu compaativ study, and fo masumnts as aids to idntcaion

Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)

n som cass, disnctiv clula caactistics may not b obsvd und t com-

pound ligt micoscop. SEM may assist in som cass, but it as ony imitd valu

T ppaation of t matial fo SEM obsvation is vy simpl bcaus ma-

tial is alady dy. No xation o spcia dying ptatmnts a quid. D

tin sctions a pacd dicty on t wt gapit glu, o fiab dy matial can

b factud by cumbing wit t ngs dictly onto wt gapit glu, on t

SEM stub. T ppaations a tn spattd und vacuum wit gapit pio to

obsvation.

StaUnUng Samples

n most cass staining is not quid. Poaizd ligt can b usd to giv xcnt

contast fo unstaind tissu f staining is quid, t following staining poc-

dus can b usd fo spcic matals o to dtmin t psnc of dint

cmical componnts.

Aniline Blue: Proten Sain

Us 0 . 1% aquous solution. Pac a dop on t matial to b obsvd o at t

dg of t cov gass alady in pac and daw it toug by pacing a small pic

of ton bibuous pap against t covsip dg at t opposit sid of t cov

sip Obsv und a micoscop. T blu colo will pntat st t dgs of

potincontaning matials and may o may not compltly stan it Hai and fat-

s (o any katin matia) , skn (awid) , muscl, blood clls, potopasm ofiv-

ing ngi, gn aga, and licn wil stain

MLou E Floin5


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Iodine Potassium Iodide: Starch Stain

Dissolve I g poassium odide n 1 00 cc of wae Add 1 g odine akes Place a drop

on the material o be anayzed o draw a dop hough he pepaed slide as des

cbed above Unde the microscope, purpeblack sach gains can be observed A

pink colo may ndicate micoogansm degadaion of a sarch

Sudan III: Fat Stain

Mx 05 g sudan III orI n 1 00 cc of 70% acoho (ethyl o methy) Pace a dop

on the maea to be analyzed o daw a drop though he prepared sde as des

cribed above Surface lms of plan or animal oil, oi n plant issue (cuin, suberin),

adipose tissue, and fee animal fa stan ed

Safranin 0: General Plant Stain

Mix 0 1 % safanin 0 inwater Place a drop on the maea to be analyzed or daw a

drop though he pepaed slide as descbed above Let stand fo 1 minue Re

move he excess stain by drawng wae hrough the prepaation as descibed above

Wash o stain wh wae Pan parts such as pollen grains, seed coas, gran

glumes, woody ssue, and epidema cels sain red

Phloroglucinol Lignin Stain

Soution A: 1 g phooglucinol in 50 ml alcoho (ethyl o methyl)

Soluion B 25% hydochoc acid souon

Add phloogucinol soluton to maeal to be saned. Let sand 1 mnute Add 1

drop hydrochloric acd solution. Leave fo 5 minutes To enhance he reaction, the

maeial can be ai dried and then ehydated

NOTE: Cautiously replace the acid solution with water) draw the acid out with

bibulous paper) and place the wet paper in a special acid waste container Do not get

acid on hands or in eyes or on the microscope objectives Do not place slides that are wet

with the acid solution under the microscope Discard the used slides in a special waste

container.

Bromophenol Blue (Aqueous): Protein Stain

Souon A 1 0 g mecuric chloride, 1 00 ml 70% o 95% ehyl alcohol (not dena

tued), 0. 1% bomophenol blue

Soluon B 0 5% acetic acdAdd a dop of stain (Solution A) to materia on a sde Leave for 5 minutes Draw

o the stain with bbulous pape and wash matera wih tap water. Remove tap

water and add a drop of Soution B Sains basc poens blue to bue-geen

Ferric Sulfate: Tannin Stain

Use 0 1% feric sulfae n wate. Make a wemoun side, daw o the wae and e

place with stanng solution Stains tannin dark brown to puplebrown

36 Identicaion of Plant and Animal Materials


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Identication of Plant andAm Fibers

Ths secton deals with the methods used to dent pant bersand a few com-

mon bers of anmal orgnused n basketr The methods nvolve the mcroscopc

examnaton of the ber and ts assocated cels for saent cell characterstcs and cell

contents; and tests such as stanng reactons, solubty tests, burnng reactons, and

odor tests.Plant tssues that resemble bers may be used n cordage on basketseg,

red cedar secondary phoem tumplnes, wrappng, and so on It s dcult to draw a

clear ne between plant bers and brous tssues. In ths text, the term ber refers

to snge cells or groups of ces manly of one cell type that have been solated from

a plant part Because plant tssue has a variety of cell types, t s ncluded n a sepa-

