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Conflict Resolution Education

A Guide to Implementing Programs inSchools, Youth-Serving Organizations, andCommunity and Juvenile Justice Settings

Program Report

Donna Crawford and Richard Bodine

Shay Bilchik, AdministratorOffice of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency PreventionU.S. Department of Justice

Gerald N. Tirozzi, Assistant SecretaryOffice of Elementary and Secondary EducationU.S. Department of Education

October 1996

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The Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention is a component of the Office of JusticePrograms, which also includes the Bureau of Justice Assistance, the Bureau of Justice Statistics, theNational Institute of Justice, and the Office for Victims of Crime.

The Office of Elementary and Secondary Education is a component of the U.S. Department ofEducation. Among the programs within the Office of Elementary and Secondary Education is theSafe and Drug-Free Schools Program.

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Conflict is a natural, vital part of life. When conflict is understood,it can become an opportunity to learn and create. The challenge

for people in conflict is to apply the principles of creative coopera-tion in their human relationships.

Richard Bodine, Donna Crawford, and Fred SchrumpfCreating the Peaceable School: A Comprehensive

Program for Teaching Conflict Resolution

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Safe and orderly environments in our Nation’s schools are essential to promoting high standards for learningand ensuring that all children have the opportunity to develop to their fullest potential. No teacher shouldever fear to walk into a classroom, and no child should ever stay home from school because he or she is afraid.Too often, however, young people face conflicts before, during, and after school. They are subjected to bully-ing, teasing, and senseless, sometimes fatal, disputes over clothing and other possessions. Many of these con-flicts either begin at school, or they are brought into school from the home or the community.

A growing body of evidence suggests that we are not powerless to prevent these destructive behaviors. We canintervene successfully to prevent conflicts from escalating into violent acts by providing young people with theknowledge and skills needed to settle disputes peacefully. Conflict resolution education can help bring aboutsignificant reductions in suspensions, disciplinary referrals, academic disruptions, playground fights, and fam-ily and sibling disputes. It is important to understand that conflict resolution education is a critical componentof comprehensive, community-based efforts to prevent violence and reduce crime.

Conflict Resolution Education: A Guide to Implementing Programs in Schools, Youth-Serving Organizations, and Com-munity and Juvenile Justice Settings was developed for educators, juvenile justice practitioners, and others inyouth-serving organizations to heighten awareness of conflict resolution education and its potential to helpsettle disputes peacefully in a variety of settings. A joint project of the U.S. Department of Justice and theU.S. Department of Education, this Guide provides background information on conflict resolution education;an overview of four widely used, promising, and effective approaches; and guidance on how to initiate andimplement conflict resolution education programs in various settings.

As adults, we cannot solve young people’s problems for them. We can, however, provide them with the knowl-edge, skills, and encouragement to resolve conflicts in a nonviolent manner, using words instead of fists orweapons. Conflict resolution education includes negotiation, mediation, and consensus decisionmaking, whichallow all parties involved to explore peaceful solutions to a conflict. When these problem-solving processesto conflict and strife become a way of life, young people begin to value getting along instead of getting evenor getting their way.

We urge you to help make our schools and our communities safer places. We invite you to use this Guide as ameans of working with your schools, community organizations, and other youth-serving and juvenile justicesettings to give our youth the skills, techniques, and tools they need to learn and to resolve disputes in a safeand nonviolent environment.

Janet Reno Richard W. RileyAttorney General Secretary of Education

Foreword

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The U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ) and the U.S. Department of Education (ED) recognize the dedica-tion and commitment of Donni LeBoeuf, Senior Program Manager, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delin-quency Prevention, Office of Justice Programs, DOJ; and Charlotte Gillespie, Group Leader, ProgramService Team, Safe and Drug-Free Schools Program, Office of Elementary and Secondary Education, ED.Their diligence, work, and enthusiasm for this project have helped to bring the vision of this Guide to fruition.

We are indebted to Donna Crawford and Richard Bodine of the Illinois Institute for Dispute Resolution whospent countless hours writing and refining the manuscript to convey the variety of approaches within the fieldof conflict resolution education and the potential of all these approaches for bringing about peaceful resolutionof disputes in a number of settings.

We also thank Judith Filner of the National Institute for Dispute Resolution for her work in drafting an ini-tial outline for the manuscript and providing her knowledge of effective and promising programs. In addition,we thank the following members of the Conflict Resolution Education Planning Committee whose ideasand expertise helped bring this project to its completion: Lee Arbetman, Margery Baker, Shay Bilchik, NoëlBrennan, Eileen M. Garry, George Henderson, Emily Martin, William Modzeleski, Gail Padgett, John J.Wilson, and Judith Zimmer.

We are grateful to the following individuals for their counsel, guidance, and support throughout this project:Terry Amsler, Ron Ativissimo, Rebecca Atnafou, Vicki Baldwin, Linda Barnes-Robinson, Marcia Choo,Richard Cohen, Irene Cooper-Basch, Jared Curhan, Mary Czajkowski, Robin Delany-Shabazz, LarryDieringer, Dennis D. Embry, Lucy Friedman, Lynn Glassman, Barbara Greenberg, Mark Greenberg,J. David Hawkins, Shelia Heen, Patti Holman, David Johnson, Ted Johnson, Marianne Klink, NancyLangan, Linda Lantieri, Linda Lausell, Ray Leal, Raúl Martinez, John Mazzarella, Pamela Moore, MarilynMoses, Cheryl Niro, Dennis Noonan, Gayle Olson-Raymer, Laura Otey, Kenneth E. Powell, Ellen Raider,Tom Roderick, Laura Parker Roerden, David Roush, Melinda Smith, Ronald Stephens, Susan Stroud,Marcia Sweedler, Annette Townley, Lloyd H. Van Bylevelt, Martin Walsh, and Terry Wheeler. This Guidewould not have been possible without the steadfast effort and careful review provided by all of these expertsand practitioners.

Finally, we wish to express our appreciation to the staff of the Juvenile Justice Resource Center, especiallyLaurie Shah and Janet McNaughton, who gathered information, edited the manuscript, and prepared thedocument for publication. Additionally, the Juvenile Justice Clearinghouse, under the guidance of CatherineDoyle, deserves our thanks for their work in bringing the final manuscript through the publication process.

Acknowledgments

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Table of Contents

Foreword ............................................................................................................................................................... v

Acknowledgments ........................................................................................................................................... vii

Prologue ............................................................................................................................................................... xv

Introduction ......................................................................................................................................................... 1

Purposes of Conflict Resolution Education ................................................................................................. 1

Responsible Citizenship ............................................................................................................................. 1

Violence Prevention and Safe Schools ...................................................................................................... 2

Systemic Change ........................................................................................................................................ 3

Rationale for Establishing Conflict Resolution Programs ......................................................................... 3

How the Guide Is Organized .......................................................................................................................... 4

Chapter 1: Understanding Conflict Resolution ..................................................................................... 7

Origins of Conflict .......................................................................................................................................... 7

Basic Psychological Needs ......................................................................................................................... 7

Limited Resources ...................................................................................................................................... 7

Different Values.......................................................................................................................................... 8

Responses to Conflict ...................................................................................................................................... 9

Outcomes of Soft, Hard, and Principled Responses ................................................................................ 9

Problem-Solving Processes .......................................................................................................................... 10

Principles of Conflict Resolution ................................................................................................................. 10

Foundation Abilities for Conflict Resolution ............................................................................................. 11

Steps in the Problem-Solving Process ........................................................................................................ 12

Approaches to Conflict Resolution Education ........................................................................................... 12

Chapter 2: Process Curriculum Approach ............................................................................................. 15

The Program for Young Negotiators ........................................................................................................... 15

Teacher Training and Community Involvement ..................................................................................... 15

Negotiation Curriculum ........................................................................................................................... 16

Followup Opportunities ........................................................................................................................... 16

Ongoing Curriculum Development and Innovation .............................................................................. 16

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The Peace Education Foundation ................................................................................................................ 17

Mediation .................................................................................................................................................. 18

Parent Involvement .................................................................................................................................. 19

National Institute for Citizen Education in the Law ................................................................................ 19

Middle and High School Programs and Curricular Materials .............................................................. 19

Elementary Programs and Curricular Materials .................................................................................... 20

Process Curriculum in Juvenile Justice Settings ................................................................................... 20

Chapter 3: Mediation Program Approach ............................................................................................. 23

The Mediation Process .................................................................................................................................. 23

Peer Mediation Programs ............................................................................................................................. 24

Peer Mediation Training .......................................................................................................................... 24

Peer Mediation Opportunity ................................................................................................................... 24

Peer Mediation in Schools Program From the New Mexico Center for Dispute Resolution ..................................................................................................................................... 24

Teacher Modeling ..................................................................................................................................... 25

Curriculum Component ........................................................................................................................... 25

Mediation Component ............................................................................................................................. 25

Illinois Institute for Dispute Resolution .................................................................................................... 27

Phase I: Develop the Program Team and Commitment ......................................................................... 27

Phase II: Design and Plan the Program .................................................................................................. 29

Phase III: Select and Train the Mediators .............................................................................................. 29

Phase IV: Educate a Critical Mass .......................................................................................................... 30

Phase V: Develop and Execute a Promotional Campaign...................................................................... 30

Phase VI: Program Operation and Maintenance ................................................................................... 30

Chapter 4: Peaceable Classroom Approach ........................................................................................ 33

Curriculum Integration and Classroom Management .............................................................................. 33

Cooperative Learning and Academic Controversy .................................................................................... 33

Teaching Students To Be Peacemakers Program ....................................................................................... 35

Faculty Create a Cooperative Environment ........................................................................................... 35

Faculty Teach Students To Be Peacemakers .......................................................................................... 35

Faculty Implement the Peacemaker Program......................................................................................... 36

Faculty Refine and Upgrade the Students’ Skills ................................................................................... 36

Educators for Social Responsibility ............................................................................................................ 37

ESR Core 4-Day Training Model ........................................................................................................... 37

Ongoing Followup and Support .............................................................................................................. 37

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Chapter 5: Peaceable School Approach ............................................................................................... 39

Peaceable School Transformation................................................................................................................ 40

Systemic Change ............................................................................................................................................ 40

Resolving Conflict Creatively Program ...................................................................................................... 41

Professional Development for Teachers and Other Staff ....................................................................... 41

K–12 Curriculum ...................................................................................................................................... 42

Peer Mediation ......................................................................................................................................... 43

Administrator Training............................................................................................................................. 43

Parent Training ......................................................................................................................................... 43

Illinois Institute for Dispute Resolution .................................................................................................... 43

Fundamental Skill Areas .......................................................................................................................... 44

Building a Peaceable Climate ............................................................................................................ 44

Understanding Conflict ..................................................................................................................... 44

Understanding Peace and Peacemaking ........................................................................................... 44

Mediation ........................................................................................................................................... 44

Negotiation ......................................................................................................................................... 44

Group Problem Solving ..................................................................................................................... 45

Other Areas of Development ................................................................................................................... 45

Professional Development ................................................................................................................. 45

Parent Education ............................................................................................................................... 45

Community Initiatives ....................................................................................................................... 45

Chapter 6: Juvenile Justice and Alternative Education Initiatives ............................................... 47

Juvenile Justice Facilities ............................................................................................................................ 47

The Community Board Program ................................................................................................................. 48

Voluntary Participation ............................................................................................................................ 48

Types of Disputes Handled by Conflict Managers ................................................................................. 48

Types of Conflicts Not Handled .............................................................................................................. 49

Conflict Manager Selection ..................................................................................................................... 49

Conflict Manager Training....................................................................................................................... 49

Conflict Manager Supervision ................................................................................................................. 49

Potential Benefits of Conflict Manager Programs .................................................................................. 49

Alternative Schools ........................................................................................................................................ 50

International Center for Cooperation and Conflict Resolution .............................................................. 51

Training Components ............................................................................................................................... 51

Impact of the ICCCR Conflict Resolution Project ................................................................................. 51

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Chapter 7: Parent and Community Initiatives ....................................................................................... 53

Parent Education ........................................................................................................................................... 53

Primary Prevention .................................................................................................................................. 53

Early Intervention .................................................................................................................................... 53

Parents as Teachers Program ............................................................................................................ 54

Parents Anonymous, Inc. .................................................................................................................. 54

Franklin Mediation Services and Head Start of Franklin County, Massachusetts ....................... 54

Community Programs ................................................................................................................................... 55

Community Mediation Programs ............................................................................................................ 56

Lawyers Adopt-a-School Program .......................................................................................................... 56

East Cleveland Youth Services Mobile Mediation Project .................................................................... 56

Roxbury Conflict Resolution Project ...................................................................................................... 56

Community Component .................................................................................................................... 57

Recruitment and Selection of Community Youth ............................................................................ 57

Community Outreach Component.................................................................................................... 57

Community-to-School, School-to-Community Component ............................................................ 57

Community Buy-In and Implications for Replication ..................................................................... 58

The Community Board Program ............................................................................................................. 58

Parental Involvement in Whole-School Work ................................................................................. 58

Partnerships Between School and Community Mediation Programs............................................. 59

Boys & Girls Clubs of America................................................................................................................ 60

AmeriCorps Conflict Resolution Training Project ................................................................................. 61

Community Relations Service ................................................................................................................. 61

The Arts and Conflict Resolution ................................................................................................................ 63

Urban smARTS Program ........................................................................................................................ 63

Pathways to Success Program ................................................................................................................. 64

Arts and Prevention Projects ................................................................................................................... 64

California Lawyers for the Arts ............................................................................................................... 65

Chapter 8: Conflict Resolution Research and Evaluation ............................................................... 67

Early Research ............................................................................................................................................... 67

Studies on the Teaching Students To Be Peacemakers Program ............................................................. 67

Other Research .............................................................................................................................................. 68

Implications of Research on Risk Factors and Resilience ........................................................................ 72

Risk Factors for Violent and Antisocial Behavior .................................................................................. 72

Protective Factors .................................................................................................................................... 72

The Relation Between Resilience and Conflict Resolution .................................................................... 73

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Chapter 9: Developmentally Appropriate Practice ............................................................................ 77

Age-Appropriate Instruction ........................................................................................................................ 77

Chapter 10: Establishing Conflict Resolution Education Programs ............................................ 83

Analyzing School Conflict: Needs Assessment .......................................................................................... 83

Selecting Conflict Resolution Education Programs/Curriculums ........................................................... 84

Implementing Conflict Resolution Education ............................................................................................ 84

Selecting Staff Development Providers/Trainers ...................................................................................... 84

Important Factors for Successful Implementation .................................................................................... 86

Administrative Commitment and Support .............................................................................................. 87

Faculty Commitment and Support .......................................................................................................... 87

Parent Involvement and Support ............................................................................................................ 88

Program Evaluation ...................................................................................................................................... 88

AppendicesAppendix A: Contact Information ............................................................................................................ A–1

Conflict Resolution Consultation and Training Resources .................................................................. A–1

Programs Cited in This Guide ............................................................................................................................... A–2

Appendix B: Conflict Resolution Curriculum Resources ...................................................................... B–1

Foundation Abilities ...............................................................................................................................B–1

Process Curriculum ................................................................................................................................ B–5

Mediation ................................................................................................................................................ B–9

Peaceable Classroom ............................................................................................................................ B–13

Peaceable School .................................................................................................................................. B–15

Appendix C: Conflict Resolution Reading List ...................................................................................... C–1

Appendix D: Conflict Resolution Glossary ............................................................................................ D–1

Appendix E: Conflict Resolution in Schools Needs Assessment .......................................................... E–1

Appendix F: Conflict Resolution Program/Curriculum Assessment Forms ....................................... F–1

General Information ............................................................................................................................... F–1

Foundation Abilities of Conflict Resolution.......................................................................................... F–3

Fundamental Principles of Conflict Resolution .................................................................................... F–3

Problem-Solving Processes of Conflict Resolution ..............................................................................F–4

Learning Opportunities and Styles .......................................................................................................F–4

Implementation ....................................................................................................................................... F–5

Appendix G: Conflict Resolution Staff Development Provider Assessment Forms ......................... G–1

Provider Assessment Form ................................................................................................................... G–1

Provider Competency Assessment Form ............................................................................................. G–3

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Appendix H: Strategic Planning Process ................................................................................................ H–1

Appendix I: The Story of Little Red Riding Hood and the Wolf,Retold Through Negotiation ............................................................................................... I–1

List of FiguresFigure 1: Understanding Conflict ................................................................................................................. 8

Figure 2: Seven Elements of Negotiation .................................................................................................. 17

Figure 3: The Six Developmental Phases of the Mediation Program of theIllinois Institute for Dispute Resolution ................................................................................... 28

Figure 4: The Problem-Solving Negotiation Procedure ........................................................................... 36

Figure 5: C.H.O.I.C.E.S. for Managing Conflict ...................................................................................... 55

Figure 6: Risk Factors for Health and Behavior Problems ..................................................................... 74

Figure 7: Sample Needs Assessment Questionnaire ................................................................................. 85

Figure 8: Sample Conflict Resolution Survey ........................................................................................... 86

List of TablesTable 1: Recommended Time for Peer Mediation Training ..................................................................... 25

Table 2: Punishment Versus Discipline ...................................................................................................... 42

Table 3: Characteristics of Resilient Children........................................................................................... 73

Table 4: Age-Appropriate Sequence for Acquiring the FoundationAbilities of Conflict Resolution .................................................................................................... 79

Table 5: Age-Appropriate Sequence for Acquiring the Problem-SolvingProcesses of Conflict Resolution .................................................................................................. 82

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Grandmother,” she said, “what big arms you have!”“The better to hug you with, my dear.”

“Grandmother, what big legs you have!”“The better to run with, my child.”

“Grandmother, what big eyes you have!”“The better to see, my child.”

“Grandmother, what big teeth you have!”“They’re to eat you with!” And at these words, the wicked wolf pounced onLittle Red Ridinghood and ate her up.

—“Little Red Ridinghood”1

WOLF: Now wait a minute, Red. I know your granny. I thought we should teach you a lesson forprancing on my pine trees in that get-up and for picking my flowers. I let you go on yourway in the woods but I ran ahead to your granny’s cottage.

When I saw Granny, I explained what happened, and she agreed that you needed to learna lesson. Granny hid under the bed, and I dressed up in her nightgown.

When you came into the bedroom, you saw me in the bed and said something nasty aboutmy big ears. I’ve been told my ears are big before, so I tried to make the best of it by say-ing big ears help me hear you better.

Then you made an insulting crack about my bulging eyes. This one was really hard toblow off, because you sounded so nasty. Still, I make it a policy to turn the other cheek,so I told you my big eyes help me see you better.

Your next insult about my big teeth really got to me. You see, I’m quite sensitive aboutmy teeth. I know that when you made fun of my teeth I should have had better control,but I leaped from the bed and growled that my teeth would help me to eat you.

But, come on, Red! Let’s face it. Everyone knows no Wolf could ever eat a girl, but youstarted screaming and running around the house. I tried to catch you to calm you down.

All of a sudden the door came crashing open, and a big woodsman stood there with hisax. I knew I was in trouble . . . there was an open window behind me, so out I went.

I’ve been hiding ever since. There are terrible rumors going around the forest about me.Red, you called me the Big Bad Wolf. I’d like to say I’ve gotten over feeling bad, but thetruth is I haven’t lived happily ever after.

Prologue

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I don’t understand why Granny never told you and the others my side of the story. I’mupset about the rumors and have been afraid to show my face in the forest. Why haveyou and Granny let the situation go on for this long? It just isn’t fair. I’m miserable andlonely.

RED: You think that I have started unfair rumors about you, and you are miserable and lonelyand don’t understand why Granny didn’t tell your side of the story.

Well, Granny has been sick—and she’s been very tired lately. When I asked her how shecame to be under the bed, she said she couldn’t remember a thing that had happened.Come to think of it, she didn’t seem too upset . . . just confused.

—“The Story of Little Red Riding Hood and the Wolf,Retold Through Negotiation”2

Fairytales and folktales are read to children to entertain them, but these stories also communicate commonideas and modes of thinking about relationships, morals, values, and how to get along in the world. Fairytalespresent children with a model of how to think and act. In the original story of Little Red Riding Hood, oneof the morals is to beware of strangers. The two sides in this fairytale are sharply drawn—one good, one bad;one innocent, one cunning; one right, one wrong. If the retelling of the tale seems odd, it is because it chal-lenges the stereotype of the “Big Bad Wolf” and asks us to consider his side of the story.

The tenets of conflict resolution present a new model of interacting with and thinking about other people—one that challenges us to go beyond stereotypes, to consider the other’s point of view, and to reach mutuallysatisfactory agreements in which all parties win. “The Story of Little Red Riding Hood and the Wolf, RetoldThrough Negotiation,” which is reprinted in its entirety in appendix I, is an illustration of one of the problem-solving processes of conflict resolution. If we can succeed in teaching our youth this framework for resolvingtheir disputes, the results for them and for our society could be profound.

Notes1. Bierhorst, J. (translator). 1981. The Glass Slipper: Charles Perrault’s Tales of Times Past. New York: Four Winds Press.

2. Bodine, R., D. Crawford, and F. Schrumpf. 1994. Creating the Peaceable School: A Comprehensive Program for TeachingConflict Resolution. Champaign, IL: Research Press, Inc.

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Introduction

This Guide was developed through a collaborationof the Departments of Justice and Education toadvance the development of conflict resolution edu-cation programs in schools, youth-serving organiza-tions, and community and juvenile justice settings.It is designed to be a reference tool that offers bothbasic information and the experience of experts inthe field of conflict resolution to assist educatorsand other youth-serving professionals in buildingeffective conflict resolution education programs. TheGuide is based on a shared vision that youth of allages can learn to deal constructively with conflictand live in civil association with one another. Its goalis to build the capacity of educators in a variety ofyouth-serving settings to understand and act on theknowledge that conflict resolution skills are essentialto successful relationships in all facets of our lives.

Purposes of Conflict ResolutionEducationTo fulfill their mission of educating youth and pre-paring them to function effectively in adult society,American schools* must first be safe places. Ourschools are challenged to provide an environmentin which:

♦ Each learner can feel physically and psychologi-cally free from threats and danger and can findopportunities to work and learn with others forthe mutual achievement of all.

♦ The diversity of the school’s population isrespected and celebrated.

*Throughout this Guide, the term “school” is intended to encom-pass youth-serving organizations and programs in communityand juvenile justice settings in addition to traditional schools.

Conflict resolution programs can help schools pro-mote both the individual behavioral change neces-sary for responsible citizenship and the systemicchange necessary for a safe learning environment.