rate secton of ths chapter

Fbers may be present n the basc structure or auxlary parts of the artfact,

or n the form of natve or conservaton mends, and thus may nclude commercally

made as well as natve bers Furthermore, the source of natve bers may range

widely Some bers may be vascular bundle sclerenchyma caps or sheaths from

monocot leaves; others may be prmary phoem scerenchyma bers wth secondary

cel wals from the stems of dcots; stll others may be hars from seeds or seed coats,

and even frut Fbers of anma orgn may nclude rawhde, tanned eather, snew,

har, or moded har such as qus, baeen, and whskers

Pant bers that have been fabrcated by crude rettng or smply by strp-

png the bers from the plant usualy nclude remnants of other assocated plant tis-

sue wth characterstic cells or cel contents, such as crystas, whch ad n

dentcaton Commerca bers generaly are free of extraneous materal; thus den

ticaton s completely dependent on the ber characterstics Drection of the twst

n the thread and composton of the thread are addtonal ads n determnng

whether the ber s of natve or commercal orgn.Informaton on materals and methods (slde preparaton, stanng tests,

and so on) presented n a separate secton apply to plant bers as well as plant parts

and tissue. A few addtonal tests are used, whch wl be descrbed where appro-

prate, but n most cases all that s requred for natural ber dentcation s a mcro-

scopc study.

The text contans nformaton on the ndvdual bers, n some cases, nclud-

ng ther orgn and hstory of use. It also descrbes salent morphoogca, staning,

and other characterstcs wth approprate lustratons Where possbe, keys to den-

tcation usng some of these characterstcs are presented. The chapter does not

nclude al plant bers used throughout the worldan mpossbe taskbut ratheremphaszes plant bers used n western North Amerca Some common proten

bers of anmal orgn are also ncluded.

Identcation of natve bers s almost mpossbe without a gude to the

possble choces of materals Before attemptng dentcaton, the artifact documen-

taton and lterature on materas used by the trbe or lngustc group shoud be

revewed to narrow down the possble pant orgn of the bers Standards of those

materals can then be selected for comparatve analyss. For conservaton needs, spe-

ces dentcaton oen s not requred; knowng the plant part, tssue, or ber may

38 Identiction of Plnt nd Animl Mteis


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be sucient for conseration implications. Identication of pant origin of mends is

important to dierentiate beteen native and museum repairs. Species identication

is essential for purposes of authentication documentation and for anthropoogica

research on issues such as trade or ecology

Identiction of Plnt Hs

Laborator Instructions for Pant Hairs (Fruit, Fowr, or Sd)

1 . Prepare wet-mount microscope slides of a few plant hairs of any of the follow-

ing materias:

Gossyium hirsutum ( cotton)

scleias seciosa (mikweed)

Poulus balsamera (poplar)

Eilobium angustolium (reweed)

riohorium angustifolium ( cotton grass)

Tyha latifolia (cattail) Ceiba entandra (kapok)

2 Obsere with transmitted and polarized light and identi characteristics such as:

cells: muticellular or unicellular

shape: attened circular with trapped air

bases : recured markings

cel wal joint: smooth or noduar (irreguar)

wals: thick or thin

3 Stain for lignin with phloroglucinol stain Note that heating over candle lame

may enhance the reaction4 Draw and record your obserations. Use the information supplied to assist in

interpretation and identication

5 . Using the key supplied, identi unknown material.

Ky to dntication of Som Fruit and Sd Hairs Usd inEtnograpic Matria

This key incudes only a few species that may be found in some North American

artifacts. However specialized keys can be created for specic species related to the

geographic area of one's own study.

Multicelular Hairs

1 Hairs up to 5 0 ) plus in width at base; cel wal joins nearly smooth; cells 1 5 )

average width; base of hair lignied:

cotton grass (Eriohorium angustolium)

2 Hairs average 2 0 ) to 3 0 ) in width; ce wal joins nodular; ces 10 ) average

in width; cell was not lignied:

cattail ( Tyha latolia)

Mu E. Florn39


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Single-Celed Hairs

Hairs attened and collapsed

1 . Hais thinwald; ag cnt umn; fodd and attnd; hais up to 50 in

width

mikwd (sclepias speciosa)

2. Has thickwalld; sma cnta umn; ibbonik twists; hais avag 1 5 to20 in width

cotton ( Gospium hirsutum)

Hairs circular with trapped air bubbles in water mounts

1 Hais n; avag width 5 to 10

popla cotton (Populus balsamera)

2 . Hais gat than 1 0 in width; hais wth bubous cuvd bass;

a cl wals not lignid

wd (Epilobium angustifolium)

b c wals lignid

kapok ( Ceiba pentandra)

Orgn and Structure of Some Common Plant Hars

In thnogaphic matias sd fuit and sdpod hais hav bn usd as lls in

txtis and as adsobnt matial. hi us in baskty is not wl documntd

Bcaus commcial cotton is fquny usd i t is ncssay to b familia with th

nativ matias with which it might b consd

Th photomicogaphs of plant hais that follow iustat th salint fa

tus usd fo idnication. Cotton md popa and wd a soucs ofsd hais. Cotton gass and cattails a soucs of pianth bists and kapok is asouc of sdpod hais. h micoscop slids usd w simpl wtmount ppa-

ations mad by tasing out a sma pic of matial in a dop of wat and coving

it with a glass covsip. Th photogaphs w mad by th autho using a Nikon

micox with Polaoid attachmnt and Polaoid yp 52 lm.