Responsible CitizenshipThe ability to resolve disputes effectively and non-violently is central to the peaceful expression ofhuman rights. Conflict resolution can be viewed as aresponsibility of law-abiding members of our society.Responsible citizens in a democracy express their con-cerns peacefully and seek resolutions to problems thattake into account common interests and recognize thehuman dignity of all involved.

Schools can be places where children learn to livein civil association with one another and prepareto assume their future roles as parents, as commu-nity members and leaders, and as productive mem-bers of the workforce. Conflict resolution skills areessential to public life in schools, communities, andworkplaces. These skills encompass more than a setof complex problem-solving processes. The abilityto resolve larger issues depends, at least to some

We have a juvenile justice system that inmany states is bankrupt and is starting toolate. You cannot start with a 16- or 17-year-old who has dropped out of school andwho was the drug dealer’s gofer when hewas 13. You’ve got to start earlier. . . . Wecan do tremendous amounts of goodthrough conflict resolution programs inour public schools.

Attorney General Janet Reno1

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♦ Do members share a cultivated willingness toaccept the inevitable conflict that arises fromdiffering values and cultures within the schoolcommunity?

♦ Are the participants in the school communityconvinced that conflict is an opportunity forgrowth, self-awareness, and development ofunderstanding and respect for others?

♦ Do the participants in the school communityarticulate a shared vision that conflicts areinevitable and that they enrich and strengthenschool communities?

Young people must be challenged to believe andto act on the understanding that a nonviolent,multicultural society is a desirable, realistic goal.5

extent, on how people deal with each other daily.Building effective relationships among citizens isimportant not just for reaching agreements, butfor shaping how people choose to disagree.2

Education can be turned into a force for reducingintergroup conflict. It can emphasize common char-acteristics and goals and can broaden our under-standing of diverse cultures, even in circumstancesof conflict. The question is whether human beingscan develop a constructive orientation toward thoseoutside their group while maintaining the values ofgroup allegiance and identity. It seems reasonable tobelieve that, in spite of very bad habits from the pastand very bad models in the present, we can indeedlearn new habits of mind: “It is not too late for aparadigm shift in our outlook toward human con-flict. Perhaps it is something like learning that theearth is not flat. Such a shift in child developmentand education . . . might at long last make it possiblefor human groups to learn to live together in peaceand mutual benefit.”3

Many conflicts in schools arise out of differences.Cultural conflicts are based on differences in na-tional origin or ethnicity. Social conflicts are basedon differences in gender, sexual orientation, class,and physical and mental abilities. Personal and insti-tutional reactions to differences often take the formof prejudice, discrimination, harassment, and evenhate crimes. These conflicts are complex becausethey are rooted not only in prejudice and discrimina-tion related to cultural and social differences butalso in the resulting structures and relationships ofinequality and privilege. Conflict resolution educa-tion programs provide a framework for addressingthese problems. The programs promote respect andacceptance through new ways of communicatingand understanding.

Conflict resolution education offers schools strate-gies for responding affirmatively to the followingquestions:4

♦ Do members of school communities possess theskills and knowledge to create an environment inwhich diversity thrives and in which tolerance ofdifferences is encouraged?

The best school-based violence preventionprograms seek to do more than reach theindividual child. They instead try to changethe total school environment, to create asafe community that lives by a credo ofnonviolence.

William DeJong, Harvard Schoolof Public Health 6

Violence Prevention and Safe SchoolsStrategies that empower students to deal construc-tively with interpersonal conflicts, cultural differ-ences, and the violence embedded in Americanculture need to be grounded in day-to-day experi-ence. The fundamental challenge is to engage youngpeople in learning the skills and processes that willenable them to manage and resolve conflict con-structively. When youth experience success withnegotiation, mediation, or consensus decisionmakingin school or other youth-serving settings, they aremore likely to use these conflict resolution processeselsewhere in their lives.

Schools alone cannot change a violent society;however, they can:

♦ Teach alternatives to violence.

3

♦ Teach students to act responsibly in socialsettings.

♦ Teach students to understand and accept theconsequences of their behavior.

Conflict resolution education provides youth withthe knowledge, abilities, and processes needed tochoose alternatives to self-destructive, violent be-havior when confronted with interpersonal andintergroup conflict. The expectation is that whenyouth learn constructive ways to address what leadsto violence, the incidence and intensity of that con-flict will diminish.

Systemic ChangeA conflict resolution program provides an effectivealternative to a traditional discipline program. Youthwho grow up in circumstances in which they aresocialized to violence, physical abuse, or even deathwill not be brought readily into submission by suchpunishments as lowered grades, time out, detention,suspension, or even expulsion. Alternatives that leadto long-term changes in attitudes and behavior areneeded. Conflict resolution programs are an impor-tant part of those alternatives because they inviteparticipation and expect those who choose to par-ticipate to plan more effective behavior and then tobehave accordingly.7

To realize maximum results from conflict resolutioneducation programs, schools need to examine theirsystems and, if necessary, reform them to create acontext that facilitates the development and supportof the program. Systemic change calls for coopera-tion to be the normative expectation, both behav-iorally and academically, and for adults to interactnoncoercively with youth. The goal of makingschool a safe haven in which youth can gain respitefrom violence in order to think and learn is a goodone. However, it cannot be realized apart from cre-ating an antiviolent vision shared by everyone inthe building.8

Conflict resolution, when implemented not onlyas a curriculum to be taught but as a lifestyle to belived by both adults and youth, fosters continuousacademic and social growth. Implementation of a

The significant problems we face cannot besolved at the same level of thinking we wereat when we created them.

Albert Einstein

Rationale for Establishing ConflictResolution ProgramsThere are compelling, valid reasons for every schoolto implement a program to teach youth conflictresolution:10

♦ The problem-solving processes of conflict reso-lution (negotiation, mediation, and consensusdecisionmaking) can improve the school climate.

♦ Conflict resolution strategies can reduce vio-lence, vandalism, chronic school absence, andsuspension.

♦ Conflict resolution training helps students andteachers deepen their understanding of them-selves and others and develops important lifeskills.

♦ Training in negotiation, mediation, and consensusdecisionmaking encourages a high level of citizen-ship activity.

♦ Shifting the responsibility for solving nonviolentconflicts to students frees adults to concentratemore on teaching and less on discipline.

♦ Behavior management systems that are moreeffective than detention, suspension, or expulsionare needed to deal with conflict in the schoolsetting.

conflict resolution program can help schools createtheir governance structures, develop policies, iden-tify goals, make curriculum decisions, and plan forassessment of learning. Faculty and students workand learn together while supporting one another.When conflict resolution is practiced by all, respect,caring, tolerance, and community building become“the way we do things around here.”9

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♦ Conflict resolution training increases skills inlistening, critical thinking, and problem solving—skills basic to all learning.

♦ Conflict resolution education emphasizes seeingother points of view and resolving differencespeacefully—skills that assist one to live in amulticultural world.

♦ Negotiation and mediation are problem-solvingtools that are well suited to the problems thatyoung people face, and those trained in theseapproaches often use them to solve problemsfor which they would not seek adult help.

How the Guide Is OrganizedThis Guide is designed to provide sufficient infor-mation and tools to initiate the development ofcomprehensive youth-centered conflict resolutionprograms. It provides a framework for makinginformed decisions to implement conflict resolutioneducation programs and select resources to supportprogram development.

Chapter 1, “Understanding Conflict Resolution,”defines conflict as a natural condition and examinesthe origins of conflict, responses to conflict, and theoutcomes of those responses. It presents the essen-tial principles, foundation abilities, and problem-solving processes of conflict resolution; discusses theelements of a successful conflict resolution program;and introduces four approaches to implementingconflict resolution education.

Each of the next four chapters discusses one of thesefour approaches and presents examples of programsthat use the approach. Chapter 2, “Process Curricu-lum Approach,” describes an approach to conflictresolution education characterized by devoting aspecific time to teaching the foundation abilities,principles, and one or more of the problem-solvingprocesses of conflict resolution in a separate courseor distinct curriculum. Chapter 3, “Mediation Pro-gram Approach,” describes an approach in whichselected individuals who have been trained in theprinciples and foundation abilities of conflict resolu-tion and in the mediation process provide neutral,

third-party facilitation to help those in conflict toreach resolution. Chapter 4, “Peaceable ClassroomApproach,” presents an approach that incorporatesconflict resolution education into the core subjectareas of the curriculum and into classroom manage-ment strategies. Chapter 5, “Peaceable School Ap-proach,” presents a comprehensive whole-schoolmethodology that builds on the peaceable classroomapproach, using conflict resolution as a system ofoperation for managing the school as well as theclassroom.

The next two chapters address conflict resolutioneducation in settings other than traditional schools.Chapter 6, “Juvenile Justice and Alternative Edu-cation Initiatives,” discusses conflict resolutioneducation in juvenile justice facilities and alternativeschools. Chapter 7, “Parent and Community Initia-tives,” examines linkages between conflict resolutioneducation programs in schools and the greater com-munity, including programs for parents and youth.

The final three chapters address more overarchingtopics. Chapter 8, “Conflict Resolution Researchand Evaluation,” reviews research findings on con-flict resolution education programs in schools andconsiders the value of conflict resolution educationin the light of developmental research on resilienceand risk factors. Chapter 9, “DevelopmentallyAppropriate Practice,” presents a developmentalsequence of behavioral expectations intended toprovide guideposts for developing and assessingproficiency in conflict resolution from kindergartenthrough high school. Chapter 10, “EstablishingConflict Resolution Education Programs,” discussesthe process of developing, implementing, and sus-taining a conflict resolution program.

The appendices to the Guide offer a variety of re-sources for those establishing conflict resolutioneducation programs. Appendix A, “Contact Infor-mation,” lists addresses and telephone numbers oforganizations that provide national leadership in thefield of conflict resolution education. Appendix B,“Conflict Resolution Curriculum Resources,” is anannotated compilation of conflict resolution curricu-lums and texts. Appendix C, “Conflict ResolutionReading List,” presents the titles of recommended

5

4. Adapted from Townley, A. “Introduction: Conflict Res-olution, Diversity and Social Justice.” Education and UrbanSociety 27(1), pp. 5–10, copyright © 1994 by CorwinPress. Reprinted by permission of Corwin Press, Inc.

5. Moore, P., and D. Batiste. 1994 (Spring). “PreventingYouth Violence: Prejudice Elimination and Conflict Reso-lution Programs.” Forum, no. 25, p. 18.

6. DeJong, W. 1994 (Spring). “School-Based ViolencePrevention: From the Peaceable School to the PeaceableNeighborhood.” Forum, no. 25, p. 8.

7. Bodine, R., and D. Crawford. In press. Developing Emo-tional Intelligence Through Classroom Management: CreatingResponsible Learners in Our Schools and Effective Citizens forOur World. Champaign, IL: Research Press, Inc.

8. Haberman, M., and V. Schreiber Dill. 1995. “Com-mitment to Violence Among Teenagers in Poverty.”Kappa Delta Pi Record 31(4):149.

9. Adler, A. 1995. “Implementing District-Wide Programs:If I Knew Then What I Know Now.” The Fourth R 57:5.

10. Adapted from Davis, A., and K. Porter. 1985(Spring). “Dispute Resolution: The Fourth R.” Journalof Dispute Resolution, 1985:121–139. Reprinted with per-mission of the authors and of the Center for the Studyof Dispute Resolution, University of Missouri-ColumbiaSchool of Law.

articles and books on conflict resolution. Every pro-gram, resource, or text mentioned in the Guide isreferenced either in one of these three appendicesor in a chapter endnote. A glossary of conflict reso-lution terminology is given in appendix D. Appendi-ces E through G contain sample forms, includingforms for assessing staff and programs/curriculums.Appendix H presents the components essential to astrategic plan for implementing a conflict resolutionprogram. The complete text of the Little Red RidingHood story retold through negotiation, excerpted inthe prologue, is found in appendix I.

Notes1. Goldberg, S.B., and H.J. Reske. 1993. “Talking withAttorney General Janet Reno.” American Bar AssociationJournal 79:46.

2. Amsler, T. 1994 (March). “Educating for Citizenship:Reframing Conflict Resolution Work in K–12 Schools.”Paper presented at the Coulson Festshrift Meeting,Aspen Institute, Wye Conference Center, Queenstown,Maryland, March 13–14, 1994.

3. Hamburg, D. 1994. Education for Conflict Resolution.Report of the President of the Carnegie Corporationof New York, p. 15.

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Chapter 1: Understanding ConflictResolution

Conflict arises from a discord of needs, drives,wishes, and/or demands. Conflict in and of itself isnot positive or negative. Rather, it is the response toconflict that transforms it into either a competitive,destructive experience or a constructive challengeoffering the opportunity for growth. Since conflictis an inevitable part of life, learning how to respondto it constructively is essential. Constructive conflictresolution begins with developing an understandingof conflict and the principles of conflict resolution(see figure 1).

Origins of ConflictAlmost every conflict involves an attempt by thedisputants to meet basic needs that, if not satisfied,cause the conflict to persist, even when an agree-ment is reached about the subject of the dispute.1

Basic Psychological NeedsAll individuals are motivated by needs. Dr. WilliamGlasser identifies four basic psychological needs thatmotivate behavior:2

♦ Belonging: Fulfilled by loving, sharing, andcooperating with others.

♦ Power: Fulfilled by achieving, accomplishing,and being recognized and respected.

♦ Freedom: Fulfilled by making choices.

♦ Fun: Fulfilled by laughing and playing.

Conflicts may occur, for example, when two individu-als in a relationship have different ideas about how tobelong or because one is more concerned with buildingthe relationship and the other with maintaining a sense

of freedom. When conflict arises, individuals haveessentially two choices: to continue the conflict or toproblem-solve. The problem-solving strategies of con-flict resolution address needs and create opportunitiesfor those needs to be satisfied. When individualschoose to continue the conflict, no one’s basic needsare fulfilled. Basic psychological needs are at the rootof almost all conflict.

Limited ResourcesConflicts may arise over limited resources. Conflictresolution principles suggest that when limited re-sources are at issue, individuals’ best interests lie incooperating, not competing. In cooperating, dispu-tants share in the process of problem solving, recog-nize each other’s interests, and create choices. Thisprocess usually provides satisfaction because thepsychological needs of belonging and power, andperhaps even of freedom and fun, are addressed inthe fair allocation of limited resources.

Conflicts over limited resources may not be resolvedif basic needs are not addressed along with the re-source issue. The resource issue by itself may not

Learning can take place only when schoolsare safe, disciplined, and drug free. Schoolsin all types of communities—urban, rural,and suburban—are taking steps to be free ofviolent and disruptive behavior. Incorporatingconflict resolution education into the cur-riculum can be an important step in ensuringa safe and healthy learning environment.

Secretary of Education Richard W. Riley

8

define the problem. When solutions deal only withthe limited resource that appears to be the sourceof the conflict without addressing other underlyinginterests, conflict between the parties will likelyoccur again.

Different ValuesConflicts involving different values (beliefs, priori-ties, principles) tend to be more difficult to resolve.When an individual holds a value, he or she has anenduring belief that a specific action or quality is

preferable to another action or quality. Many timesdisputants think in terms of “right/wrong” or “good/bad” when values are in opposition. Even conflictsover differing goals can be viewed as value conflicts.The source of a goal conflict relates either to thegoal’s relative importance for each disputant or tothe fact that the disputants value different goals.

Resolving a values conflict does not mean thedisputants must change or agree on their values.Often a mutual acknowledgment that each personviews the situation differently is the first step

Figure 1: Understanding Conflict

C o n f l i c t

Origins of Conflict

Limited Resources Unmet Basic Needs Different Values

Time Belonging BeliefsMoney Power PrioritiesProperty Freedom Principles

Fun

Responses to Conflict

Soft Hard Principled

Withdrawing Threatening ListeningIgnoring Pushing UnderstandingDenying Hitting RespectingGiving in Yelling Resolving

Outcomes to Conflict

Soft Hard Principled

Lose-Lose Lose-Lose Win-WinLose-Win Win-Lose

Source: Bodine, R., D. Crawford, and F. Schrumpf. 1994. Creating the Peaceable School: A Comprehensive Program forTeaching Conflict Resolution. Champaign, IL: Research Press, Inc., p. 92. Reprinted with permission of the authors andResearch Press.

9

toward resolution. If the disputants can learn notto reject each other because of differences in beliefs,they will be better able to deal with the problem onits own merits. One of the fundamental principles ofconflict resolution is to address separately the rela-tionship issues and the substantive issues involvedin the conflict. To resolve values conflicts, the dis-putants must look for interests that underlie theconflicting values. Again, psychological needs areenmeshed in values conflicts, and those needs likelyframe the interests of each disputant.

Values disputes may be rooted in issues of socialdiversity (differences in cultural, social, and physi-cal/mental attributes), which are often expressedas different beliefs, convictions, and/or principles.Issues of social diversity also often involve preju-dice. Although complex, these conflicts can be re-solved by increased awareness, understanding, andrespect. When a conflict is rooted in prejudice orbias against another, ignorance, fear, and misunder-standing often guide behavior toward that person.

Responses to ConflictResponses to conflict can be categorized into threebasic groups: soft, hard, and principled responses.3 Inboth soft and hard responses, disputants take posi-tions or stands relative to the problem. They negoti-ate these positions by trying either to avoid or to wina contest of wills. Soft and hard negotiations eitherbring about one-sided losses or demand one-sidedgains. In principled responses, disputants use con-flict resolution strategies to produce lasting “wiseagreements” that address the legitimate interests ofboth parties, resolve conflicting interests fairly, andtake into account how others will be affected by theagreement.

Soft responses such as avoidance, accommodation,and compromise usually occur between individualswho are friends or who want to be pleasant to eachother because they will continue to have contact inthe future. Individuals may attempt to avoid conflictaltogether by withdrawing from the situation, ignor-ing it, or denying that the conflict even matters. Ac-commodation involves one disputant giving in to theposition of the other without seeking to serve his or

her interests. Disputants who compromise agreeto something that does not really address the inter-ests of either one in order to end the dispute. Softresponses typically result in feelings of disillusion-ment, self-doubt, fear, and anxiety about the future.

Hard responses to conflict usually occur betweenindividuals who are adversaries and whose goal isvictory. Hard responses to a conflict are character-ized by confrontations that involve force, threats,aggression, and anger. Hard negotiators demandconcessions as a condition of the relationship andinsist on their position. They often search for asingle answer to the problem—namely, the onethe other side will give in to. Hard negotiators fre-quently apply pressure, trying to win a contest ofwills. They use bribery and punishments such aswithholding money, favors, and affection. Hardresponses are detrimental to cooperation and re-lationships and often result in hostility, physicaldamage, and violence.

Principled responses occur between individuals whoview themselves as problem solvers and whose goalis a wise outcome reached efficiently and amicably.Principled negotiators understand that communica-tion is fundamental to cooperative interaction, andthey understand what it means to participate in de-veloping a common understanding. Principled nego-tiators are skilled, active, empathic listeners. Theyattempt to see the problem from different perspec-tives. Principled responses to conflict create theopportunity for the needs of both disputants to bemet through an agreement that addresses the inter-ests of both. Principled responses to conflict pre-serve relationships.

Outcomes of Soft, Hard, and PrincipledResponsesThe three types of responses to conflict producedifferent outcomes. Soft responses typically result intwo types of outcomes. In situations in which indi-viduals give in on their positions for the sake of therelationship, with the result that no one’s interestsare met, lose-lose outcomes result. In situations inwhich one side accommodates the other, lose-winoutcomes occur. Individuals who avoid conflict by

10

accommodating others lose, in the sense that theirbasic needs are not acknowledged or met. Often,individuals who avoid conflict see themselves asvictims, and their relations with others suffer.

Hard responses also typically result in two typesof outcomes. Win-lose outcomes occur when themore aggressive party wins and the adversary loses.Hard responses to conflict often lead to a situationin which the desire to punish or get even provokesadversaries to take vindictive actions that harmthemselves as well as their opponents. This resultsin a lose-lose outcome. Stressful situations followwhen these adversaries are required to continue tointeract in some manner.

Principled responses to conflict typically lead to awin-win outcome. Using a problem-solving processbased on principled negotiation theory, individualsin conflict come to consensus on a joint resolutionwithout locking into positions or destroying relation-ships. The interests and needs of each party in thedispute are met.

Problem-Solving ProcessesThe structured problem-solving processes of conflictresolution are negotiation, mediation, and consensusdecisionmaking.4 All problem-solving processes inconflict resolution are based on integrated negotia-tion theory. In conflict resolution literature andpractice, the terms “negotiation” and “mediation”are often used interchangeably. In this Guide, thethree structured problem-solving processes aredefined as follows:

♦ Negotiation is a problem-solving process inwhich either the two parties in the disputeor their representatives meet face to face towork together unassisted to resolve the disputebetween the parties.

♦ Mediation is a problem-solving process in whichthe two parties in the dispute or their representa-tives meet face to face to work together to resolvethe dispute assisted by a neutral third party calledthe “mediator.”

♦ Consensus decisionmaking is a group problem-solving process in which all of the parties in thedispute or representatives of each party collab-orate to resolve the dispute by crafting a planof action that all parties can and will support.This process may or may not be facilitated bya neutral party.

Principles of Conflict ResolutionEffective implementation of the conflict resolutionprocesses of negotiation, mediation, or consensusdecisionmaking requires an understanding of thefollowing four essential principles:

♦ Separate people from the problem. Every prob-lem involves both substantive issues and relation-ship issues. By separating these issues, individualscome to see themselves as working side by side,attacking the problem, not each other. Fisher andcolleagues state, “Where perceptions are inaccu-rate, you can look for ways to educate. If emo-tions run high, you can find ways for each personinvolved to let off steam. Where misunderstand-ing exists, you can work to improve communica-tion.”5

♦ Focus on interests, not positions. Understandingthe difference between positions and interestsis crucial to problem solving. Interests, not posi-tions, define the problem. Positions are somethingthat individuals decide they want; interests arethe underlying motivations behind the positionsthey take. Fisher and colleagues note that “com-promising between positions is not likely to pro-duce an agreement which will effectively takecare of the human needs that led individuals toadopt those positions.”6 Where such interestsare not identified, temporary agreements maybe reached, but typically do not last because thereal interests have not been addressed.

♦ Invent options for mutual gain. Disputantsfocus on identifying options for resolving the con-flict without the pressure of reaching a decision.A brainstorming process is used to invent a widerange of options that advance shared interests andcreatively reconcile differing interests. The keyground rule to brainstorming is to postpone criti-cism and evaluation of the ideas being generated.

11

To broaden their options, those in a dispute thinkabout the problem in different ways and buildupon the ideas presented.