Gossypium hirsutum L

Description. Cotton thad has sval chaactistics that aid i idntication Itsmost outstanding fatu is tlat th thad o sting is mad up of sva twists and

ach twist is mad up of spun cotton hais (bs with no xtanous pant mat-

ial Th cotton hais a singl cs that com fom th fuit o bo of th cottonow Th singl cs hav a chaactistic at ibbonik wst (Figu 2 1 Th

twist in th c o convoluions chang diction about v 0. mm along th

cll In coss sction clls appa lattnd and pashapd. Th atnss is du to

collaps of th c umn In a cotton haic l th cl umn is sn as a thin cn

tal dak lin h cls a 1 2 to 25 wid.

Cotton bs a nay 1 00% cluos and wil giv a ngav phoo

glucinol tst fo th psnc of lignin whas lignin containing bast and scln-

chyma bs (linn stinging nttl sisal mania wil giv a positiv phlooglucino

40 Ideco of l d m Merls


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Fure 21 Gossypum hrsuum(ttn Indiviual tn hairswith distintive at ribbnliketwist and entral dark line india-tive f a lumen (standard

Fure22Ascleps specos(milkweed Singleeled seed hairs

attened flded thinwalled withlarge lumen. Width variable up t5

st Sha 198 1 ) has sd ths sts sssly fo som thnogaphi xtis.

Th oon ll wall has boh pimay and sonday walls, and ths shows diho-

mati olos wih tolidin b. Th pimay wall stains bl and th sonday wa

stains ppl .

Summa of Salient Characteristics

singl lls

a ibbonik ist o lls ntal lmn

appas pashapd in oss sion

ngaiv lignin tst

positiv dihomai aion with tolidin b

Distribution Cosmopolian in s bas of xnsiv agilal

podtion and ad.

Asclepias speciosa orr mileed

Descrition A bshy, hbaos pnnia, avag hight m, woolly with ovall

gygn olo Th fi apsl) is p to 1 0 m long, vd, spindlshapd,and ovd with spins hn ip, th apsl spits aong on sid to las a

mltitd of bown sds Eah sd has an apial of silky sd hais Th sd

hais a sing lls, with hin wals and a lag lmn ig 2. 2) . Th widh va-

is p to 50 Distribution Thoghot nothwst Noh Amia Gows in opn

aings, bnd and loggdo aas, and along oadsids.

Mrou E. Florin 4


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Populus balsamifera L. sp. trichocarpa T & G . Brysh bck cottonood

nd P. balsamifera L. sp balsamifera bsm poplr

Descrition Roughbaked deiduous popla tees; the owes ae long, hanging at-

kins At matuit the female atkins ae oveed with a so ottonlike down of seed

hais The seed hais ae single els with thin ignied walls and a lage umen (ig-

ue 23) They ae 5 to 10 wide

Distribution Popla tees ae found thoughout nothweste Noth Ame-

ia (exept Queen Chaotte slands ) but blak ottonwood is found mainly in the

westen egion and balsam popla in he inteio

Epilobium angustifolium L reeed

Descrition A tall hebaeous peennial (up to 2 m in height) with naow wilow

ike eaves and spikes of edpuple owes. The long naow apsules split longitudi

nally on all sides and expose ows of seeds eah with a tu of apial seed hais . The

seed hai is a single ell with a thin wall and lage umen (igue 2.4). The base is

bulous and euved.

Distribution. Thoughout nothwesten Noth Ameia. Gows in open

leaings, buned and loggedo aeas, and along oadsidesEriophorium angustifolium Roth. cotton grss

Descrition. This gassike bog o mash plant has owes with peianth bistes that

eongate when the fuit ipens foming silkyottony heads. The peianth bisles o

hais ae multiellua. The hai is up to 50 wide at the base. On the aveage, sin-

gle ells e 1 5 wide The ells at he base ae lignied (igue 2. 5 )

Distribution. Thoughout nothweste Noth Ameia Restited to open

bog o mash aeas

Typha latifolia L. cttil

Descrition. This gasslike plant gows up to 2 m in height, with long naow leaves

lowes in lage dense spikes and nutlike fuit with attahed bisles ( hais) that

make up a downy mass. The hais

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