♦ Use objective criteria. Using objective criteriaensures that the agreement reflects some fair stan-dard instead of the arbitrary will of either side.Using objective criteria means that neither partyneeds to give in to the other; rather, they can de-fer to a fair solution. Objective criteria are deter-mined by disputants based on fair standards andfair procedures.7

Foundation Abilities for ConflictResolutionEffective implementation of the problem-solvingprocesses of conflict resolution requires various atti-tudes, understandings, and skills for dealing with aproblem or dispute. Conflict resolution occurs whenindividuals change from being adversaries in a face-to-face confrontation to being partners in a side-by-side search for a fair agreement that is advantageousto both. Training in the six foundation abilities ofconflict resolution helps to promote the effectiveuse of the four principles of conflict resolution. Thesix foundation abilities are as follows:

♦ Orientation abilities encompass values, beliefs,attitudes, and propensities that are compatiblewith effective conflict resolution. Orientationabilities include:

Nonviolence.

Compassion and empathy.

Fairness.

Trust.

Justice.

Tolerance.

Self-respect.

Respect for others.

Celebration of diversity.

Appreciation for controversy.

♦ Perception abilities encompass the understand-ing that conflict lies not in objective reality, but inhow individuals perceive that reality. Perceptionabilities include:

Empathizing in order to see the situation asthe other side sees it.

Self-evaluating to recognize personal fears.

Suspending judgment and blame to facilitatea free exchange of views.

♦ Emotion abilities encompass behaviors to man-age anger, frustration, fear, and other emotionseffectively. Emotion abilities include:

Learning language for communicatingemotions effectively.

Expressing emotions in nonaggressive,noninflammatory ways.

Exercising self-control in order not to reactto the emotional outbursts of others.

♦ Communication abilities encompass behaviors oflistening and speaking that allow for the effectiveexchange of facts and feelings. Communicationabilities include:

Listening to understand by using activelistening behaviors.

Speaking to be understood.

Reframing emotionally charged statementsinto neutral, less emotional terms.

♦ Creative thinking abilities encompass behaviorsthat enable individuals to be innovative in defin-ing problems and making decisions. Creativethinking abilities include:

Contemplating the problem from a varietyof perspectives.

Approaching the problem-solving task asa mutual pursuit of possibilities.

Brainstorming to create, elaborate, andenhance a variety of options.

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♦ Critical thinking abilities encompass the be-haviors of analyzing, hypothesizing, predicting,strategizing, comparing/contrasting, and evaluat-ing. Critical thinking abilities include:

Recognizing existing criteria and makingthem explicit.

Establishing objective criteria.

Applying criteria as the basis for choosingoptions.

Planning future behaviors.

Although these foundation abilities are necessaryto the successful implementation of the problem-solving processes of conflict resolution, programsthat teach only these skills are not genuine conflictresolution programs.

Steps in the Problem-SolvingProcessGenuine conflict resolution programs require twomajor components: the principles of conflict resolu-tion (separate the people from the problem; focus oninterests, not positions; invent options for mutual gain;and use objective criteria as the basis for decision-making) and a problem-solving process (negotiation,mediation, or consensus decisionmaking). The con-flict resolution processes are characterized by a se-ries of steps that enable the disputants to identifytheir own needs and interests and to work cooper-atively to find solutions to meet those needs andinterests. Each process gives support and directionto the cooperative effort, assisting the parties to stayfocused on the problem rather than on each otherand to find a mutually acceptable resolution. In ad-dition, genuine conflict resolution education programsinclude extensive training and practice using theprinciples and problem-solving processes of conflictresolution.

The six steps in each problem-solving process are:

♦ Set the stage.

♦ Gather perspectives.

♦ Identify interests.

♦ Create options.

♦ Evaluate options.

♦ Generate agreement.

Approaches to ConflictResolution EducationThere are four basic approaches to conflict resolu-tion education in operation across the country:

♦ Process Curriculum: An approach to conflictresolution education characterized by devotinga specific time to teaching the foundation abili-ties, principles, and one or more of the problem-solving processes of conflict resolution as aseparate course, distinct curriculum, or dailylesson plan.

♦ Mediation Program: A conflict resolution educa-tion program in which selected individuals (adultsand/or students) are trained in the principles andfoundation abilities of conflict resolution and inthe mediation process in order to provide neutralthird-party facilitation to assist those in conflictto reach a resolution.

♦ Peaceable Classroom: A whole-classroom meth-odology that includes teaching students the foun-dation abilities, principles, and one or more ofthe three problem-solving processes of conflictresolution. Conflict resolution education is incor-porated into the core subjects of the curriculumand into classroom management strategies. Peace-able classrooms are the building blocks of thepeaceable school.

♦ Peaceable School: A comprehensive whole-school methodology that builds on the peaceableclassroom approach by using conflict resolutionas a system of operation for managing the schoolas well as the classroom. Conflict resolution prin-ciples and processes are learned and utilized byevery member of the school community—librar-ians, teachers, counselors, students, principals,and parents.

13

The lines dividing these four approaches are some-times difficult to draw in practice, but the categoriescan be useful in describing the focus of each ap-proach. The strength of each approach lies in itsapplication of the conflict resolution principles andproblem-solving processes. Some of the best pro-grams have evolved in schools where the principlesand problem-solving processes of conflict resolutionallowed for gradual expansion from one approachto another.

Each of these approaches to conflict resolutioneducation is described in detail in the next fourchapters. Operational examples of each approachare included to illustrate the variety of options forprogram implementation. These representativeprograms were selected through a nominationprocess by national leaders in the field of conflictresolution education. Programs were chosen fortheir advancement of knowledge, teaching, andcomprehensive support for the peaceful resolutionof disputes among all people, regardless of age, race,ethnic background, or socioeconomic status. Theirselection does not constitute an endorsement byeither the Department of Justice or the Departmentof Education. Readers are encouraged to inform

themselves about the range of programs availableand the purposes of these programs.

Notes1. The discussion in this section is adapted, with thepermission of the authors and of Research Press, Inc.,from Bodine, R., D. Crawford, and F. Schrumpf. 1994.Creating the Peaceable School: A Comprehensive Program forTeaching Conflict Resolution. Champaign, IL: ResearchPress, Inc., pp. 52–53.

2. Glasser, W. 1984. Control Theory. New York, NY:Harper & Row.

3. The discussion in this section is adapted, with thepermission of the authors and of Research Press, Inc.,from Bodine et al., Creating the Peaceable School, p. 54.

4. The discussion in this section is adapted, with thepermission of the authors and of Research Press, Inc.,from Bodine et al., Creating the Peaceable School, pp. 56–57.

5. Fisher, R., W. Ury, and B. Patton. 1991. Getting To Yes:Negotiating Agreement Without Giving In. New York, NY:Penguin Books, p. 21.

6. Ibid., p. 11.

7. Ibid., p. 15.

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Chapter 2: Process Curriculum Approach

Process Curriculum: An approach to conflict resolutioneducation characterized by devoting a specific time to teach-ing the foundation abilities, principles, and one or more ofthe problem-solving processes of conflict resolution as aseparate course, distinct curriculum, or daily lesson plan.

Teachers who use the process curriculum approachteach conflict resolution through a time-limitedcourse, daily lessons over the length of a semester,or a series of workshops, perhaps conducted duringthe homeroom advisory period in middle and highschools. The daily lesson method is most often partof elementary school offerings. Although the pro-cess curriculum could be integrated into the existingcurriculum, teachers usually present it separately.The lessons, which cover the principles and problem-solving processes of conflict resolution, are unifiedin scope and sequence, taking place through struc-tured activities such as simulations, role-plays,group discussions, and cooperative learning activi-ties. This chapter describes three examples of theprocess curriculum approach.

The Program for YoungNegotiatorsThe Program for Young Negotiators (PYN), aprocess curriculum program developed by JaredCurhan, aims to teach individuals how to achievetheir goals without violence.1 Participating students,teachers, and administrators are taught a means ofgoal achievement and dispute resolution that has atits heart the practice of principled negotiation. Thistype of negotiation challenges the notion that dis-putes are resolved only when one side wins at theother’s expense, and it helps students envision

scenarios and generate options in which both sidesare satisfied with the outcome and both are able toachieve their goals. The foundation abilities of per-ception and thinking that are taught in negotiationcourses help students learn that, to satisfy their owninterests, they must empathize with the interests ofothers.

PYN consists of four components:

♦ Teacher training and community involvement.

♦ Negotiation curriculums.

♦ Followup opportunities.

♦ Ongoing curriculum development and innovation.

Teacher Training and CommunityInvolvementThe program first trains schoolteachers and ad-ministrators to negotiate their own issues. Duringa training seminar, participants learn negotiationfrom professionals such as negotiation professorsand practicing negotiators. After teachers beginteaching negotiation concepts to their students,they continue to attend regular curriculum imple-mentation meetings and are provided with ongoingtechnical support.

Have you not learned great lessons fromthose who braced themselves against you,and disputed the passage with you?

Walt Whitman

16

Each teacher may request up to three communityvolunteers, who are recruited by the program, tohelp implement his or her first negotiation course.A diverse corps of volunteer teaching assistants in-cludes professional negotiators, graduate students,parents, and community leaders. Volunteer teachingassistants make a commitment to attend trainingseminars and learn and teach negotiation techniqueswith their partner teachers.

Negotiation CurriculumThe PYN curriculum is based on the seven basicelements of negotiation that have been developedby the Harvard Negotiation Project (figure 2). Thecurriculum presents negotiation skills not simply asan alternative to violence, but as a necessary condi-tion for a successful and meaningful life. As in suc-cessful adult negotiation courses, the curriculumrelies heavily on experiential learning. The coursesbegin with cases that highlight basic principles, butas the curriculum unfolds, examples are increasinglydrawn from the lives of teenagers. The studentsactively participate in games and role-play exercises.Through mock negotiations, they experience empow-erment first hand as they learn to collaborate, com-municate carefully, and think in a win-win manner.

♦ Arranging negotiation workshops for parents andcommunity members.

♦ Developing a Young Negotiators Club.

♦ Training student council members.

♦ Holding weekly or monthly negotiation periodsin which students help each other with theirpersonal conflicts.

♦ Organizing student focus groups to develop newteaching cases.

Ongoing Curriculum Development andInnovationThroughout each semester, PYN collects feedbackfrom teachers and other training participants. Newcases are developed for the curriculum, and existingones are modified as part of the ongoing curriculumdevelopment and revision process. Each year, teach-ers receive revisions or newly submitted cases devel-oped during the previous year. For example, oneteacher developed a negotiation case in his historyclass to present the issue of Mayan farmers andlandholding; he submitted this case to PYN forhistory teachers to use.

Violence prevention is an important benefit of PYNcourses, but negotiation theory can also be appliedin circumstances where violence is not imminent.From inner-city neighborhoods to small countrytowns, negotiation skills are universally applicable

The results of the program were dramatic.The class we targeted for the PYN coursehad a history of being the most disruptivein the seventh grade. Those same studentshave internalized the skills they learned inPYN, resulting in a marked change in behav-ior. Students think before they speak, dialogusing negotiation, and offer negotiation toother students as an acceptable option forsolving conflicts.

Principal, Roxbury, Massachusetts

Now, because of PYN, I don’t have to arguewith my brother—we can sit down and talk.

Seventh grader,Charlestown, Massachusetts

Followup OpportunitiesWhen teachers complete the basic curriculum inthe classroom, they are presented with a number offollowup opportunities. Each teacher receives a listof the following options:

♦ Training a new group of students with the samecurriculum.

♦ Integrating the negotiation concepts into a subjectarea.

17

and essential to effective communication. The PYNcourse emphasizes the futility of adversarial aggres-sion and the utility of collaboration.

The Peace Education FoundationThe Peace Education Foundation (PEF), basedin Miami, Florida, offers a grade-level-specific,classroom-tested curriculum for prekindergartenthrough grade 12.2 The curriculum has a unifiedscope, sequence of content, and sequence of skills.PEF views conflict resolution as a body of knowl-edge and skills that equips individuals with the abil-ity to use a nonviolent, constructive approach whendealing with life’s inevitable conflicts. PEF focuseson children and the adults who facilitate children’ssocial, emotional, and intellectual growth. Sincemuch of this growth occurs in schools, PEF’s goalsare to make schools safe and more disciplined, im-prove school climate, make instructional strategiesmore effective, and foster resiliency in children.To make conflict resolution “standard operating

procedure” in schools, PEF programs are purposefullylinked to school improvement and related initiatives.

The content of the PEF conflict resolution curricu-lum encompasses a range of social competency skillsthat are grouped into five components:

♦ Community building: Establishing trust,exploring common interests, and respectingdifferences.

♦ Understanding conflict: Identifying conflict,the elements of conflict, escalation and deesca-lation, and different conflict management styles.

♦ Perception: Understanding different pointsof view, enhancing empathy, and increasingtolerance.

♦ Anger management: Understanding the prosand cons of anger, anger triggers, and angerstyles; increasing tolerance for frustration; andlearning anger management plans.

Figure 2: Seven Elements of Negotiation

Harvard Negotiation Project

♦ Communicate unconditionally both ways.

♦ Build a relationship in which you work sideby side.

♦ Clarify everyone’s underlying interests.

♦ Without commitment, generate options tomeet the interests.

♦ Find external standards of legitimacy bywhich to evaluate and improve options.

♦ Think about the walk-away alternatives ifno agreement is reached.

♦ Carefully draft terms that are better than thebest alternatives. Then make commitments.

Source: Adapted with permission from materials of the Harvard Negotiation Project, Harvard Law School, Cambridge,Massachusetts, and of the Program for Young Negotiators, Inc., Cambridge, Massachusetts.

Program for Young Negotiators

♦ Understand their perceptions andcommunicate your own.

♦ Be trustworthy all the time and collaborate.

♦ Explore their underlying interests, as wellas your own.

♦ Brainstorm options without criticizing eachother.

♦ Identify fair reasons for choosing options.

♦ Know your backup plan.

♦ Package options based on both of yourinterests.

18

♦ Rules for Fighting Fair: Learning the rules thatprovide a framework for appropriate behaviorand the associated skills, such as identifying andfocusing on the problem; attacking the problem,not the person; listening with an open mind; treat-ing a person’s feelings with respect; and takingresponsibility for one’s actions.

These rules are central to the PEF conflict resolu-tion program because they are the principles of non-violent conflict resolution that promote a peaceful,disciplined environment. The rules also provide aconstructive alternative to “fouls”—inappropriatebehaviors that attack the dignity of others and esca-late conflict, such as putting the other down, beingsarcastic, bringing up the past, hitting, not takingresponsibility, getting even, not listening, and mak-ing excuses. All PEF curriculums include an age-appropriate poster of the rules, a helpful visualreminder for all members of the school community.

Once the rules have been mastered, more sophisti-cated content and skills from the PEF componentscan be added to enhance students’ social compe-tency. These additional components include affirm-ing self-identity, refusing peer pressure, acting in aself-empowering way, dealing with bullies, establish-ing self-control, setting goals, acting with courageand conviction, understanding violence, havinghealthy relationships with boyfriends/girlfriends,and being a peacemaker.

Teachers facilitate the process of the PEF conflictresolution curriculum by using five strategies:

♦ Model: Profess the attitudes expected of studentsand practice the associated behaviors. The goal is

to let students know how, in “real life,” to use theRules for Fighting Fair and skills such as reflectivelistening, “I” statements, and problem solving.

♦ Teach: Teach the students what to do and why.Break the skills into understandable parts andgive them the chance to practice through role-play. The goal is for students to learn the tech-niques so they can repeat the vocabulary andtechniques when prompted.

♦ Coach: Assist students in using the techniquesappropriately in real-life situations. Offer supportand corrective feedback when needed. The goalis for students to practice what they have learned.

♦ Encourage: Remind students to use their skills.Express confidence in their ability to succeed.Recognize students’ appropriate use of skills.The goal is for students to behave appropriatelywithout depending on adults.

♦ Delegate: After students become proficient,let them teach or coach less experienced students.The goal is for students to demonstrate their com-petence and acknowledge the value of habitualuse of the skills.

When I was in the fifth grade, I was alwaysfighting and always bad, and sixth grade,too. When I moved to Charlestown andcame to the Edwards School, I learned howto negotiate, and I have not had a fight sincethen. I want to tell you that if I can do it, youcan all do it, too.

Seventh grader,Charlestown, Massachusetts

Our partnership with the Peace EducationFoundation has reduced the number ofreferrals and improved the classroom climatein our schools.

Safe Schools Program Director,Palm Beach County Schools

MediationSchools report that, as the number of students andadults skilled in mediation increases in a school,the incidence of conflict in the school decreases.The mediation curriculum, therefore, is the next stepin a well-implemented conflict resolution program.The PEF program includes mediation curriculumsfor grades 4 though 7 and 8 through 12.3 These cur-riculums provide step-by-step instructions for train-ing peer mediators and monitoring a school-basedmediation program.

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Parent InvolvementParent involvement in and support for a school-based conflict resolution program is critical. PEF’stext Fighting Fair for Families offers families a chanceto reinforce conflict resolution at home.4 The textcovers communication skills, anger managementtechniques, and basic mediation skills in English,Spanish, French, and Haitian Creole.

PEF has devised a variety of implementation modelsthat can be used in a classroom, school, or schooldistrict. PEF conflict resolution components maybe incorporated into traditional academic lessons.In addition, the conflict resolution components orspecific PEF curriculum lessons may be taught withsubject areas. Drop Everything for Peace is a PEFapproach that sets aside time on a regular basis toteach only PEF components and curriculums.

National Institute for CitizenEducation in the LawTo promote cooperation instead of competition, theNational Institute for Citizen Education in the Law(NICEL), a grantee of the Office of Juvenile Jus-tice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP), hasinterwoven strategies for conflict management andmediation into many of its programs and curriculummaterials. NICEL’s text Street Law: A Course in Practi-cal Law is used in schools, juvenile justice settings,and communities nationwide and has been adaptedfor use in other countries.5

Middle and High School Programs andCurricular MaterialsIn 1985, NICEL, in partnership with the NationalCrime Prevention Council (NCPC), formed theTeens, Crime, and the Community (TCC) program,which is funded by OJJDP. The TCC programhelps teens understand how crime affects themand their families, friends, and communities, andinvolves them in a service focused on making theircommunities safer. Conflict management lessonsare a key student activity. This program includes

comprehensive program design, teacher and com-munity resource training and preparation, andstudent and teacher materials development.

With funding from OJJDP, NICEL and NCPCproduced conflict resolution education curriculumsdesigned for specific student audiences: We CanWork It Out! Problem Solving Through Mediation(elementary and secondary school editions) andThe Conflict Zoo. We Can Work It Out! Problem SolvingThrough Mediation for secondary schools involves astep-by-step design to teach the skills of personalconflict management and the process of mediation.6

Through these lessons, teachers can impart valuableskills in analytical reasoning, active listening, pa-tience, empathy, and generating opinions. The cur-riculum teaches students key terms and conceptsand allows them to learn experientially. Studentsapply the skills they learn in scenarios in whichthey assume the roles of disputants and mediators.

An outgrowth of We Can Work It Out! is the Media-tion Showcase. NICEL, in partnership with theNational Institute for Dispute Resolution (NIDR),designed mediation showcases to popularize conflictmanagement skills. At these showcases, studentsare given conflict scenarios where they role-playthe disputants and mediators. Community resourcepeople, including community mediators and othervolunteers who use skills involved in conflict man-agement, provide feedback to the students on theirability to resolve the conflicts presented to them.This forum provides an opportunity for studentsto celebrate their newly learned skills and interactwith adults in a constructive and affirming environ-ment. In turn, these events provide an excellentopportunity for authentic assessment.

I learned how to keep calm and keep thedisputants calm—to help them solve theirproblems and not to solve the problem forthem.

Student, North Carolina

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Elementary Programs and CurricularMaterialsAfter its initial secondary school curriculum, NICELdeveloped two elementary curriculums. The ConflictZoo is a curriculum for the third and fourth gradesdesigned to teach the building blocks of conflictresolution and the concepts of justice and fairness.7

The lessons are given at the beginning of the schoolyear to help students understand conflict manage-ment and develop fair rules to live by. The lessonsbegin with the story of a junior zoo where babyanimals play together. To do this, the baby animalsmust resolve their conflicts nonviolently and build asense of community. The students experience theseeveryday conflicts through the eyes of the animals.The philosophy, principles, and skills of conflictresolution are interwoven in role-plays about juniorzoo conflicts. Students gradually move from helpingthe animals resolve their conflicts to resolving con-flicts in their own lives. Over the course of the les-sons, children learn important terms, create journals,and apply these new ideas to their lives. Role-plays,art, and journal keeping are used to keep the childreninterested and provide ways for them to internalizeand apply the skills they learn in a range of situations.

Another curriculum, We Can Work It Out! ProblemSolving Through Mediation for elementary schools,follows the same format as We Can Work It Out!for secondary schools, except that the terminologyused and the scenarios created are appropriate forelementary school students.8 Elementary mediationshowcases parallel the secondary ones describedabove. Scenarios for students often involve fairytales, cartoons, and interpersonal conflicts.

Process Curriculum in Juvenile JusticeSettingsNICEL’s lessons for juvenile justice settings focuson developing an understanding of practical law. Lifeskills like anger management, communication, and theproblem-solving processes of conflict resolution areat the heart of every lesson. The interactive strategiesand real-world scenarios keep participants engaged inapplying newly learned information. NICEL providestraining and materials for juvenile justice professionalsin prevention, intervention, and youth developmentunder an OJJDP grant.

I learned that you can work out problemswithout going to the principal’s office.

Student, North Carolina

NICEL programs can be used separately or inte-grated into existing curriculums and programs.Schools that have a peer mediation program canuse the We Can Work It Out! curriculum to extendthe philosophy and skills to the rest of the schoolpopulation. If a school has not yet developed a con-flict resolution education program, a logical firststep might be to teach the philosophy and skills ofconflict resolution to the entire school communityand then to set up a mediation program. The useof these programs and curriculums can help developa corps of trained practitioners in the school com-munity who have the skills to handle everydayconflicts.

Notes1. Curhan, J.R. 1996. Life Negotiations: The PYN Curric-ulum for Middle Schools. Cambridge, MA: Program forYoung Negotiators, Inc.

2. Some of the curriculums available from PEF arePeacemaking Skills for Little Kids, Pre K–K (F. Schmidtand A. Friedman, 1993), Peacemaking Skills for LittleKids, Grade One (D. Berkell, K. Kotzen, and S. Rizzo,1996), Peacemaking Skills for Little Kids, Grade Two(E. Brunt, A. Friedman, F. Schmidt, and T. Solotoff,1996), Peace Scholars: Learning Through Literature, GradeThree (D. Carlebach, 1996), Creative Conflict Solving forKids, Grade Four (F. Schmidt and A. Friedman, 1991),Creative Conflict Solving for Kids, Grade Five (F. Schmidt andA. Friedman, 1985), Creating Peace, Building Community,Grade Six (J. Bachoy, 1996), and Creating Peace, BuildingCommunity, Grade Seven (J. Bachoy, 1996). For more in-formation on these curriculums, see the section “ProcessCurriculum” in appendix B.

3. The PEF mediation curriculums include Mediationfor Kids (F. Schmidt, A. Friedman, and J. Marvel, 1992)and Mediation: Getting to Win/Win! (F. Schmidt andJ. Burke, 1994). For more information on these cur-riculums, see the section “Mediation” in appendix B.

4. Schmidt, F., and A. Friedman. 1994. Fighting Fair forFamilies. Miami, FL: Peace 10 Education Foundation.

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5. Arbetman, L.P., E.T. McMahon, and E.L. O’Brien.1994. Street Law: A Course in Practical Law, 5th edition.St. Paul, MN: West Publishing Company.

6. Glickman, S., and J. Zimmer. 1993. We Can Work ItOut!: Problem Solving Through Mediation, Secondary Edition.Washington, DC: National Institute for Citizen Educa-tion in the Law. See “Process Curriculum,” appendix B,for more information.

7. Glickman, S., N. Johnson, G. Sirianni, and J. Zimmer.1996. The Conflict Zoo. Washington, DC: National Insti-tute for Citizen Education in the Law. See “Process Cur-riculum,” appendix B, for more information.

8. Barnes-Robinson, L., S. Jewler, and J. Zimmer. 1996.We Can Work It Out!: Problem Solving Through Mediation,Elementary Edition. Washington, DC: National Institute forCitizen Education in the Law. See “Process Curriculum,”appendix B, for more information.

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Chapter 3: Mediation ProgramApproach

Mediation Program: A conflict resolution education pro-gram in which selected individuals (adults and/or students)are trained in the principles and foundation abilities ofconflict resolution and in the mediation process in order toprovide neutral third-party facilitation to assist those inconflict to reach a resolution.

The mediation process is a mechanism for resolvingconflicts that can be used within schools, the com-munity, youth-serving organizations, and juvenilejustice settings. Within these settings, mediationprograms are established to:

♦ Reduce the number of disciplinary actions, suchas detentions, suspensions, and lockdowns.

♦ Encourage more effective problem solving.

♦ Reduce the time adults or youth leaders spenddealing with conflicts between youth.

♦ Improve school or agency climate.

♦ Provide youth and staff with an alternative forumfor problem solving.

Mediation programs can help manage and resolveconflicts between young people, between youngpeople and adults, and between adults. The princi-pal, teachers, or other adults can be trained as me-diators to help young people and adults resolve theirdisputes. For example, an adult mediator can assistadults in resolving conflicts such as work problemsbetween staff members, disciplinary actions disputedby parents, and disputes over the development ofappropriate programs for children with special needs.

Youth mediators help resolve disputes betweenpeers involving jealousies, rumors, misunderstand-ings, bullying, fights, personal property, and

damaged friendships. In addition, youth andadults may co-mediate conflicts such as personalityclashes, issues of respect and behavior, and otherconflicts that damage youth-adult relationships.Youth-adult mediations are usually an outgrowthof established peer mediation programs or adultmediation programs.

The Mediation ProcessMediation is a process in which one or more media-tors serve as neutral facilitators to help disputantsnegotiate an agreement. In this process, the media-tor creates and maintains an environment that fos-ters mutual problem solving. During mediation,the mediator uses the six problem-solving steps ofconflict resolution:

♦ Set the stage—establish ground rules for problemsolving.

♦ Gather perspectives—listen to each disputant’spoint of view.

♦ Identify interests contributing to the conflict.

♦ Create options that address the interests of bothdisputants.

We help kids who are fighting talk abouttheir problems. Some people think kidscan’t help other kids solve their problems.But we can. It’s real neat because we don’twork out things for kids who are fighting.They solve their own problems and we help.

Fourth-grade mediator, Wilmette, Illinois

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♦ Evaluate these options according to objectivecriteria.

♦ Generate an agreement satisfactory to eachdisputant.

Although the mediator controls the process, thedisputants control the outcome. Participation inmediation is voluntary, and the mediator does notjudge, impose an agreement, or force a solution.Mediation is powerful because conflicts can onlybe resolved if the disputants choose to resolve them.Disputants can judge best what will resolve theconflict and are more likely to execute the termsof an agreement if they have authored them.

Peer Mediation ProgramsPeer mediation programs are among the most widelychosen types of conflict resolution programs inschools. Young people can become effective media-tors because they understand their peers, make theprocess age appropriate, empower their peers andcommand their respect, and normalize the conflictresolution process.1

Young people can connect with their peers in waysthat adults cannot. Peer mediators can frame dis-putes in the perspective, language, and attitudes ofyouth. Young people perceive peer mediation as away to talk out problems without the fear of an adultjudging their behavior, thoughts, or feelings. Peermediators are respected because they uphold theproblem-solving process and honor the disputantsin the way they conduct the mediation sessions. Theself-empowering process appeals to youth and fos-ters self-esteem and self-discipline. When youngpeople solve their own problems, they feel theyare in control and can make a commitment to thesolutions they have created.

Peer Mediation TrainingIn schoolwide peer mediation programs, a cadreof students is trained in conflict resolution. Peermediation training is flexible and accommodatesthe school’s schedule and resources and the develop-mental level of the students involved. For example,training for elementary students might be conducted

in 2-hour sessions over several weeks, whereastraining for high school students might be donein full-day sessions. Peer mediation training takesa minimum of 12 to 20 hours with ongoing oppor-tunities to develop the skills of the mediators(see table 1).

Respect for diversity and cultural competency arealso taught to peer mediators. Incorporating simula-tions with cross-cultural themes and social justiceissues into training activities effectively preparespeer mediators for conflicts deriving from diversity.

Developing skill in the mediation process is a life-long activity. Peer mediators are encouraged topractice and use their training in conflict resolutionas often as possible and to take refresher classes.

Peer Mediation OpportunityPeer mediation programs offer all young peopleconstructive means of resolving conflicts. Peer me-diators who are properly trained acquire and inter-nalize conflict resolution skills that can benefit themin many different ways throughout their lives. Forthis reason, many experts believe that peer media-tion programs should be implemented not as a soli-tary entity, but as an integral part of a total schoolconflict resolution program that offers mediatorsand others the opportunity to develop conflict reso-lution skills. In the following sections, two mediationprograms are described.

Peer Mediation in SchoolsProgram From the New MexicoCenter for Dispute ResolutionThe Peer Mediation in Schools Program developedby the New Mexico Center for Dispute Resolution(NMCDR) is designed to train staff and the entirestudent body in the mediation process, with selectedstudents trained as peer mediators. The program hasthree components—teacher modeling, a curriculum,and mediation—and is intended for use in a widerange of contexts and settings, which are describedin detail on the following pages.

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Teacher ModelingThe program’s success depends on the supportand commitment of the entire school staff. Atan orientation meeting, staff are presented withseveral options. They can:

♦ Pledge general support for the program.

♦ Refer students to mediation and encourageparticipation in the process.

♦ Agree to participate in mediation with a studentif appropriate.

♦ Take part in conflict resolution training if trainingis offered at the school.

♦ Participate in mediation training and serve as astaff mediator.

♦ Serve as a member of the mediation implementa-tion team.

♦ Serve as a program coordinator.

In any of these roles, teachers demonstrate thevalue and importance of problem solving and com-munication by applying these skills in the classroom,the hallway, the office, and in interactions with col-leagues and with parents.

Curriculum ComponentTeaching the curriculum is mandatory at the elemen-tary level and optional at the middle and secondarylevels. At the elementary level, the curriculum is

designed to teach and reinforce communication,develop vocabulary and concepts related to conflict,and develop problem-solving skills. Two manualsare used: Resolving Conflict: Activities for Grades K–3and Lessons in Conflict Resolution for Grades 4–6.2 Thecurriculum is used in all class settings, allowing allstudents to develop conflict resolution skills. At thesecondary level, a 15-lesson curriculum, ManagingConflict: A Curriculum for Adolescents, is used in home-room and social studies, civics, language, and Englishclasses.3 The curriculum teaches and reinforcesskills in communication, problem solving, andanger management.

Mediation ComponentSelection of peer mediators is similar at the elemen-tary, middle, and secondary levels. Students andstaff nominate potential mediators, and a committeeof teachers makes the final selection based on a bal-ance of “negative” and “positive” factors. Selectedstaff and students are then trained in the mediationprocess.

At the elementary level, selected mediators fromgrades 4 through 6 receive an additional 9 hoursof training after they complete the mediation cur-riculum. After a publicized graduation ceremony,student mediators in teams of two watch the play-ground for developing conflicts and offer their helpin resolving them. Some schools also use a classroomreferral system. The NMCDR Training and Imple-mentation Guide for Student Mediation in ElementarySchools provides a detailed description of programimplementation.4

Table 1: Recommended Time for Peer Mediation Training

Grade Level Minimum Number of Hours of Training

Elementary school 12–16

Middle school 12–16

High school 15–20

Source: National Association for Mediation in Education. 1995. Standards for Peer Mediation Programs. Washington, DC:National Institute for Dispute Resolution.

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At the secondary level, selected teacher and studentmediators receive 12 hours of training after theycomplete the mediation curriculum. After training,students and staff refer conflicts to the programcoordinator for mediation; participation is voluntary.Disputes between two students are handled by ateam of two student mediators, and disputes be-tween a staff member and a student are handled bya student and staff mediator team. The NMCDRTraining and Implementation Guide for Student Mediationin Secondary Schools contains information on trainingmediators and implementing the program.5

staff to build program support; planning programdevelopment; providing program managementassistance to district team members and schoolprogram coordinators; and providing other assis-tance identified by the district.

♦ Supply implementation manuals and curriculummaterials with permission to duplicate as neededfor the school district’s use.

♦ Work on site with the district team to assessdistrict needs, exchange information that de-fines services to be provided, plan strategies forproblem-solving or development activities, de-velop long-term plans for program implementa-tion, and mentor district trainers for up to 2 years.

♦ Conduct an annual evaluation examining thestrengths and weaknesses of all new and ongoingNMCDR programs.

The school district’s responsibilities over a period of3 to 5 years are to:

♦ Maintain a district implementation team thatincludes a district-level administrator and com-munity members and meets at least twice a year.

♦ Maintain programs at all schools where aprogram has been implemented.

♦ Provide substitute and inservice time for staffand coordinator training.

♦ Develop a written plan that includes a 3- to5-year plan and goals for districtwide expan-sion, annual district goals, and a list of servicesneeded for the year.

♦ Identify new schools for program implementationin the following academic year.

♦ Maintain originals of curriculum materialsand mediation training manuals provided byNMCDR and provide and distribute copiesto schools.

♦ Select four to six candidates to be trained as in-ternal district trainers and provide support suchas release time and substitute salary to allow themto train within the district.

I have been through student-teacher me-diation this semester and found it to be apositive, equitable method of achievingconflict resolution. The student and I hadrepeated confrontations about attitudeand academic performance. Through themediation the student felt more at ease—less pressured. I became aware of my ownactions and his concerns and modifiedmy behavior accordingly. The student hasbecome less disruptive and confrontational.

Teacher, Ortiz Middle School

NMCDR initially conducts district staff orientationworkshops to discuss the philosophical and organi-zational realities of conflict resolution. Thereafter,NMCDR and the school district enter into an agree-ment that specifies the responsibilities of each party.NMCDR’s responsibilities are to:

♦ Help create district implementation teams com-posed of teachers, parents, community youthworkers, juvenile probation officers, and students.

♦ Provide onsite training; each district receivesa number of service days based on the districtteam’s plan.

♦ Provide technical assistance that includes train-ing students and staff in mediation and conflictresolution skills; giving presentations to schoolboard members, parents, administrators, and

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♦ Support programs during transitions (e.g., duringchanges of staff).

♦ Establish policies for mediation programs.

♦ Integrate mediation into the schools’ and thedistrict’s disciplinary policies.

♦ Build connections with the community, includingprivate and public agencies such as juvenile pro-bation and social services.

By training educators to become conflict resolutiontrainers, NMCDR helps districts become indepen-dent, thereby ensuring a smooth transfer of respon-sibility. The district trainers assume responsibilityfor creating and maintaining mediation and conflictresolution programs and for conducting training inthe schools. At that point, NMCDR staff withdrawfrom the school district’s program.

Illinois Institute for DisputeResolutionThe Illinois Institute for Dispute Resolution (IIDR)implements and operates its peer mediation programin six developmental phases (figure 3). During thefirst phase, the conflict resolution program team iscreated and trained, the program coordinators aredesignated, a needs assessment is conducted, andfaculty consensus for program development is built.IIDR is actively involved with the school or districtin this phase, providing technical assistance andtraining for the program team. Throughout all sixphases, IIDR provides technical assistance to theprogram team, including first-time training to otherstaff, community members, parents, and studentpeer mediators. In any of these trainings conductedby IIDR, program team members always participateand provide followup training after the program’sfirst year.

Phase I: Develop the Program Team andCommitmentA peer mediation program must be perceived asfulfilling the needs of both faculty and students.A broad-based coalition of administrators, class-room teachers, special educators, counselors, deans,social workers, and health educators interested indeveloping a conflict resolution program is neces-sary for a successful program. This team may alsoinclude parents, students, or community members.The team is the key to a successful program becausethe members initiate the program and are chargedwith gaining the support of the entire school staff.

After the team is formed, it must build its capacityto develop a quality peer mediation program. Theprogram team must be trained to become informeddecisionmakers, effective implementers, and strongadvocates for the program. Since the program teamwill be responsible for the supervision and trainingof student mediators, the team members must betrained in the principles of conflict resolution andmediation and methods for mediation training. Con-tent for the training includes:

♦ Understanding conflict.

♦ Principles of conflict resolution.

♦ Social and cultural diversity and conflict resolution.

♦ Mediation process and skills.

♦ Program organization and operation.

♦ Role of peer mediation in the school.

♦ Rationale for peer mediation.

My first-grade son came home the other dayand told me, “Mom, I have a problem withJessica. We need to talk.” I came in to askthe teacher what was going on because heusually says that she’s mean and he hatesher. I was excited about the change in hisway of talking. The teacher told me he washaving a class in conflict resolution.

Parent, Bayard Elementary School

We need to face the reality that what we aredoing is not working. We must do somethingdifferent. This is different and I believe it willwork!

Assistant principal, Chicago, Illinois

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Figure 3: The Six Developmental Phases of the MediationProgram of the Illinois Institute for Dispute Resolution

Phase I: Develop the Program Team and Commitment♦ Create program team.

♦ Train program team.

♦ Designate program coordinators.

♦ Conduct needs assessment.

♦ Build faculty consensus for program development.

Phase II: Design and Plan the Program♦ Develop timeline for implementation.

♦ Establish advisory committee.

♦ Develop policies and procedures.

♦ Identify and develop funding sources.

Phase III: Select and Train the Mediators♦ Conduct student orientation.

♦ Select peer mediators.

♦ Train mediators.

♦ Recognize peer mediators.

Phase IV: Educate a Critical Mass♦ Conduct faculty inservice training.

♦ Conduct student workshops.

♦ Provide family and community orientation.

♦ Offer parent workshops.

Phase V: Develop and Execute a Promotional Campaign♦ Execute initial campaign.

♦ Develop ongoing promotion.

Phase VI: Program Operation and Maintenance♦ Request mediation process.

♦ Schedule mediations and mediators.

♦ Supervise mediation session.

♦ Provide mediators ongoing training and support.

♦ Evaluate program.

Source: Schrumpf, F., D. Crawford, and R. Bodine. 1996. Peer Mediation: Conflict Resolution in Schools. Revised edition.Champaign, IL: Research Press, Inc. Reprinted with permission of the authors and Research Press.

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This phase also includes a needs assessment con-ducted to establish school and community supportfor a conflict resolution program. Broad-basedsupport is essential to sustaining a school conflictresolution program. Faculty consensus on the pro-gram’s development must also be built. Withoutshared vision among faculty, the program will notgrow and is not likely to survive.

Phase II: Design and Plan the ProgramFollowing phase I, IIDR encourages the school toestablish an advisory committee of 10 to 12 membersrepresenting the varied interests of the school andcommunity, including parents, teachers, school anddistrict administrators, students, support staff, com-munity representatives, and corporate sponsors.The advisory committee oversees the developmentof the program, including the role of mediationwithin the school’s discipline program; assists theprogram team in developing timelines for implemen-tation; and identifies and develops funding sources.

Mediation met a deep-seated need. . . .Conflict is resolved on a verbal level anddoes not get to the physical. . . . Peermediation teaches that different is notnecessarily bad. . . . We tend to realizethat the other person is just like us.

Teacher, Rockford, Illinois

The training was great. . . . Everybody leftthe training so enthused and committed todeveloping the program. . . . Never beforehad anything been done districtwide, andwe wanted to do it with this type of pro-gram so the students would get the samemessage across grades. . . . We had a visionthat we could make this work in Freeport.

Counselor and program team member,Freeport, Illinois

IIDR believes that trainers should have mediationexperience. The team members should thereforebe involved in mediation training and continue toincrease their skills through practice.

During phase I the program coordinators are desig-nated. The effectiveness of the peer mediation pro-gram is strongly linked to the quality of programcoordinators, who are responsible for the ongoingorganization and operation of the peer mediationprogram and must personify the conflict resolutionprinciples they promote. Program coordinators:

♦ Facilitate the program team in designing andplanning the peer mediation program.

♦ Plan and conduct orientation sessions for faculty,students, families, and the community.

♦ Coordinate the selection of peer mediators andthe training of students.

♦ Establish and facilitate the advisory committee.

♦ Promote the program.

♦ Receive requests for mediation and schedulemediators and mediations.

♦ Arrange for supervision of mediators and providefor ongoing mediator training and support.

♦ Facilitate ongoing communication with theprogram team.

♦ Develop parent and community participation.

♦ Collect mediation data and evaluate the program.

Phase III: Select and Train the MediatorsPhase III encompasses recruiting, selecting, andtraining student mediators. IIDR suggests thatnominations be broadly solicited from staff and stu-dents, including self-nominations. Several processesmay be used to select mediators, but IIDR believesthat one of the more effective is a lottery. Selectionby lottery is preferable because interested students

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Even some of the tougher kids are starting tosee fighting as pretty stupid.

Middle school mediator, Champaign, Illinois

There are so many more problems todaythat they naturally affect our kids. Theyneed ways to deal with their own problems.

Parent, Chicago, Illinois

to help the staff develop a common understandingof conflict, learn the principles of conflict resolution,develop an understanding of the mediation process,learn how to support the development of the peermediation program through curriculum integrationand referral of conflicts to mediation, and prepareto conduct student workshops.

Workshops for students last about 5 hours andare designed to develop an understanding of con-flict, peace, and peacemaking; communication andnegotiation skills; and an understanding of peermediation and procedures for requesting peer me-diation services. Student peer mediators are oftenused to provide orientation programs for and assistin training faculty, students, parents, and communitygroups.

Phase V: Develop and Execute aPromotional CampaignThe fifth phase consists of developing and executinga promotional campaign. Like many new ideas, peermediation can be greeted with skepticism. Studentsmay be reluctant to try a new approach. Many stu-dents may feel as if they are backing down or losingface if they talk problems through. Promoting theprogram among the student population is crucialto its success, but the campaign activities must berevived periodically and continue through the lifeof the program.

will take the risk of applying when they do not fearrejection. It is also important that students not havea negative experience with the peer mediation pro-gram. Lottery selection is perceived as an opportu-nity, whereas selection by criteria can be perceivedas a personal risk. A student rejected as a peermediator may reject the mediation process if he orshe later experiences a conflict. This attitude canpotentially spread from one individual to groups ofpeers, who would then also refuse to participate inthe mediation. The lottery must also provide for theproper representation of the school’s diverse groupsif it is to work well.

Phase VI: Program Operation andMaintenancePhase VI encompasses every aspect of programoperation and maintenance—requesting mediation,scheduling mediations and mediators, supervisingmediators, recording mediation data, providing

The IIDR program for student mediation traininginvolves 12 to 15 hours of basic training and 12 to15 hours of additional advanced training. The basictraining activities include understanding conflict,responses to conflict, sources of conflict, commu-nication skills, the role of the mediator, and themediation process. The advanced training includesbias awareness, social/cultural diversity, advancedcommunication, uncovering hidden interests, deal-ing with anger, caucusing, negotiation, and groupproblem solving.

Students who complete the basic training can me-diate most disputes between peers. The advancedtraining strengthens their abilities to use the media-tion process and expands their understanding ofdiversity with regard to conflict resolution.

Phase IV: Educate a Critical MassThe fourth phase of the program focuses on educat-ing a critical mass about conflict, conflict resolution,and the mediation process via workshops for faculty,students, parents, and the community. In the IIDRprogram, the staff inservice training is a minimumof 6 hours. The purpose of the inservice training is

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I don’t have nearly the number of conflictsto deal with as I used to. A referral must bepretty serious now for it to come to me. Myplayground supervisors also see a big differ-ence. School peacemakers (peer mediators)aren’t enough. Mediation must get into theclassrooms.

Principal, Mt. Carmel, Illinois

Notes1. Cohen, R. 1995. Students Resolving Conflict: Peer Mediationin Schools. Glenview, IL: GoodYear Books, pp. 44–45.

2. Copeland, N., and F. Garfield. 1989. Resolving Conflict:Activities for Grades K–3. Albuquerque, NM: New MexicoCenter for Dispute Resolution. Lessons in Conflict Resolu-tion for Grades 4–6. 1994. Albuquerque, NM: New MexicoCenter for Dispute Resolution. For more information onboth curriculums, see “Mediation,” appendix B.

3. Copeland, N.D., and M. Smith (editors). 1989. Manag-ing Conflict: A Curriculum for Adolescents. Albuquerque, NM:New Mexico Center for Dispute Resolution. For moreinformation, see “Mediation” in appendix B.

4. Keeney, S., and J. Sidwell. 1990. Training and Implemen-tation Guide for Student Mediation in Elementary Schools.Albuquerque, NM: New Mexico Center for DisputeResolution. For more information, see the section “Me-diation” in appendix B.

5. Smith, M., and J. Sidwell. 1990. Training and Implementa-tion Guide for Student Mediation in Secondary Schools. Albuquer-que, NM: New Mexico Center for Dispute Resolution. Formore information, see “Mediation,” appendix B.

6. Schrumpf, F., D. Crawford, and R. Bodine. 1996. PeerMediation: Conflict Resolution in Schools. Revised edition.Champaign, IL: Research Press, Inc.

ongoing training and support, and evaluating pro-grams. Conducting a program evaluation builds asolid case for ongoing support for peer mediationand provides information to improve the programand change the school system.

IIDR promotes peer mediation as a way to establishconflict resolution programs in schools and workswith schools in the process of developing and imple-menting peer mediation programs to extend conflictresolution training to a broader constituency withinthe school than the few who are trained as peermediators.6

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Chapter 4: Peaceable ClassroomApproach

Peaceable Classroom: A whole-classroom methodologythat includes teaching students the foundation abilities,principles, and one or more of the three problem-solvingprocesses of conflict resolution. Conflict resolution educationis incorporated into the core subjects of the curriculumand into classroom management strategies. Peaceableclassrooms are the building blocks of the peaceable school.

Peaceable classrooms are initiated on a teacher-by-teacher basis. The peaceable classroom approachintegrates conflict resolution into the curriculumand into the management of the classroom and usesthe instructional methods of cooperative learningand academic controversy.

Curriculum Integration andClassroom ManagementCurriculum integration occurs when the skills andconcepts needed to resolve conflicts constructivelyare incorporated into core subject areas. Teacherswho integrate conflict resolution into their curricu-lums help create classroom environments that sup-port conflict resolution and prosocial behavior.William Kreidler, a pioneer of the peaceable class-room, views the classroom as a caring and respect-ful community having five qualities: cooperation,communication, emotional expression, appreciationfor diversity, and conflict resolution.1 Peaceableclassrooms incorporate learning activities and teach-able moments that encourage youth to recognizeand choose nonviolent options in conflict situations,meet the needs of the individuals involved, andimprove relationships.

Cooperative Learning andAcademic ControversyTeachers in peaceable classrooms extensively usethe cooperative learning and academic controversymethods developed by David Johnson and RogerJohnson. In cooperative learning, students workin small groups to accomplish shared learning goals.Students have the responsibility to learn the as-signed material and ensure that other group mem-bers learn it.2 Academic controversy methods areused when one student’s ideas, information, conclu-sions, theories, and opinions are incompatible withthose of another and the two seek to reach an agree-ment. Controversies are resolved through deliberatediscourse—the discussion of the advantages and dis-advantages of proposed actions. Such discussion isaimed at creative problem solving by synthesizingnovel solutions.3

In peaceable classrooms, youth learn to take re-sponsibility for their actions and develop a senseof connectedness to others and their environment.Peaceable classrooms build the capacity of youthto manage and resolve conflict on their own bylearning to:

♦ Understand and analyze conflict.

♦ Understand peace and peacemaking.

♦ Recognize the role of perceptions and biases.

Each of us must be the change we want tosee in the world.

Mahatma Gandhi

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and ground rules that encourage or discouragea peaceful sports climate.

♦ Science: Discuss and analyze the symbioticrelationships found in nature.

♦ Social Studies: Analyze past or present local,State, national, and international conflicts anddiscuss various conflict resolution strategiesto resolve them.

The Educators for Social Responsibility (ESR)curriculum Making Choices About Conflict, Security, andPeacemaking offers other examples for incorporatingconflict resolution into primary and supplementarylessons for the secondary level:5

♦ Literature: Explore the concept of conflict esca-lation in novels and short stories, or read selec-tions about American and global peacemakerswhose life work has made a positive differencefor others, for example, Eleanor Roosevelt, CesarChavez, Mary McLeod Bethune, Ralph Bunche,and Jane Addams.

♦ Science: Introduce the concept of global ecologyby examining environmental problems that re-quire international cooperation.

♦ Civics: Explore tools of public policy and polit-ical pressure that are employed at local, State,national, and international levels. Study Stateand Federal legislation or international policieson controversial issues.

♦ Introduction to the Law: Explore the tuna fishcontroversy (drift net fishing and the Law ofthe Seas) as a way to understand the impact ofchange in the law on local and national economiesand international relations.

♦ World Geography: Compare different nationsto identify how geographic features influenceeconomy and quality of life.

♦ American History: Study the successes andfailures of international peacekeeping in the20th century, specifically contrasting the Leagueof Nations and the United Nations.

Two examples of peaceable classroom programsfollow.

♦ Identify feelings.

♦ Identify factors that cause escalation.

♦ Handle anger and other feelings appropriately.

♦ Improve listening skills.

♦ Improve verbal communication skills.

♦ Identify common interests.

♦ Brainstorm multiple options that addressinterests.

♦ Evaluate the consequences of different options.

♦ Create a win-win agreement.

The Ohio Commission on Dispute Resolution’s Con-flict Management Resource Guide for Elementary Schoolssuggests the following ways to incorporate conflictand conflict resolution into the core areas of thecurriculum:4

♦ Art: Study contrast, perspective, and feeling inthe production or study of art.

♦ Health: Recognize and evaluate the consequencesof unhealthy behavior and brainstorm alternativechoices.

♦ Language Arts:

Reading: Analyze factual or fictional storiesto identify the causes of conflicts and theirsolutions while discussing additional optionsfor resolving them.

Writing: Use story starters to provide oppor-tunities for students to think about and applyconflict resolution skills in their creativewriting.

♦ Mathematics: Ask students to develop a planfor a city park that meets a variety of communityinterests and budget constraints.

♦ Music: Reinforce the principles of harmonyand discord and their similarity to the problem-solving processes of conflict resolution.

♦ Physical Education: Discuss the differencesbetween competitive and cooperative games

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Teaching Students To BePeacemakers ProgramThe Teaching Students To Be Peacemakers (TSP)program offered by the Cooperative Learning Cen-ter of the University of Minnesota is a 12-year spiralprogram for schools in which students learn increas-ingly sophisticated negotiation and mediation proce-dures each year.6 In the TSP program, the school’sfaculty create a cooperative environment, teach stu-dents to be peacemakers, implement the peacemakerprogram, and refine and upgrade the students’ skills.

Faculty Create a Cooperative EnvironmentCooperative learning creates a context for the con-structive resolution of conflicts. It also reduces thefactors that place students at risk for using violence,such as poor academic performance (with an inabil-ity to think decisions through) and alienation fromschoolmates. Cooperative learning, compared withcompetitive or individualistic learning, results inhigher academic achievement and increased use ofhigher level reasoning strategies, more caring andsupportive relationships, and greater self-esteem.

Faculty Teach Students To BePeacemakersUnder TSP, all students receive 30 minutes of train-ing per day for approximately 30 days and then 30minutes of training approximately twice a week forthe rest of the school year. The training includes:

♦ Understanding the Nature of Conflict. Learningincludes recognizing conflicts by focusing atten-tion on problems, clarifying disputants’ values,revealing how disputants need to change, increas-ing higher level cognitive and moral reasoning,increasing motivation to learn, providing insightsinto other perspectives and life experiences,strengthening relationships, adding fun andvariety to life, and increasing disputants’ abilityto cope with stress and be resilient in the faceof adversity.

♦ Choosing an Appropriate Conflict Strategy.Students, faculty, and administrators learn thatthey have two concerns when facing a conflict:

achieving their goals and maintaining a goodrelationship with the other person. The balancebetween the two determines whether they should:

Withdraw, giving up both the goals and therelationship.

Force, achieving the goal at the other person’sexpense, thereby giving up the relationship.

Smooth, giving up the goal to enhance therelationship.

Compromise, giving up part of the goal atsome damage to the relationship.

Negotiate, solving the problem, thus achievingthe goal and maintaining the relationship.

Participants are taught that in long-termrelationships, such as those with schoolmatesand faculty, the most important strategy is theproblem-solving process of negotiation.

♦ Negotiating To Solve the Problem. It is notenough to tell students to “be nice,” or “talk itout,” or “solve your problem.” They must betaught specific procedures for resolving conflicts.This part of the training teaches students, faculty,and administrators specific procedures for nego-tiating agreements that result in all disputantsachieving their goals while maintaining or evenimproving the quality of their relationships (seefigure 4).

♦ Mediating Others’ Conflicts. Participants aretaught the four-step mediation procedure:

Ending hostilities. The mediator ensures thatdisputants end hostilities and cool off. If thedisputants are too angry to solve their prob-lems, they must cool down before mediationbegins.

Ensuring disputants are committed to themediation process. The mediator introducesthe process of mediation and sets the groundrules.

Helping disputants successfully negotiatewith each other. The mediator carefullytakes the disputants through the negotiationprocedure.

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Formalizing the agreement. The mediatorformalizes the agreement by completing areport form and having disputants sign it asa commitment to implement the agreementand abide by its conditions.

Faculty Implement the PeacemakerProgramWhen the students have completed the initial train-ing, the teachers implement the program. Everyday the teacher selects two class members to serveas official mediators of any conflicts students cannotresolve themselves. The mediators work in pairs.They wear official T-shirts, patrol the playgroundand lunchroom, and mediate conflicts. The role ofclass mediator is rotated throughout the class orschool so that all students have an equal chance to

serve as class mediator. Teachers and adults who aretrained mediators may also mediate student disputes.

Faculty Refine and Upgrade the Students’SkillsUnder the TSP program, students receive trainingevery year from the 1st through the 12th grades.Each year, the training becomes more complex andcomplete, and the faculty teach negotiation andmediation skills weekly throughout the school yearto refine and upgrade the students’ skills. Studentspractice the procedures over and over again untilthey become automatic. Teachers can enhance theTSP program through academic controversy proce-dures to create intellectual conflicts that increaselearning and higher level reasoning and let studentspractice their conflict resolution skills.

Figure 4: The Problem-Solving Negotiation Procedure

Describe what you want. “I want to use the book now.” This involves using good communication skills anddefining the conflict as a small and specific mutual problem.

Describe how you feel. “I’m frustrated.” Disputants must understand how they feel and communicate itaccurately and unambiguously.

Describe the reasons for your wants and feelings. “You have been using the book for the past hour. If I don’tget to use the book soon, my report will not be done on time. It’s frustrating to have to wait so long.” This step includesexpressing cooperative intentions, listening carefully, separating interests from positions, and differentiat-ing before trying to integrate the two sets of interests.

Take the other’s perspective and summarize your understanding of what the other person wants,how the other person feels, and the reasons underlying both. “My understanding of you is . . . .” Thisincludes understanding the perspective of the opposing disputant and being able to see the problemfrom both perspectives simultaneously.

Invent three optional plans to resolve the conflict that maximize joint benefits. “Plan A is . . . . Plan Bis . . . . Plan C is . . . .” These are creative optional agreements that maximize the benefits for all disputantsand solve the problem.

Choose the wisest course of action and formalize the agreement with a handshake. “Let’s agree on PlanB!” A wise agreement is fair to all disputants, maximizes joint benefits, and strengthens disputants’ abilityto work together cooperatively and resolve future conflicts constructively. It specifies how each disputantshould act and how the agreement will be reviewed and renegotiated if it does not work.

Source: Johnson, D.W., and R.T. Johnson. 1991. Teaching Students To Be Peacemakers. Edina, MN: Interaction BookCompany, pp. 3:52–3:60. Used with permission of the authors and Interaction Book Company.

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planning, voluntary staff participation in training,and the development of local leadership capacity.

The TSP program is implemented through a com-bination of bottom-up and top-down strategies.Teams of faculty members are trained to implementthe TSP program through 30 to 40 hours of traininggiven throughout the school year or in an intensivesummer session. Following the training sessions,trainers provide support to the teaching teams bygiving demonstration lessons, helping membersprepare lessons, observing their implementationefforts, and providing feedback.

Educators for SocialResponsibilityEducators for Social Responsibility (ESR), basedin Cambridge, Massachusetts, promotes children’sethical and social development through its programsin conflict resolution, violence prevention, inter-group relations, and character education. ESRhelps create peaceable classrooms in schools byproviding onsite professional development trainingwith followup support for the schools. By the term“peaceable,” ESR means a safe, caring, respectful,and productive learning environment. ESR providesworkshops, curriculums, and ongoing support tohelp educators develop instructional and manage-ment practices that foster skill in cooperation, caringcommunication, appreciation of diversity, expressionof feelings, responsible decisionmaking, and conflictresolution.7

ESR first conducts a needs assessment of a schoolor district to help the institution more clearly definethe problems it seeks to address, current programstrengths, specific needs, and short- and long-termgoals. At this stage, ESR recommends the cre-ation of a program steering committee, multiyear

ESR Core 4-Day Training ModelThe ESR model provides a theoretical backgroundon key topics such as social and emotional learningand developmentally appropriate classroom teachingactivities. Woven throughout the training are directinstruction strategies, ideas for incorporating con-flict resolution into the curriculum, classroom man-agement ideas, and discipline applications.

This training is participatory and experiential, plac-ing emphasis on community building. Participantsin workshops develop action plans appropriate totheir classrooms and schools. A major premise isthat teachers are taught to model the behavior theyseek to teach through direct instruction, and schoolsdevelop and reflect the values they seek to nurtureamong young people in all facets of their program.

ESR recommends that students and teachersmake decisions together about classroom normsand guidelines at the beginning of the school yearand that teachers provide early instruction in prob-lem solving and decisionmaking so that the skillscan be used and reinforced throughout the year.

Ongoing Followup and SupportA staff development specialist provides onsitefollowup. The activities offered include demonstra-tions of teaching, coaching, planning, and problemsolving. For many teachers, seeing is believing,and the opportunity to watch a staff developmentspecialist model the teaching of conflict resolution

Since implementing the Peaceable Class-room approach, I can spend my time doingwhat I love to do. Teach!

Kindergarten teacher,Brookline, Massachusetts

We attended two ESR conflict resolutioninstitutes and brought one of their trainersinto our school for 3 days. Since we startedthis work, so many wonderful things havebeen happening.

High school English teacher,South Bend, Indiana

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for their students is essential. Colleagues whogo through the training together are encouragedto meet, share ideas, and discuss difficulties ona periodic basis.

Interviews 6 to 18 months after conflict resolutioneducation training and followup sessions have re-vealed that participants bring new ways of thinkingabout teaching and learning to their classrooms.Teachers transform their classrooms, empoweringyoung people to help create a caring classroom com-munity in which they use conflict resolution skillsdaily. Even more significant change results whena critical mass of teachers engaged in creating andsustaining peaceable classrooms is joined by counse-lors, administrators, parents, and others to forge apeaceable school and connections to other conflictresolution initiatives in the community.

The ESR peaceable classroom model helps teachersnaturally integrate conflict resolution and inter-group relations into their classrooms through directinstruction and reinforcement of skills. It also helpsthem foster desired behavior through teachable mo-ments and institute systematic classroom manage-ment practices.

Notes1. Kreidler, W. 1990. Elementary Perspectives I: TeachingConcepts of Peace and Conflict. Cambridge, MA: Educatorsfor Social Responsibility, p. 43.

2. Johnson, D., and R. Johnson. 1995. Reducing SchoolViolence Through Conflict Resolution. Alexandria, VA:Association for Supervisors and Curriculum Develop-ment, p. 25.

3. Ibid., pp. 104–105.

4. Ohio Department of Education and Ohio Commissionon Dispute Resolution and Conflict Management. 1995.Conflict Management Resource Guide for Elementary Schools.Columbus, OH: Ohio Commission on Dispute Resolutionand Conflict Management, pp. 7–8.

5. Miller-Lieber, C. 1994. Making Choices About Conflict,Security, and Peacemaking—Part I: Personal Perspectives.Cambridge, MA: Educators for Social Responsibility,p. 11.

6. Johnson, D.W., and R.T. Johnson. 1987, 1991,1995. Teaching Students To Be Peacemakers. Edina, MN:Interaction Book Company. For more information,see the section “Peaceable Classroom” in appendix B.

7. Several ESR curriculums are listed under “PeaceableClassroom” in appendix B.

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Chapter 5: Peaceable School Approach

Peaceable School: A comprehensive whole-school method-ology that builds on the peaceable classroom approach byusing conflict resolution as a system of operation for man-aging the school as well as the classroom. Conflict resolutionprinciples and processes are learned and utilized by everymember of the school community—librarians, teachers,counselors, students, principals, and parents.

The peaceable school approach integrates conflictresolution into the operation of the school. Everymember of the school community learns and usesconflict resolution concepts and skills. Peaceableschool climates reflect caring, honesty, coopera-tion, and appreciation for diversity. As comprehen-sive whole-school programs, peaceable schoolsincorporate:

♦ Cooperative learning environments.

♦ Direct instruction and practice of conflictresolution skills and processes.

♦ Noncoercive school and classroom managementsystems.

♦ Integration of conflict resolution concepts andskills into the curriculum.

Peaceable school programs challenge youth andadults to believe that a nonviolent, diverse societyis a realistic and desirable goal. Peaceable schoolsvalue and encourage diversity and promote peace-making as the normative behavior of adults andstudents. Participants in the peaceable school applyconflict resolution skills to address interpersonaland intergroup problems and issues that confrontstudents, faculty, administrators, and parents. Theobjectives of peacemaking are to achieve personal,group, and institutional goals and to maintain coop-erative relationships.

The Community Board Program (CBP) was oneof the first to recognize the value of moving beyondthe peer mediation approach to a whole-schoolapproach to conflict resolution education withinschools and across school districts. Recognizingthat practice in communication and problem-solvingskills in the classroom would better prepare studentsto deal constructively with conflict and to useexisting peer mediation programs, CBP developedelementary and secondary classroom curriculums,shifting from an approach that reacts to school con-flicts (peer mediation) to one that seeks to preventthem. To change fundamental beliefs about conflictand systems for dealing with conflict, CBP soughtto introduce as many school-related personnel aspossible to conflict resolution education and to trainthem in conflict resolution concepts and skills.

The peaceable school approach incorporates theprocess curriculum, mediation, and peaceableclassroom approaches. The peaceable classroomis the unit block of the peaceable school becauseit is where students gain the knowledge and skillsneeded to resolve conflicts creatively and wherethe majority of conflicts are addressed.2

The success of conflict resolution in the peaceableschool program depends on the school’s social cli-mate. Peaceable school programs offer all membersof the school community training in the problem-solving processes of conflict resolution. Consensus

In the peaceable school, the pervasivetheme touching the interactions betweenstudents, between students and adults, andbetween adults is the value of human dignityand self-esteem.1

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decisionmaking characterizes each classroom, andnegotiation is used by all members of the schoolcommunity to resolve conflicts equitably. Peer me-diation can be applied schoolwide and as a servicein the classroom to help disputing students settletheir differences constructively. Peaceable schoolprograms incorporate conflict resolution into theschool’s operations, affecting relationships betweenall members of the school community, includingparents. Effective conflict resolution behavior re-quires participants to develop mutual appreciationand respect. The successful development of conflictresolution skills depends above all on the absenceof coercion.3

Peaceable School TransformationThe peaceable school approach supports the schoolcommunity in addressing specific elements thatwill transform the school. These elements are nota developmental sequence but entry points to initi-ating a peaceable school program. The peaceableschool emerges in stages, coming to fruition onceall transformations have taken place. The elementsof transformation include:

♦ Instituting conflict resolution training for adults.

♦ Designing behavior expectations and manage-ment systems in concert with conflict resolutiontheory.

♦ Building cooperation by incorporating coopera-tive learning and interaction activities into theclassroom.

♦ Developing the scope and sequence of conflictresolution skills taught to students.

♦ Providing opportunities for an age-appropriateunderstanding of conflict—definitions, origins,needs, resources, values, choices for response,consequences of choices, and opportunities—and of peace and peacemaking.

♦ Providing opportunities for an age-appropriateunderstanding of the principles of conflict res-olution based on integrative negotiation theory.These principles include separating people from

the problem; focusing on interests, not positions;inventing options for mutual gain; and using faircriteria.

♦ Providing opportunities for each student to learnand practice problem-solving strategies of nego-tiation and/or consensus decisionmaking withinthe classroom.

♦ Providing opportunities for students to serveas mediators in their classrooms to help peersresolve issues that they choose not to resolve orcannot resolve through negotiation or consensusdecisionmaking.

♦ Providing mediation training for those who wantto become mediators in the schoolwide program.

♦ Developing an evaluation process to reach thegoal of becoming a peaceable school.

Systemic ChangeTypical school academic and disciplinary policiesand practices often contradict the peaceful resolu-tion of conflicts. Peaceable schools have reviewedand rethought such operations. Unless the operationof the system corresponds to the desired behavior ofthe individuals within the system, the contradictorymessages will result in confusion and unclear expec-tations. As David Johnson and Roger Johnson, co-directors of the Conflict Resolution and CooperativeLearning Center of the University of Minnesota,point out:

It makes no sense to talk of constructiveconflict management in schools structuredcompetitively. The first step in teaching stu-dents the procedures for managing conflicts,therefore, is creating a cooperative contextin which conflicts are defined as mutualproblems to be resolved in ways that benefiteveryone involved.4

In competitive systems, individuals usually focus onshort-term self-interests and try to maximize theirown goals at the expense of others. In cooperativesystems, individuals focus on long-term, mutualinterests and try to maximize joint solutions. When

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cooperation is promoted throughout the school,the problem-solving processes of conflict resolutionseem natural, logical, and desirable. Cooperativesystems create a context in which conflicts can beresolved constructively and reduce the factors thatplace individuals at risk for using violence.

Many methods of school behavior management arebased on punishment rather than discipline. Suchprograms gain student compliance through exter-nally imposed behavior expectations that are en-forced through coercion. In schools that function inthis way, the most significant observable behavior—the adult model—is contrary to conflict resolutionprinciples—respect, tolerance, and appreciation fordifferences. Gisela Konopka has commented that:

Obedience is demanded to achieve a personwith discipline, but this is a discipline that comesfrom the outside and works only when one isafraid of someone who is stronger than oneself.We do need discipline, an inner discipline toorder our life. What is inner discipline? To mythinking it is the opposite of blind obedience.It is the development of a sense of values.5

Table 2 contrasts punishment practices withdiscipline practices.

The goal of the peaceable school is to create a school-wide discipline program focused on empowering stu-dents to regulate and control their own behavior. Theprogram allows educators to model an orderly, pro-ductive system accomplished through cooperation andpersistent pursuit of constructive behavior. Studentsare provided alternative ways to behave, not just toldto refrain from behaving in a particular manner. Thebehavior management program thus becomes aneducational program. The problem-solving processesof conflict resolution enable students to achieve prin-cipled responses. The following sections present twoexamples of peaceable school approaches.

Resolving Conflict CreativelyProgramThe Resolving Conflict Creatively Program (RCCP)is one of the initiatives of Educators for SocialResponsibility (ESR—see chapter 4, page 37).In RCCP, adults reach young people by relating

to them daily in their homes, schools, and communi-ties. RCCP requires the support of the highest levelsof the school’s administration before the programis implemented. A participating school district mustmake RCCP part of its vision for change and com-mit to multiyear involvement to ensure proper insti-tutionalization of the program. The RCCP approachinvolves five components: professional developmentfor teachers and other staff, regular classroom in-struction based on a kindergarten through 12thgrade (K–12) curriculum, peer mediation, adminis-trator training, and parent training.6

It was a whole different philosophy forme—the way I looked at the world. Childrentaking responsibility for themselves; that wasvery different for me. For the first time inmy life, I was hearing people say in a schoolsetting: “It’s okay to be different.” All of asudden here was a program saying: “Youare all good people. You all have somethingto contribute.” I was exposed to a rainbowcoalition of children who were learning howto get along. It was just wonderful.

Teacher, Anchorage, Alaska

Professional Development for Teachersand Other StaffA 25-hour introductory course is provided forteachers interested in implementing RCCP in theirclassrooms. This training presents the theory andmethods of conflict resolution, intercultural under-standing, and emotional and social literacy; preparesparticipants to model and teach these skills in theirclassrooms; illustrates ways to incorporate conflictresolution strategies and skills into academic sub-jects; and demonstrates creative teaching techniquessuch as role-playing, interviewing, brainstorming,small-group sharing, and cooperative learning teams.

The staff development component gives teachersthe opportunity to receive feedback on lessonsthat they teach and see skilled practitioners givedemonstration lessons in the classroom. They canalso plan classroom activities and find resources

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in collaboration with an RCCP consultant. RCCPstaff developers visit newly trained teachers 6 to 10times during their first year and varying numbersof times in subsequent years. The staff developerconducts bimonthly followup meetings after schoolso that teachers can receive additional training,share their experiences and concerns, problem-solve, and plan schoolwide events.

Table 2: Punishment Versus Discipline

Source: Crawford, D., R. Bodine, and R. Hoglund. 1993. The School for Quality Learning. Champaign, IL: Research Press,Inc., p. 187. Reprinted with permission of the authors and Research Press.

Punishment

Expresses power of an authority; causes painto the recipient; based on retribution or revenge;concerned with actions in the past.

Arbitrary—probably applied inconsistently andunconditionally; does not accept or acknowledgeexceptions or mitigating circumstances.

Imposed by an authority with responsibilityassumed by the one administering the punish-ment and responsibility avoided by the onereceiving the punishment.

Closes options for the punished individual,who must pay for a behavior that has alreadyoccurred.

As a teaching strategy, usually reinforces a failureidentity. Essentially negative and short-term,without sustained personal involvement of eitherteacher or learner.

Characterized by open or concealed anger; easyand expedient; a poor model of expectations.

Focuses on strategies intended to control behav-ior of learner; rarely results in positive changesin behavior; may increase subversiveness orresult in temporary suppression of behavior;at best, produces compliance.

Discipline

Based on logical or natural consequences thatembody the reality of a social order (rules thatone must learn and accept to function produc-tively in society); concerned with actions in thepresent.

Consistent; accepts that the behaving individualis doing the best he or she can do for now.

Comes from within, with responsibility assumedby the disciplined individual who desires thatresponsibility; presumes that conscience isinternal.

Opens options for the individual, who can choosenew behavior.

As a teaching strategy, is active and involvesclose, sustained, personal involvement of bothteacher and learner; emphasizes the developmentof more successful behavior.

Friendly and supportive; provides a model ofquality behavior.

Usually results in a change in behavior that ismore successful, acceptable, and responsible;develops the capacity for self-evaluation ofbehavior.

K–12 CurriculumTeachers use the K–12 curriculum to demonstratethat there are other ways to deal with conflict thanpassivity or aggression, to develop skills to makethose choices in real-life situations, to increase un-derstanding and appreciation of different cultures,and to empower youth to play a significant role increating a more peaceful world.

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mediators do not work on the playground but listento disputes in a room designated for mediation.

Administrator TrainingTraining is provided for administrators to introducethe concepts of conflict resolution and bias aware-ness and encourage them to embrace and modelthe humane and creative approaches to dealing withconflict that teachers are implementing through theclassroom curriculum.

Parent TrainingParents participate in a 12-hour training in the skillsand concepts of conflict resolution and intergrouprelations so they can make their homes more peace-ful and help their children become adept at usingthe conflict resolution skills learned at school. Asthey learn ways of dealing with conflict and preju-dice at home, they become more effective leadersin their schools and communities. Parents maybecome trainers of other parents by participatingin a district-level 60-hour training program.

I’ve seen changes in some of the kids atschool since we started this program. Theylook at things differently now. They don’t actthe same; they try to be more peaceful now.I think we are really changing the gangs onthis campus. There used to be a lot of gangsbefore, writing in the bathrooms and allthat, but it’s sort of stopped. It’s morepeaceful now.

Ninth grade student, Vista, California

RCCP developed the curriculum in collaborationwith participating teachers. It provides effectiveteaching strategies on the elementary, middle, andhigh school levels. Curriculum themes include peaceand conflict, communication, affirmation, fosteringcooperation, working with feelings, negotiation andmediation, appreciating diversity, bias awareness,countering bias, peacemakers, and envisioning apositive future. Some individual skills integrated intothese themes include active listening, perspectivetaking, dealing with anger, assertiveness, win-winnegotiation, understanding cultures, and avoidingexpressions of bias.

RCCP encourages teachers to set aside 30 to 45minutes at least once a week throughout the schoolyear for a specific workshop in conflict resolutionprepared from the curriculum guide. Teachers alsointegrate conflict resolution lessons, strategies, andskills into the regular academic program.

Peer MediationThe school must implement the RCCP curriculumfor at least a year before beginning peer mediation.Peer mediation reinforces the emerging problem-solving skills students learn through the curriculum.The students and teachers select a cadre of studentsrepresentative of the school’s diverse cultures andbackgrounds to be peer mediators. Once trained,elementary students take turns being “on duty”on the playground during recess. Wearing specialmediator T-shirts and working in teams with theiradult advisors nearby, they help students talk outtheir disputes. Middle school and high school peer

The primary impetus for starting the programin my school was to reduce violence, butit goes beyond that because there is astrong preventive measure. By teachingconflict resolution skills, we’re creating anenvironment that says it’s OK to have angerand conflict, which are a natural part oflife. We’re saying that you can have theseemotions and these conflicts and not haveviolence, which our culture glamorizes.

Principal, Brooklyn, New York

Illinois Institute for DisputeResolutionThe Creating the Peaceable School (CPS) pro-gram of the Illinois Institute for Dispute Resolution(IIDR—see also chapter 3, page 27) focuses onapplying conflict resolution principles to schooland classroom management in order to encourage

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Understanding Conflict. For students to engagein successful conflict resolution, they must have ashared understanding of the nature of conflict. Theprogram provides information and activities thatinstill a shared understanding of the nature andcauses of conflict, the possible responses to conflict,and its potential benefits. The idea that psychologi-cal needs are the underlying cause of conflict isuseful to students as they seek to resolve disputesthrough common interests.

Understanding Peace and Peacemaking. Studentsare taught to observe peacemaking and peacebreakingbehaviors within the school and classroom. Peacemak-ing activities help students understand and practicethe concept of peace. Students learn that specificbehaviors are associated with peacemaking, namely,appreciating diversity, understanding perceptions,empathizing, dealing with emotions, managing anger,countering bias, and communicating. The principlesof conflict resolution are also taught as peacemakingbehaviors.

Mediation. Mediation is defined as assisted conflictresolution between disputants for use within theclassroom and as a schoolwide vehicle for resolvingconflicts. Training activities cover a mediation pro-cess that allows students to gain the skills to actas neutral third parties when facilitating conflictresolution between disputants.

I have a habit of finishing sentences for myolder daughter. While she talks, I sit therenodding impatiently and then I finish herthought for her. After the workshop lastweekend, I decided to try to stop doingthat. It wasn’t long before she put me to thetest. But this time, I was patient. I gave her myattention. I didn’t interrupt her. And when shewas done, I actually paraphrased what I heardher saying. She was shocked. She just stoodthere. I could see tears in her eyes. “Mommy,”she said, “you really listened to me.”

Parent, New York City

Fundamental Skill AreasSix skills are fundamental to the achievement of apeaceable school: building a peaceable climate, under-standing conflict, understanding peace and peace-making, mediation, negotiation, and group problemsolving. The IIDR curriculum provides the educatorwith a theoretical overview of the skill area and thengives a number of activities and strategies to engagestudents in developing a knowledge base and in ac-quiring these skills. Each activity contains step-by-stepprocedures to be followed with the students and canbe used in a class workshop, team project, learningcenter, cooperative learning situation, or class meeting.The skill areas are described below.

Building a Peaceable Climate. Responsibility andcooperation are the foundation for all other skills inthe peaceable school. To manage student behaviorwithout coercion, adults must take the perspectivethat effective behavior is the responsibility of thestudent and strive to develop a sense of responsibil-ity in each. Students then begin to make responsiblechoices guided by their rights and correspondingresponsibilities.

When you talk it out, like when you can sitdown and talk about it, you’re not as mad.That’s the way I see it. When you start talkin’about it, the anger just dies down. You justbecome more civilized; you go back intoyour regular state of mind.

Student, Alternative High School,Baltimore, Maryland

Negotiation. Disputants learn to resolve theirconflicts unassisted by stating their individualneeds, focusing on their interests rather than theirpositions, and generating options for mutual gain.

enduring systemic changes vital to the success ofa peaceable school approach.7 The CPS programmay be implemented within a school or school dis-trict. IIDR helps schools and school districts developa comprehensive plan for program development basedon their identified needs and resources.

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Group Problem Solving. Group problem solvingis taught as a creative strategy for dealing with con-flicts that involve a number of students within theclassroom, within groups, and between groups inthe school. The group’s responsibility is to achievea consensus decision that, when implemented, willresolve the conflict.

classrooms, helping teachers plan, observing classes,providing feedback, and coaching.

Parent Education. The peaceable school is broughtto parents through Peaceable Home workshops,which are given at locations such as public, private,and alternative schools; public housing projects; andcommunity centers. These workshops teach parentsthe skills and concepts of conflict resolution. Par-ents learn to apply these concepts in their homes,schools, and communities.

Community Initiatives. In creating peaceableschools, school administrators and teachers play acritical role in reaching out to leaders and familiesin the community to engage them in conflict resolu-tion strategies. The peaceable school expands intothe peaceable neighborhood through extension toparents, police, churches, and neighborhood coali-tions. The following IIDR youth and communityactivities mobilize youth, parents, community ac-tivists, agencies, and organizations to help createpeaceable schools and neighborhoods:

♦ Peer education. High school youth are recruitedto form a Youth Peace Corps trained to teachconflict resolution strategies, including angermanagement, to their peers and to middle andelementary school students. This group must rep-resent a cross section of the entire student body.These highly trained youth provide strong rolemodels for younger students because they teachthese skills in the school and use their skills in theneighborhood.

The conflict resolution training providedour staff with skills and processes for realand effective collaboration. I do not thinkwe have ever worked together so well.We are able to make decisions that addressour goals and interests without feelingthreatened or angered by change. Weare reaching consensus and making newcommitments.

Principal, Chicago, Illinois

Other Areas of DevelopmentThe CPS program includes three additional areasof outreach: (1) intensive professional development(training, coaching, and technical assistance for ad-ministrators, teachers, and support staff), (2) parenteducation, and (3) community initiatives.

Professional Development. IIDR approaches pro-fessional development as an opportunity to create alearning community among teachers, administrators,and support staff in which members help and sup-port each other. Part of this process includes exam-ining their handling of conflict in their private andpublic lives, particularly in their relationships withstudents.

The CPS program emphasizes the need for intro-ductory workshops with followup strategic planningand technical support. IIDR consultants provideonsite followup in schools to support school staff—teachers, administrators, and support personnel—asthe peaceable school program is being implemented.Professional development includes a range of ac-tivities such as demonstrating teaching methods in

I was so impressed with how seriously thekids took the training and how well theydid. They were very much taken by thewhole notion of conflict resolution. Weadults that assisted with training got caughtup in the simulations and resorted to our“old ways.” The students seemed able to seethe problems much more simply. It was notdifficult for them at all.

Parent, Wilmette, Illinois

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♦ Community training. Positive youth develop-ment is supported by the establishment of part-nerships with youth-serving organizations andthose who encounter youth in conflict. Conflictresolution training may be provided for policedepartments, park districts, Boys & Girls Clubs,the Urban League, and other interested agenciesand organizations that work with youth. Theprogram recruits specific personnel from theseagencies and organizations to attend communitytraining.

♦ Police-youth-community dialogs. Afterschoolsessions on site and Saturday retreats in the coun-try bring youth, police, and community memberstogether to learn about one another and practiceconflict resolution skills. In working sessions,participants play a series of team games designedto demonstrate how teams can solve problemstogether. These activities lead to a common visionand allow participants to confront their differ-ences as well as their interdependency.

Through its CPS program, IIDR builds a sharedvision that is a foundation for change among allmembers of the school community. The curriculumguides schools toward a systemic transformation.Schools build the capacity to manage conflict and

change as they develop and implement a peaceableschool program.

Notes1. Bodine, R., D. Crawford, and F. Schrumpf. 1994.Creating the Peaceable School: A Comprehensive Program forTeaching Conflict Resolution. Champaign, IL: ResearchPress, Inc., p. 2.

2. Ibid, p. 3.

3. Ibid, p. 29.

4. Johnson, D., and R. Johnson. 1993. “CooperativeLearning and Conflict Resolution.” The Fourth R 42:8.

5. Konopka, G. 1985. “A Renewed Look at HumanDevelopment, Human Needs, and Human Services.”Proceedings of the Annual Gisela Konopka Lectureship.St. Paul, MN: University of Minnesota Center forYouth Development and Research, p. 186.

6. The RCCP curriculums include Resolving Conflict Cre-atively: A Teaching Guide for Grades Kindergarten ThroughSix, 1993, and Resolving Conflict Creatively: A TeachingGuide for Secondary Schools, 1990. New York, NY: RCCPNational Center. For more information, see “PeaceableSchool” in appendix B.

7. Bodine et al., Creating the Peaceable School, 1994. Formore information, see “Peaceable School,” appendix B.

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Chapter 6: Juvenile Justice andAlternative Education Initiatives

For juvenile justice facilities and alternative schools,implementing conflict resolution means changingthe institution’s approach to internal conflicts froma punitive one to one that uses problem-solvingmethods. In these settings, conflict resolution pro-grams are introduced to supplement, not replace,existing disciplinary policies and procedures. Givenopportunities for positive expression and problemresolution, youth learn alternatives to violent andself-defeating behavior.

Conflict resolution programs for juvenile justicefacilities and for alternative schools serving delin-quent and at-risk youth address similar issues.These youth tend to demonstrate self-destructive,antisocial, or violent behavior to a greater degreethan even the more behaviorally challenged youthin regular schools. In both cases, an effective con-flict resolution program must address the psycho-logical needs and the developmental stage of theyouth.

The impediments to behavioral self-awareness indelinquent and at-risk youth are considerable andpervasive. Typically, their ability to evaluate theirown behavior is underdeveloped, and they are seri-ously deficient in the foundation abilities of conflictresolution, especially orientation, perception, andemotional abilities. Many have an ingrained senseof failure and view success as beyond their reachand ability.

These problems often go beyond the purview ofconflict resolution programs, which do not offertherapy. However, young people who need therapycan still participate in and profit from conflict reso-lution programs. At issue is whether the behavioralchallenges faced by these youth can be addressedwhile they are receiving conflict resolution edu-cation or whether their problems require initial

attention. A benefit of conflict resolution educationis the development of the youth’s ability to applythe training in appropriate situations. The extent oftherapy needed will be determined by how well theyouth applies the conflict resolution training. Thegreater the gap between the youth’s standard behav-ior and the desired behavior of conflict resolution,the greater the demand for practice and coaching.

Juvenile Justice FacilitiesThe juvenile justice correctional facility providesopportunities over alternative education settings,because the students live and attend school withinthe facility. Programs taught in these facilities allowmore time for training and practice in conflictresolution.

Many juvenile offenders have deficits in cognitiveskills. They tend to be undersocialized and lack thevalues, attitudes, reasoning abilities, and social skillsrequired for positive social interaction. These indi-viduals have not acquired the skills and strategiesfor constructive relationship building and problemsolving, nor have they bonded with anyone whoexhibits these behaviors. By teaching the foundationabilities and problem-solving processes of conflictresolution (see chapter 1), the juvenile justice facil-ity can facilitate the development of social compe-tency in these youth, so that they no longer alienate

Peacemaking is not easy. In many ways, it ismuch more difficult than making war. But itsgreat rewards cannot be measured inordinary terms.

Former President Jimmy Carter1

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themselves from mainstream culture. The followingsection describes a conflict resolution program in ajuvenile justice setting in California.

The Community Board ProgramIn 1987, with support from California’s Office ofCriminal Justice Planning, the Community BoardProgram began to explore how the Conflict Man-ager (peer mediation) program might be imple-mented in juvenile treatment facilities, known insome jurisdictions as “ranches.” In California andother States, these county-operated facilities arethe last opportunity for the rehabilitation of seriousand violent juvenile offenders before they enterthe Youth Authority, the juvenile equivalent ofthe adult prison system.

Over time, unresolved conflicts can affect the en-tire facility. They consume the time and energy ofcounselors, extend the sentences of wards, lowerthe morale of counselors and wards, and make theatmosphere tense and anxious. The Conflict Man-ager program helps everyone involved deal withconflict more effectively.

more effectively and understand one another’s pointof view. The disputants then come to their ownagreement, one they are more likely to keep. Theobjectives of conflict management are to rebuild orestablish a positive relationship between the dispu-tants and gradually spread the belief in and use ofpeaceful and constructive conflict resolution skillsthroughout the facility.2

Voluntary ParticipationParticipation in the program is voluntary. Wardsmay be referred by a counselor to see the conflictmanagers, but once there, they have the choice notto participate, with no penalty for their decision.Wards have this choice because conflict manage-ment requires the active participation of both dispu-tants. If both are committed to finding a resolutionto their problem, both will work hard to expresstheir points of view and listen to each other. This isimpossible if one party does not want to participate.

Because conflict management is voluntary, it isnever a replacement for disciplinary action. If wardsare offered conflict management as an alternativeto punishment, their motives for participating maybe clouded and the process ineffective. The goal isto provide early intervention for peaceful problemsolving before rules are broken or conflicts escalate.When wards break facility rules, staff take the usualdisciplinary steps. Afterward, they can suggestmeeting with conflict managers to express and re-solve core issues and avoid further conflict. In thisway, the Conflict Manager program supplementsrather than replaces the regular disciplinary system.

Types of Disputes Handled by ConflictManagersConflict managers are equipped to handle many ofthe day-to-day disputes that arise in a juvenile facil-ity setting, such as name calling, serious “horseplay,”and conflicts over things in short supply—time atthe pool table or in the weight room, a chance towatch a favorite television program, the attentionof a popular counselor, or access to supplies suchas toiletries.

Our wards are here in part because theyhave experienced conflict in their lives anddid not know how to resolve it appropri-ately. The Conflict Manager program teachesthese young men the skills to approach aconflict in a mature manner and resolve itin a socially acceptable fashion.

Superintendent, Harold Holden Ranch forBoys, Morgan Hill, California

The heart of a Conflict Manager program is a face-to-face meeting between the disputants in whichthey talk about their problems with the help ofconflict managers, who are wards of these facilitiesselected and trained to serve as mediators for theirpeers. Throughout the conflict management process,the disputants are required to take responsibility forthe problem and its solution. The conflict manager’sresponsibility is to help the disputants communicate

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Low self-esteem, which is common among youth injuvenile facilities, is often the source of these con-flicts. For many of these youth, bullying or “puttingdown” someone is the only means of achieving statusamong peers. As a counselor in a juvenile facilityremarked, “These kids don’t know how to walkaway from a fight without losing face.”

this group to enter training. The wards who be-come conflict managers are seen as leaders by theirpeers, but frequently “negative” leaders are nomi-nated by their peers and approved by staff. Thisis done because experience as a conflict manageroften draws out the talent of negative leaders,allowing them to make a positive contribution tothe facility.

Conflict Manager TrainingBecause of ward turnover, training for new conflictmanagers is conducted every few months. Often cur-rent conflict managers are asked to assist in trainingthose who are new. Ongoing meetings among conflictmanagers are held to provide further training, assess-ment of the program, and group discussions.

During their training, conflict managers learn basiccommunication skills, such as helping disputants feelcomfortable in talking, listening in a way that willdefuse anger, and speaking to disputants in a directbut diplomatic way. They also learn about the three-stage conflict management process—the goals ofeach stage, the questions to ask at each stage, andmethods of handling common problems.

Conflict Manager SupervisionBecause training in this model should be consideredan ongoing process, staff coordinators for the Con-flict Manager program meet with the managers forat least 1 hour every week so that they can sharetheir experiences and talk about problems they haveencountered in their work. If time allows, conflictmanagers are asked to role-play a difficult case anddiscuss it together.

Potential Benefits of Conflict ManagerProgramsConflict Manager programs reduce tensions andsave staff time by taking care of conflicts that wouldotherwise absorb hours of their day. At the sametime, wards who participate in conflict managementsessions are positively affected because they havethe opportunity to experience new ways of dealingwith conflict. Also, by resolving conflict construc-tively before it escalates or requires a counselor,

Virtually all of our young men are gangaffiliated and come from families whereconflict was resolved through abuse orviolence. . . . Conflict management goesbeyond stabilizing the institution; it givesthe youth a chance to take on a positiverole, learn verbal skills, and overcomeviolent tendencies. It not only benefitsthe kids, but also the community to whichthey will return.

Juvenile facility director, Camp Miller,Los Angeles County

Types of Conflicts Not HandledConflict managers are not asked to intervene in aviolent confrontation, especially when weapons areinvolved. After the heat of the battle has passed, thedisputants may meet with conflict managers to findways to avoid further violence.

Other matters typically excluded from conflict man-ager attention are disputes between staff and wards.Handling such conflicts may raise staff objectionsand other programmatic challenges, especially inthe case of new programs. However, because somehigh school mediation programs have successfullyhandled teacher-student conflicts, it may be possiblefor juvenile facility programs to expand into this area.

Conflict Manager SelectionConflict managers are selected jointly by staff andwards to ensure they will have the respect and sup-port of both groups. Generally, the members of eachgroup are asked to make nominations. Staff thenreview the list of wards who have received the great-est number of nominations and select 12 to 15 out of

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wards can avoid consequences that could lengthentheir stay at the facility. The program has a signifi-cant impact on conflict managers, helping them toincrease their self-esteem, learn to resolve conflictspeacefully, and improve academic achievement.

Working with facilities in three Bay Area countiesof California, the Community Board conducted ex-tensive staff development work that included build-ing and training a Site Leadership Team, developingonline counselors as conflict manager trainers, anddeveloping a program plan based on the facilities’needs and staff input. Within a period of 9 monthsto a year, the Community Board staff trained at least3 groups of 15 young men as conflict managers ateach facility, leaving each with a solid, well-preparedteam of trainers to continue periodic training of newconflict managers.

resolution skills had helped him change his difficultrelationship with his mother.

Studies of recidivism have found that wards are lesslikely to return to the correctional system if they havesteady employment. Other studies show that graduatesof juvenile facilities often lose jobs not because theylack technical skills, but because they are unable to re-solve problems with co-workers, supervisors, or em-ployers. Thus, it is likely that conflict managers willstay out of the correctional system after they leave thefacility. This may be the most important long-termimpact of the conflict manager training program.

Alternative SchoolsStudents in most alternative schools do not differsubstantially from students in other schools when itcomes to conflict and do not need to be treated differ-ently when developing and implementing a conflictresolution program. Some alternative schools enrollyouth with behavioral/emotional disorders, includingstudents who have dropped out or are at risk of drop-ping out. Many of these youth are involved in thecourt system and may be in an alternative school be-cause of court dictates. Some are teen parents; someare homeless; others are involved in substance abuse.Although many of these students are intellectuallycapable, they have often failed academically.

These alternative schools offer a place for studentswho have demonstrated, in one or many ways,that their behavior is unacceptable in a regularschool. Often the participants in these alternativeschools have demonstrated the potential for self-destructive, antisocial, or violent behavior. Moststudents placed in such alternative schools needconflict resolution education because they haveexperienced numerous conflicts involving otheryouth, school staff members, and school expecta-tions or rules. They are often in these alternativeschools because they escalated rather than deesca-lated a dispute. These students are clearly primecandidates for conflict resolution education. Thefollowing section describes a conflict resolutionprogram in an alternative school in New York.

After 3 years, Conflict Manager programs in juvenilefacilities are ongoing, and trained youth are helping toresolve disputes for their peers every day. Peer media-tion programs have reduced the number and serious-ness of conflicts and rule infractions and have limitedstaff time spent on discipline.

A survey completed at the end of their trainingasked conflict managers where they thought theymight be able to use their new skills other than par-ticipating in the Conflict Manager program. Nearlyevery ward wrote that the skills would be usefulin other settings—with family, at a job, or withneighborhood friends. At Holden Ranch, a conflictmanager who graduated from the facility called acounselor several months later to say that conflict

Learning mediation has helped me to realizethat there are other methods of solving yourproblems other than violence. It has alsohelped me to deal with different types ofpeople.

16-year-old resident,Youth Diagnostic and Development Center

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International Center forCooperation and ConflictResolutionThe International Center for Cooperation and Con-flict Resolution (ICCCR) at Columbia Universityinitiated a conflict resolution project at an alter-native high school (AHS) in New York City.3 Thegoal of the project was to determine the effects ofcooperative learning and conflict resolution trainingon AHS students.

This AHS was established in 1971 as part of a net-work of alternative high schools in New York City.It has approximately 180 students and 14 teachers,including a site coordinator, at each of its 4 cam-puses. Anyone under the age of 19 living anywherein New York City may apply to any campus of theschool. Students may be admitted to the AHS inseveral ways. Students who have already droppedout or are at risk of dropping out of another schoolmay apply voluntarily, while others are referred byhigh school counselors or the court system.

Applicants have a broad range of academic skillsand poor attendance records. The demographic por-trait of the AHS student population at the beginningof the project was striking. The racial compositionwas 56.9 percent African American, 40.5 percentHispanic, 2.2 percent white, 0.4 percent Asian,and 0.1 percent Native American; 5.1 percent of thestudents had limited proficiency in English. Therewere equal numbers of female and male students,and the average age was 17 years. One-third of thefemale students were teen parents. The majority ofthe students came from disadvantaged households,and increasing numbers came from families withrisk factors such as drug abuse and homelessness.The achievement rate was well below that of otherNew York City high schools: the average numberof previously acquired high school credits was 20,and dropouts had been out of school for periodsranging from 6 months to 7 years.

Training ComponentsInitial training of the administrators, coordinators,teachers, and paraprofessionals took place in August

1988; almost all who were eligible participated in thetraining. The training usually involves afterschooltraining workshops with the trainer on campus forindividual staff development.

ICCCR used the training model for cooperativelearning developed by David Johnson and RogerJohnson of the Cooperative Learning Center atthe University of Minnesota. Five key elements areinvolved in cooperative learning.4 The most impor-tant is positive interdependence, meaning that stu-dents must perceive that it is to their advantage ifother students learn well and to their disadvantage ifothers do poorly. This can be achieved through mu-tual goals (goal interdependence), division of labor(task interdependence), and joint rewards (rewardinterdependence).

In addition, cooperative learning requires face-to-face interaction among students in which they ex-press their positive interdependence. This methodalso requires individual accountability; that is, eachmember of the cooperative learning situation is re-sponsible to the others for mastering the material,analyzing the group’s performance, and makingsuggestions for improving cooperation.

ICCCR’s conflict resolution training draws uponseveral sources: Deutsch’s theoretical model, whicharticulates a number of basic principles of conflictresolution training;5 Raider’s training model, whichhas been widely used by conflict resolution trainingmanagers and teachers;6 Prothrow-Stith’s curricu-lum on violence prevention;7 and the CommunityBoard Program’s curriculums for conflict resolutionand mediation.8 Conflict resolution training is im-plemented in a variety of ways, depending on thecontext in which it is to be employed—orientationsessions for new students, family groups, or voca-tional classes, for example. Role-playing, groupactivities, and discussion groups are used to applynegotiation skills to the students’ lives in home,school, and work settings.

Impact of the ICCCR Conflict ResolutionProjectICCCR results indicate that the positive effectson students trained in conflict resolution and

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cooperative learning include improved conflict man-agement, social support, and fewer feelings of victim-ization. As their relations with others improved, theseyouth experienced increased self-esteem, decreasedfeelings of anxiety and depression, and more frequentpositive feelings of well-being. Greater self-esteemproduced a greater sense of control over their fate,which in turn led to higher academic performance.Indirect evidence indicated that the students’ workreadiness and performance also improved.

The ICCCR project was initiated with the strong sup-port of the principal and assistant principal and thevoluntary cooperation of the staff. The conflict resolu-tion training combined resources from a number ofcurriculums to address the needs of the student popu-lation. This project was successfully conducted underconsiderably more problematic conditions than thosemost schools experience. The students at this AHS aresignificantly at risk and face more difficult life circum-stances, and their teachers work in an extremely chal-lenging environment, such as within older buildingsequipped with fewer resources. The positive resultsproduced by the training under these conditions indi-cate the significance of administrative support, volun-tary cooperation, and relevant learning experiences.These results also suggest that cooperative learningand conflict resolution training are valuable in a widerange of settings.

Notes1. Carter, J. 1993. Talking Peace: A Vision for the Next Gen-eration. New York, NY: Dutton Children’s Books, p. xiv.

2. See Holmberg, M., and J. Halligan. 1992. ConflictManagement for Juvenile Treatment Facilities: A Manual forTraining and Program Implementation. San Francisco, CA:Community Board Program, Inc.

3. Deutsch, M., V. Mitchell, Q. Zhang, N. Khattri,L. Tepavac, E.A. Weitzman, and R. Lynch. 1992.The Effects of Training in Cooperative Learning and ConflictResolution in an Alternative High School. New York, NY:Columbia University.

4. Johnson, D., R. Johnson, and E. Holubec. 1986.Circles of Learning: Cooperation in the Classroom. Edina,MN: Interaction Book Company.

5. Deutsch, M. 1991 (August). “Educating for a Peace-ful World.” Presidential address to the Division of PeacePsychology, presented at the Annual Meeting of theAmerican Psychological Association, San Francisco, CA.

6. Raider, E. 1987. Conflict Resolution. New Paltz, NY:Ellen Raider International, Inc.

7. Prothrow-Stith, D. 1987. Violence Prevention: Curriculum forAdolescents. Newton, MA: Education Development Center.

8. Sadalla, G., M. Henriquez, and M. Holmberg. 1987.Conflict Resolution: A Secondary Curriculum. San Francisco,CA: Community Board Program, Inc.

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Chapter 7: Parent and CommunityInitiatives

The impact of school-based conflict resolution pro-grams increases when they are linked with com-munity and parent education programs that allowstudents to apply their skills in productive ways in avariety of settings. This linkage is important becauseyoung people face a challenge in applying conflictresolution training in the community and in thehome, especially with others who are not similarlytrained.

Parent EducationChildren must possess a secure and positive senseof their own identity and their place in the world,and they must acquire character and skills that en-able them to live in harmony with their families andthe larger community. Development of these skillsdepends upon trusting and loving relationships,the first and most fundamental of which is betweenchildren and their parents. Families are the settingswhere children’s basic needs are met and wherethey learn lessons about personal relationships andproblem solving. For children, families are the basictraining ground for developing the capacity to func-tion responsibly and to solve problems peacefully.Educating parents in conflict resolution is essential.

According to Brendtro and Long, any comprehen-sive effort to eliminate disputes and violence willrequire a full range of services, including, but notlimited to, school-based programs.2 If patterns ofconflict and aggression are to be reversed, primaryprevention and early intervention must be priorities.

Primary PreventionTroubled behavior, once launched, perpetuates itselfthroughout a person’s life. Therefore, interventions

that affect the lives of young children in families andschools deserve the highest priority. These interven-tions include:3

♦ Strengthening parenting bonds. Children areless prone to violence when their basic needs aremet and they are reared in consistent, safe, andloving environments.

♦ Teaching children self-discipline. Beginning inelementary school, all children should be given“basic training” in self-discipline. Teachers canbe trained to use naturally occurring disciplineproblems to create school cultures of nonviolence.

♦ Teaching conflict resolution. Students need to becompetent in resolving both conflicts with peersand authority problems with adults. This compe-tence forms the basis for lifelong survival skills.

Early InterventionIt is important to recognize that some youth are atrisk for violence in their early years and should beprovided with effective, comprehensive experiencesin school, at home, and in the community. The fol-lowing research-validated interventions should bepart of a logical system for reducing delinquent andself-defeating behavior:4

The circle is a sacred symbol of life. . . .Individual parts within the circle connectwith every other; and what happens toone, or what one part does, affects allwithin the circle.

Virginia Driving Hawk Sneve1

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♦ Mentoring at-risk youth. Every child needs atleast one adult who provides unconditional love.Many children suffer from attention deprivation.When parents are unable or unavailable to pro-vide the consistent nurturing and support thatchildren need, mentors can have a profoundimpact in fulfilling that role.

♦ Mentoring and training parents. Since muchearly antisocial behavior is caused by inconsistentand harsh discipline, parent training curriculumsare important tools for breaking cycles of coer-cion (abuse and/or violence) and instilling posi-tive parent-child interactions.

♦ Targeting bullies. Peer harassment is an earlyindicator of lifelong antisocial problems. Withoutintervention, childhood bullies often develop intoviolent adults.

Educating parents in conflict resolution is a naturalway to bring children’s experiences at home andat school closer together. Helping families deal con-structively with the inevitable conflicts of familyliving allows parents to disengage from inconsistentand harsh, punitive behaviors. When parents modeleffective behaviors in conflict situations, they presentpowerful teaching examples to children. In theirbook, Battles, Hassles, Tantrums & Tears, Beekmanand Holmes offer parents strategies for coping withconflict and making peace at home.5 Their program,C.H.O.I.C.E.S. for Managing Conflict, offers guide-lines for adult responses to conflict (see figure 5).

Although vital to early childhood education, parentinitiatives are a potential link between schools andhomes, regardless of the age of the youth involved.The more youth experience constructive approachesto conflict, especially at school or at home, the morelikely they will internalize these behaviors.

Parents as Teachers Program. Most early childhoodeducation programs include parent involvementand parent education components for interveningin behaviors that promote a cycle of violence. TheParents as Teachers program, which originated inSt. Louis, Missouri, is based on the idea that earlychildhood experiences are critical in laying the foun-dation for success in school and life, and that par-ents are children’s first and most influential teachers.

Parents as Teachers is a home-school-communitypartnership designed to provide parents with infor-mation and support in the development of prosocialskills. The goal is to help parents prepare their chil-dren for success in school and life throughout thecritical years from birth to entry into kindergarten.Through personal home visits by child developmentprofessionals, group meetings with other parents,and play groups for parents and children together,parents are given alternatives to corporal punish-ment along with developmental information thatpromotes realistic expectations for their children’sbehavior. This program provides a foundation ofsharing, empathy, and accountability in youngchildren that prepares them for conflict resolutioneducation when they are older.

Parents Anonymous, Inc. Recognizing the linkbetween child abuse and juvenile delinquency, theOffice of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Pre-vention (OJJDP) began to support Parents Anony-mous, Inc. (PA), in 1994. Because minority childrenare overrepresented in the juvenile justice system,this collaborative effort between OJJDP and PAfocuses on bringing PA’s comprehensive model ofneighborhood-based, shared leadership to familiesin low-income, high-crime areas. This national ini-tiative is being implemented in 11 States by PA or-ganizations dedicated to serving a range of ethnicgroups, including Native Americans, African Ameri-cans, Asians, Latinos, and Appalachians.

Conflict resolution is one of the elements of PA’smultifaceted program. Parents are given the oppor-tunity to observe, practice, and learn conflict reso-lution skills and problem-solving processes. Theseskills and processes are taught in the context offamily life, the worksite, and personal friendships.They are practiced in weekly group sessions asconflicts occur.

Franklin Mediation Services and Head Start ofFranklin County, Massachusetts. These two agen-cies joined to create a project providing comprehen-sive direct services in the form of mediation, parentand staff mediation training, and bias awarenesstraining. Parents of Head Start pupils, Head Startstaff, and community residents attend workshopsto learn conflict resolution techniques. In addition,Head Start clients receive direct mediation services

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that help resolve conflicts between children andparents, couples, and tenants and landlords. Pro-gram staff also developed a mediation curriculumfor use in Head Start classrooms. Advocates whoregularly work with Head Start families reportthat the concepts and skills learned in the programbecome part of family conflict management. Theconsistent use of negotiation skills helps familiesresolve problems without third-party interventionand without violence.

Community ProgramsSome youth-centered conflict resolution programshave originated in the community rather than inschools. Both community-to-school and school-to-community programs make critical linkages thatenhance the quality of life in each arena. Commu-nity programs provide a common conflict resolutionvocabulary. The focus of many of these programs

is to provide youth with conflict resolution trainingthrough youth clubs, churches, court referral serv-ices, and other youth-service organizations, andto reinforce the lessons learned through followuptraining at school.

The advantages of community-based conflict reso-lution programs linked with a school program areaccess to common trainers and volunteers such asyouth, parents, and teachers; increased cooperationbetween schools and communities; and an institu-tional base for long-term conflict resolution trainingin a given area. Additionally, community-to-schoolcooperation provides an ongoing laboratory forrefining conflict resolution theory and for findinga balance between theory and practice that encour-ages youth to apply their training in the local livingenvironment. Profiles of a variety of community-based programs are presented in the followingsections.

Figure 5: C.H.O.I.C.E.S. for Managing Conflict

♦ C ommand: Give clear directions and specifically state what you want the child to do in a non-humiliating manner—“Clean up your room before visiting your friend.”

♦ H umor or surprise: Use nonsarcastic humor or do the unexpected to defuse an explosive situation.For example, channel kids who are bickering over a toy into a different activity—“Let’s pretendwe’re robots and clean up the family room.”

♦ Offer choices: Give a choice between two options—“You can ______ or ______,” or “When you______, then you can ________.”

♦ I gnore: Choose not to address the conflict or unacceptable behavior by withholding attention.

♦ C ompromise: Seek a middle ground by finding a solution that partially satisfies both parties—“If you ____, then I’ll _____.”

♦ E ncourage problem solving: Work together to explore the disagreement, generate alternatives,and find a solution that satisfies the needs of both parties—“What can we do to meet everyone’sneeds?”

♦ S tructure the environment: Rearrange people, room structure, or objects to reduce conflict. Forexample, separate kids who are fighting in the car by moving them to different seats.

Source: Beekman, S., and J. Holmes. 1993. Battles, Hassles, Tantrums & Tears: Strategies for Coping with Conflict andMaking Peace at Home. New York, NY: Hearst Books, William Morrow & Company, Inc., Publishers, p. 90. Reprinted withpermission of the authors and William Morrow & Company, Inc.

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Community Mediation ProgramsCommunity mediation centers, located in morethan 600 communities in the United States, haveinitiated the community-to-school link in developingand implementing conflict resolution programs forchildren, youth, and families. These centers, whichare typically nonprofit, community-based agencies,use trained community volunteers to provide a widerange of mediation services to youth and adults.The majority of these centers have initiated media-tion and conflict resolution programs for youth inschools and other settings. Mediation centers havepioneered applications of mediation for youth andfamilies, including truancy, parent/child, gang, andsuspension mediation, as well as applications injuvenile correctional settings. In addition, centershave collaborated with other youth-serving agenciesand schools in the development of prevention andintervention strategies and initiatives to preventyouth violence.

Community mediation centers provide an institu-tional base for long-term conflict resolution trainingin the communities in which they are located. Whenconflicts flow from the school to the community andfrom the community to the school, the mediationcenter provides the appropriate links and continuumof services. The National Association for Commu-nity Mediation, listed in appendix A, can provideinformation about local services.

Lawyers Adopt-a-School ProgramThe Lawyers Adopt-a-School Program of theAmerican Bar Association, Section of Dispute Reso-lution, encourages the establishment of mediationprograms in elementary, middle, and high schools.A law firm becomes a sponsor of a school peer me-diation program by helping to provide training andfinancial and moral support. The law firm workswith the school to develop and maintain a schoolmediation program, to provide resources for theinitial training of the mediators and for continuedsupport of the program, to enrich the school byinvolving the community and the business sector,to provide role models, and to assist teachers indeveloping ways to expand the curriculum. Theschool and the law firm enter into an agreement

that identifies the aims of the partnership, the activ-ities each partner will undertake, the resources tobe provided, and the length of time the partnershipwill last. After an agreement is reached, the mutualrelationship is ongoing for the duration of the schoolyear.

East Cleveland Youth Services MobileMediation ProjectOne of the purposes of this project is to address theafterschool conflicts that tend to boil over into vio-lence on East Cleveland’s inner-city streets. Projectstaff (parents, youth, teachers, and principals) whotravel the neighborhood in a mobile home are highlyvisible and offer alternatives for settling fights be-tween volatile groups of youth. Staff are trained torecognize signs of imminent conflict and to applythe skills of mediation. The mobility of the projectmakes mediation more accessible. Mediation is con-ducted in the mobile home, and sometimes the dis-puting parties are taken to the community mediationcenter. The East Cleveland Youth Mediation Serv-ices program estimates that the mobile mediationproject serves between 2,000 and 3,000 people ayear by conducting community and school conflictresolution education workshops and mediations.

Roxbury Conflict Resolution ProjectThe Conflict Management Group (CMG), the Uni-tarian Universalist Urban Ministry (UUUM), theFirst Church Program of Boston, and the Programfor Young Negotiators (PYN) are partners in theRoxbury Conflict Resolution Project in Massachu-setts. This community-based conflict resolutiontraining program has three primary goals:

♦ Joining with community youth in working fromthe ground up to develop new ways of under-standing conflict, its causes, and its consequences.

♦ Assisting youth to learn effective skills andtechniques to deal proactively with conflict.

♦ Teaching conflict resolution skills to youth anddeveloping a corps of qualified peer trainers totransfer their learning through a comprehensivecommunity outreach program.

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Community Component. Conflict resolution pro-grams for youth provide a range of functions andmeet both educational and environmental needs.An important aspect of the environmental functionis to seek out youth and give them a voice in devel-oping such a program. CMG and UUUM havedevoted significant time and resources to givingyouth a voice in designing this program. The proj-ect is deeply committed to the idea that when youngpeople have a role in building a program, their senseof program ownership increases, and with it theirsense of responsibility, because they have a stakein the program’s outcome.

Recruitment and Selection of Community Youth.Networking is perhaps the most important key todeveloping a community-based program. In thisproject, CMG and UUUM formed an alliance be-cause they shared similar goals in community work.Additionally, UUUM had an existing youth pro-gram whose leaders were willing to participate inthe project.

Youth were recruited from other organizations suchas Boys & Girls Clubs, church programs, courtreferral programs, and other self-esteem programsfor youth in the area. The goal was to reach a broadcross section of community youth. The initial pro-gram included 20 participants in addition to thepeer leaders.

Community Outreach Component. The com-munity outreach goals of this project are aimedat spreading conflict resolution beyond the FirstChurch in Roxbury to the larger Roxbury com-munity, including the adjoining communities ofDorchester and Mattapan. While in-school pro-grams reach a select audience, this program reachesyouth who are not included in traditional school-based conflict resolution programs.

Community-to-School, School-to-CommunityComponent. In this component of the project, CMGand PYN are collaborating to:

♦ Develop a high-school-age conflict resolution andnegotiation curriculum.

♦ Train teachers, youth, and community membersto teach the curriculum.

♦ Design a model program (including training andcurriculum) for replication in other communities.

Change has been difficult for me and I’m stilla work in process. But if I can change, youcan change, and if you can change, we allcan change the way we deal with conflictand violence.

Project peer leader,Funderburg Youth Program

As one example, the organizers initially held acurriculum development workshop that includedyouth, parents, adults, and community leaders. Fol-lowing the workshop, four high-school-age youthwere brought into the planning process as projectpeer leaders to ensure that future curriculums bothaddressed their fears and concerns about dealingwith conflict and dealt with the needs of youth.

Project peer leaders also act as teaching assistants.In this role, peer leaders work with the CMG train-ing team to master group facilitation skills whileleading discussions and presentations. As peer lead-ers become proficient in these skills, they play anincreasingly prominent role in leading workshopsfor their peers and middle school youth in the com-munity’s clubs, service organizations, churches,and housing districts. They also participate in thecommunity outreach and community-to-schoolcomponents of the project. Over time, the youthbecome leaders in partnership with the adults.

This was the most helpful training in conflictresolution and mediation I have ever re-ceived. . . . We learned things while wewere having fun, and we didn’t even knowwe were learning at the time.

Streetworker, Boston Police Department

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Conflict resolution training must be comprehensiveto be effective in changing the way young peoplerespond to conflict. Therefore, school-based pro-grams need the reinforcement of community-basedprograms whenever possible to help young peoplesee that conflict resolution measures can be im-plemented at home and on the street as well as atschool. The social network in which youth liveand work often presents mixed messages abouthow to deal proactively with conflict. For example,if youth learn problem-solving processes in theschool environment and a competitive “winner-take-all” approach at home or on the street, theywill resort to the method that is reinforced andaddresses their needs for safety and security.

A community-based program can resolve this di-lemma by building on conflict resolution trainingin school and reinforcing it in other settings. Such acommunity-based program offers a common vocabu-lary and common values in the resolution of conflicts.

Community Buy-In and Implications for Replica-tion. Adequate funding and community support arecritical to a project of this type. A careful, systematicapproach that identifies unmet community needsand builds cooperative support from the groundup in existing programs is crucial. Some of the stepstaken to develop the Roxbury Conflict ResolutionProject may be useful in evaluating the potential forsimilar programs elsewhere. The following stepshave proved essential to the program:

♦ Conducting a needs assessment for conflictresolution training in the community.

♦ Developing a program that builds on existingprograms and fills gaps in conflict resolutiontraining.

♦ Creating and implementing a fundraising plan.

The Community Board ProgramCommunity mediation programs throughout theUnited States have been at the forefront of bring-ing conflict resolution services and programmingto schools, families, and other youth settings. TheCommunity Board Program (CBP), an organization

established in 1976 to provide neighborhood-basedmediation services, began work with San Franciscoschools in 1980 at the urging of the Program’s vol-unteer mediators, many of whom were educators.Over time, CBP has developed a whole-school ap-proach that focuses on introducing conflict resolu-tion concepts and skills to as many members of theschool community as possible—students, teachers,staff, administrators, and parents. The goal is tochange individuals’ beliefs about conflict resolutionand to provide a system for dealing with conflict.

Our youth usually deal with violence byreacting to it . . . or giving in to it. Conflictresolution training gives them new choicesto deal with it positively. . . . This is exactly thetype of training we need in this community.

Director, Funderburg Youth Program

This whole-school implementation method corre-sponds to the Community Board’s vision of a har-moniously functioning school community that isable to resolve conflicts, prevent violence, and createa peaceful and equitable atmosphere conducive tolearning.6

Because youth spend time in both schools andcommunities, strong connections between the twocan benefit them in many ways. Resources can bemaximized and services to youth enhanced. Whenschools and communities are more aware of eachother, young people in need of neighborhood-basedservices receive more effective referrals. The follow-ing examples illustrate the Community Board’s ex-perience in connecting whole-school and communityefforts.

Parental Involvement in Whole-School Work.Parental involvement is an integral componentof the Community Board whole-school approach.When students are encouraged and expected to useconflict resolution skills for handling disputes atschool, they find it confusing and difficult to returnhome to a completely different approach. CBP edu-cators express frustration when they hear a student

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say, “My dad says if somebody hits me, I can hitthem back.” By incorporating parents into thewhole-school project, schools provide youth andparents with effective alternatives for dealing withconflicts peacefully on school grounds and at home.

Parents are encouraged to become involved in avariety of ways. They can begin by creating a corecommittee—a planning and implementation teamcomprising teachers, counselors, administrators,students, and parents. Based on the needs of theschool, the committee develops an action plan andtimeline and oversees the project. Depending onthe parents’ time and availability, they can help byparticipating in outreach and publicity, trainingnew student mediators, taking referrals, schedulingmediation sessions, keeping records, facilitatingbiweekly student mediator meetings, following upcases, and fundraising. Parents can perform somefunctions with limited training, but certain duties,such as training conflict managers and facilitatingbiweekly meetings, require intensive training. Par-ents may join teachers in a 2-day mediation trainingor attend a series of workshops introducing them toeffective family communication and problem-solvingskills for use in the home. Some schools create aparent support group to discuss concerns and par-ticipate in ongoing skills training and practice.

Parents can assist schools in securing support fora whole-school conflict resolution project by pre-senting information at parent-teacher associationmeetings, student and/or parent assemblies, staffmeetings, town meetings, and students’ classes. Awell-informed parent group also serves as an im-portant referral source. It can refer school-relatedconflicts to the peer mediation program and family-and community-related disputes to a communitymediation program. CBP provides free outreachpresentations to parent groups on methods forreferring cases to the program.

Conflict resolution is what I need and I won’tquit until all my friends know about it.

Student, Funderburg Youth Program

Partnerships Between School and CommunityMediation Programs. Partnerships between school-based mediation programs and their community-based counterparts strengthen and benefit bothprograms. The Community Board of San Franciscoand the San Francisco Unified School District fostertheir strong relationship by using the followingstrategies:

Sharing Mediators. Youth as young as age 14 aretrained to become community mediators. If studentsare already trained as peer mediators in schools,they only need to participate in an orientation ses-sion to join the pool of community mediator volun-teers. Such student mediator “sharing” providesimportant additional resources for the communitymediation program. The youth involved learn valu-able lessons about effective citizenry and advancedconflict resolution skills.

Cross-Referral System. Even if a school has nopeer mediation program, educators can benefitfrom understanding the sorts of disputes that mightbe referred to community mediation programs.These include serious incidents involving nonschoolyouth or a range of parent, educator, and commu-nity issues. Certain complex disputes may benefitfrom both school-based and community-basedmediation sessions. Volunteer community mediatorsand “shared” student peer mediators perform out-reach to schools by distributing fliers and makingpresentations.

Parent-Child Mediation. Youth who may be havingattendance or behavioral problems can benefit froma parent-child mediation session from the commu-nity mediation program. This service is especiallyuseful for youth who are making the transition fromspecial schools that deal with behavioral difficulties

The use of conflict management skills byeveryone in our school community is thekey component of our district’s efforts tobecome a multicultural organization.

School superintendent,Ann Arbor, Michigan

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staff and volunteers are performing outreach toyouth-serving organizations and schools to informstudents about ways to refer disputes they experi-ence to the local Community Board Program.

Youth-initiated referrals can be increased by devel-oping working relationships with youth-servingorganizations involved in efforts to organize youth.The work of these groups can create, in effect, col-lective first parties of young people for mediation. Ayouth organization would identify and analyze theirissues, such as the lack of afterschool programs orjobs, school policies, and the like; consider who theirallies might be; and identify the second parties of thedispute. The needs of young people are better metwhen youth organizations reach out in a proactivemanner to work with community groups to resolveissues before they become conflicts.

Boys & Girls Clubs of AmericaThe Boys & Girls Clubs of America recognizesthat many of its young members live in communitieswhere conflict and violence are daily occurrences.Conflicts in the lives of many youth—whether expe-rienced personally or vicariously in school, at home,in the neighborhood, on television, in the movies,or in a computer game—may often lead to or resultin violence.

Through a grant from the Bureau of Justice Assis-tance, Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Departmentof Justice, the Boys & Girls Clubs of America hasdeveloped a violence prevention program that in-cludes the Second Step foundation skills curriculumdeveloped by the Committee for Children. The pro-gram teaches club members the problem-solvingprocesses of conflict resolution, anger management,impulse control, and empathy. Also, the Boys &Girls Clubs provides information and training onpeer mediation through the Community Board’sConflict Managers program. These programs havebeen implemented in more than 60 Boys & GirlsClubs located in public housing developments acrossthe country.7

Each program presents the message “Conflicts arenatural daily occurrences that can have nonviolentresolutions” in a variety of situations to help youthsee a range of contexts in which conflicts can arise

to traditional school settings. School districts thatuse local community mediation programs may findthat these free services are valuable in improving orreestablishing parent-child communication and inhelping the family understand rules, behavior, andother mediation issues. This work in turn leads toimproved social behavior and academic success.

Training Youth as Trainers. Young people whoare trained as trainers to help prepare new media-tors for school and community settings are a nat-ural source of talent for peer mediation programs.Students are encouraged to participate in the freeneighborhood “Training of Trainers” offered eachyear. CBP also finds it valuable to have studentmediators demonstrate the mediation process aspart of its annual community mediation training.This reinforces the benefits and underscores theintergenerational, communitywide aspects of con-flict resolution. School and community mediationprograms may also want to explore the possibilityof compensating mediators and trainers for theirtraining work by marketing the training to youth-serving agencies and other groups in the local com-munity. The Effective Alternatives in ReconciliationServices (EARS) program in the Bronx, New York,has carried out ground-breaking work in this area.

Youth Clubs/Youth Councils. If community andschool mediation programs wish to develop jointstrategies, they may consider developing a youthclub or council. Community mediation programsbenefit from youth groups that provide a focus foryoung mediators, help the program retain youthvolunteers, recruit new youth, and provide leader-ship opportunities for young people to direct theprogram’s youth agenda. A youth club also pro-vides a forum for developing and undertaking spe-cial youth-initiated projects. Programs might findit helpful to offer stipends to youth participatingin the club or council.

Encouraging Youth-Initiated Cases in CommunityMediation. Most programs strongly desire moreyouth to come forward as “first parties” in the com-munity mediation process. Typically, youth are in-volved as “second parties,” with adults bringingconcerns and complaints as the first parties in thecase. This situation represents a failure to recognizeand respond to the needs of young people. CBP

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on a different aspect of conflict awareness and man-agement. The professional trainers at each center workwith the AmeriCorps programs in their area to provideflexible scheduling and a training curriculum that istailored to the needs, background, and experience ofeach particular training group. Community mediationcenters are also available for further training and tech-nical assistance, because addressing local needs hasbeen the hallmark of their contribution to this nationalservice program.

Community Relations ServiceThis unique component of the Department of Jus-tice seeks to prevent or resolve community conflictsand tensions arising from actions, policies, and prac-tices perceived to be discriminatory on the basisof race, color, or national origin. The CommunityRelations Service (CRS) works to bring awareness,education, and action into communities throughoutthe United States that are experiencing conflictsresulting from a multicultural environment. In thesecommunities, insensitivity to different racial or cul-tural groups may generate friction and, possibly,disruptions between groups at school. However,the diversity found in school communities offersopportunities for individuals to learn more aboutone another and to enhance their global awareness.

Conflicts may arise in schools when different stu-dent groups “stake out turf” in certain areas of theschool—for example, the cafeteria, the resourceroom, or the athletic fields—or during school dancesand sports events; when they leave racist graffitiin the rest rooms or other parts of the campus; andwhen they form gangs on campus. Conflicts alsoarise when parents feel that their children’s race orethnicity is not being treated sensitively by teachers,counselors, and administrators.

When disruptions and violence are racially moti-vated, the shock waves threaten the whole fabricof the community. All who are responsible forschool safety and security must keep abreast of dem-ographic changes in the community that will alterthe pattern of student interaction in a school. Con-flicts that take place outside school, in the commu-nity and in the students’ neighborhoods, may affect

and be settled without violence. The Boys & GirlsClubs has provided the staff and members of itsaffiliated clubs across the country with the opportu-nity to receive training and practice in the peacefulresolution of conflicts. These training programs arealso open to parents and other interested adults inthe community. The clubs expect that nonviolentskills and strategies for settling interpersonal dis-putes will begin to be practiced on a regular basisthrough the many club activities on site and in thehome and community.

These programs have assisted our membersin reducing the level of interpersonal vio-lence and in supporting a positive peacefulenvironment in their respective communi-ties. We look forward to their importantmessage reaching all our youth membersin all our Boys & Girls Clubs.

James D. Cox, Vice President of UrbanServices, Boys & Girls Clubs of America8

AmeriCorps Conflict ResolutionTraining ProjectThrough a partnership with the National Asso-ciation for Community Mediation (NAFCM),AmeriCorps, the national service program, hasoffered training in conflict resolution to its mem-bers since September 1995. NAFCM has providedspecialized training in the skills and strategies ofconflict resolution to more than 9,000 AmeriCorpsmembers in 46 States, American Samoa, and theDistrict of Columbia.9 Many of the AmeriCorpsmembers who have been trained as a result of thispartnership are working directly in kindergartento grade 12 classrooms, using their training to helpteach students conflict resolution and to set up peermediation programs in schools.

The AmeriCorps trainings have been conductedusing NAFCM’s national membership network ofcommunity mediation centers and a special modularcurriculum designed specifically for this project.Each of the three modules of the curriculum focuses

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the relationships between students at school. Innearly every major racial disruption in elementary,middle, and secondary schools, warning signs werepresent well in advance of the incident. The conflictand/or violence might have been avoided had some-one recognized that tension was building and takenpositive steps to address it. The answers to the fol-lowing questions will help to identify the warningsigns of tension building in the community andschool:

♦ What racial and ethnic groups attend the school?

♦ Where do they live in relation to one another?

♦ How do these groups get to and from school?

♦ Do school activities such as sporting eventsand dances bring together diverse groups thatdo not ordinarily meet, creating an environmentof competition or tension?

♦ What has been the history of interaction amongthese various groups?

CRS casework shows that in nearly every schooldisruption based on race, color, or national origin,at least one group perceived that the school’s stan-dards were being unfairly applied to them alone.When school administrators and law enforcementofficers meet regularly with local community andcivil rights groups to discuss community problems,they can develop and support appropriate responsesto community conflict through negotiation, media-tion, and consensus decisionmaking.

CRS services can also be requested by communitygroups, school officials, or school support groupssuch as parent, teacher, and student associations.When a request comes from a recognized party andinvolves a dispute related to race, CRS initiates itsinvolvement by conducting an assessment of theperceived problem through a series of interviewswith the key leaders of the groups involved. Afteran assessment is completed, CRS meets with thecomplainant to provide feedback on the perceptionsof all parties regarding the problem. At that point,depending on the assessment, CRS may offer toprovide a number of services to assist the parties tothe dispute to resolve their problem with win-winoutcomes for all involved.

To help manage and prevent school and commu-nity racial and ethnic disruptions, CRS has devel-oped several programs that can be implemented inindividual schools or throughout a school district.Among them are:

♦ Student conflict resolution teams. CRS providestraining to students in the mediation process andfacilitates the establishment of student responseteams. These teams are designed to mediate dis-putes, serve as racial advisory boards, and defusestudent-related racial tensions.

♦ Student problem identification/resolutionprogram. CRS presents training in this problem-solving approach to address conflict in multiracialschools and districts. The program is a 2-day pro-cess in which students develop recommendationsand a workplan to improve racial harmony. Aprincipal’s student advisory council is also estab-lished as an ongoing mechanism to work directlywith school administrators and faculty to addressracial and ethnic issues both preventively andreactively.

♦ Conflict management and cultural awarenesstraining for staff. CRS provides training in con-flict management within multicultural settingsfor administrators, faculty, security personnel,building staff, and bus drivers.

♦ Management of school disruption and violence.CRS provides training through a video instruc-tion program covering control of the learningenvironment, isolation of disputing parties, recog-nition of the disputants’ issues, and implementa-tion of the problem-solving processes of conflictresolution.

♦ School site coordination. CRS can assist aschool in setting up a committee of appropriatecommunity service providers and agencies tocoordinate services and focus resources on theneeds and problems of the school and communitymembers.

These CRS programs are offered and imple-mented in an open and fair manner that gives allmembers of the school and neighboring commu-nity a role in resolving the conflict peacefully. Asa result, cooperation increases among the parties

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and overshadows the differences that initially causedthe tensions to build, thereby helping to bring about awin-win outcome for all parties. A list of CRS officesis included in appendix A.

The Arts and Conflict ResolutionThe National Endowment for the Arts (NEA), aFederal agency, is dedicated to fostering excellence,diversity, and vitality in the arts in the Nation’s com-munities while helping to broaden their availabilityand appreciation. NEA encourages use of the artsas a vehicle to address social problems in our com-munities and schools by supporting programs in artsorganizations, local arts agencies, and the Institutefor Community Development and the Arts of theNational Assembly of Local Arts Agencies.

social service and youth-serving agencies provideat-risk youth with opportunities to learn conflictresolution education as an integral component in thestudy and/or practice of music, dance, theater, litera-ture, and the visual arts. These programs are takingplace in public housing facilities, schools, recreationcenters, churches, libraries, teen centers, Boys &Girls Clubs, local arts and cultural centers, muse-ums, and performing arts organizations. The mosteffective arts programs recognize the risk factors inthe lives of at-risk youth and teach them the abilitiesand problem-solving processes of conflict resolutionto help them live and thrive in a chaotic world. Thearts help youth learn to express their joy, disappoint-ment, anger, and fear through the meaningful useof words, music, drawing, sculpture, painting, andperformance rather than with fists, knives, and guns.

The arts are uniquely effective in engaging at-riskyouth in conflict resolution education. The artsprovide creative and emotional outlets that alsoteach these youth different ways to view the world;foster creativity; teach life skills of effective commu-nication and conflict resolution education; encour-age participation among youth who may not beinclined to become engaged; strengthen basic andadvanced thinking skills; develop problem-posingand problem-solving processes; and promote betterunderstanding and tolerance between different ra-cial and ethnic groups. The arts reach students whoare disenfranchised by providing diverse routes toacademic and personal achievement, enhancing self-discipline, teaching perseverance and hard work,and providing gateways to other learning.

The following sections present brief descriptionsof arts programs that incorporate conflict resolutioneducation. Resource information on these and othersuch programs is included in appendix A.

Urban smARTS ProgramIn many community-based arts programs, conflictresolution training is a critical component to helpaddress an increase in juvenile crime, violence, andgang activity. For example, San Antonio providesfunding for Urban smARTS, an afterschool programin 7 schools designed to divert from the juvenile jus-tice system 420 at-risk youth in grades 6 through 8.

The most important learning takes placewhen several subjects are taught simulta-neously in the context of a larger theme—works of art can provide such themes.

Brent Wilson, School of Visual Arts,Pennsylvania State University10

The Institute was established to assist local artsagencies, elected and appointed municipal officials,and community leaders in using the arts to addresssocial issues in the community. The Institute’s in-formation and technical assistance services providelocal arts agencies with the tools necessary to de-velop innovative community partnerships that usethe arts to address social and educational problems.In conjunction with national networks includingthe Boys & Girls Clubs of America, the U.S. De-partment of Housing and Urban Development, theNational Recreation and Park Association, socialservice and child advocacy networks, local artsagencies, and national arts service organizations,the Institute has researched more than 600 artsprograms for youth at risk.

Many of these programs are reaching disenfran-chised youth who are living in violent neighbor-hoods with little opportunity for healthy activities.Innovative partnerships of arts organizations and

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The program’s partnerships bring together the SanAntonio Departments of Arts and Cultural Affairs,the Youth Services Division of Community Initia-tives, the Southwest Independent School District,and the law enforcement and higher education com-munities. The collaboration of the various city agen-cies and community resources has resulted in amultidisciplinary program that combines innovativearts activities with conflict resolution and socialskills training and the delivery of social services.NEA and the Office of Juvenile Justice and De-linquency Prevention (OJJDP) have entered intoa collaborative evaluation of this program to de-termine its effectiveness in decreasing juvenileadjudication and delinquency, increasing academicperformance and school attendance, developingthe problem-solving processes of conflict resolu-tion, and improving the self-esteem, social skills,and family relationships of at-risk youth.

In the Urban smARTS program, each school isassigned a team of three professional artists, fourcaseworkers, several volunteers, and one teacher/counselor who work with the youth for the 14-weekprogram. Program goals include:

♦ Diverting at-risk youth from the juvenile justicesystem through the arts and conflict resolutioneducation.

♦ Improving social behavior and skills through thearts and case management teamwork.

♦ Improving academic performance and commit-ment to school through the arts.

♦ Developing art skills and providing art opportu-nities for performance and exhibitions.

Pathways to Success ProgramA collaboration of OJJDP, the Bureau of JusticeAssistance, and NEA, the Pathways to SuccessProgram promotes vocational skills, entrepreneurialinitiatives, recreation, and arts education duringafterschool, weekend, and summer hours by makinga variety of opportunities available to at-risk youth.Under this program, 2-year grants have been awardedto five sites. The four listed below include arts andconflict resolution education:

♦ The Stopover Services (SOS) Playback Arts-Based Delinquency Prevention program in New-port, Rhode Island, provides an afterschool artsprogram for youth ages 13 to 18 from local publichousing. The youth participate in peer-to-peersupport and youth/adult partnerships that helpbuild healthy family relationships and a senseof community through the media of visual arts,dance, and drama.

♦ Project CLEAR (Collaboration Leads to En-hanced Achievement and Resiliency), located inNew York City, provides extended day programsto students and their families in two elementaryschools with activities including the arts, recre-ation, and academic tutoring.

♦ The Anchorage School District and the Out-North Theater have collaborated to work withstudents to write, produce, and perform plays forthe community based on their life experiences.

♦ The Aspira Youth Sanctuary program addressesthe problems of Latino youth ages 12 to 14 resid-ing in migrant camps through the teaching of art,folklore, dance, recreation activities, and parentworkshops.

Conflict resolution education is incorporated intoeach of these programs, because many of the youthlive in neighborhoods characterized by poverty,drugs, and crime where even minor disputes oftenescalate to violence. These programs lend them-selves to a discussion of other ways to resolve dis-putes, which are a normal part of life and will occurnaturally during interactions with other individuals,both within and outside the program.

Arts and Prevention ProjectsThe Department of Education’s Safe and Drug-Free Schools Program funded the developmentof several arts and prevention projects. Developedby the Learning Systems Group, these projectshave incorporated many building blocks thatstrengthened young people’s ability to work togeth-er and to learn and practice the conflict resolutionprocesses of negotiation, mediation, and consensusdecisionmaking. Following are descriptions of severalarts and prevention activities.

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The Mural Reflecting Prevention project provideseducators and youth leaders with resource materialsand suggestions on engaging youth in the collabora-tive process of creating a mural on a drug and vio-lence prevention theme. Through this group work,youth learn negotiation skills and gain an apprecia-tion for different perspectives and for the need towork as a team. In Indianapolis, Indiana, a group ofyoung people worked with a local mural artist, theirschool, and the city’s parks and recreation depart-ment to create a powerful and colorful mural onthe side of a community park building. Youth in aDade County, Florida, public housing developmentworked with a student from a local college of artduring spring break to create a mural in their newcommunity center. In contributing to the design andproduction of the artwork, youth of different agesand ethnic backgrounds developed their patience,listening skills, and creativity and also improvedtheir problem-solving skills. In both cases, the workswere celebrated in public events that enabled par-ents, teachers, and other members of the communityto express their support and appreciation of theyoung people’s artwork.

The Art of Prevention project is designed to helpteachers expand their school’s existing drug pre-vention curriculum by integrating arts activitiescentered on prevention themes. The program mate-rials include a 64-page handbook with 14 detailedlesson plans incorporating dance, drama, visual arts,music, language arts, and media arts along with a13-minute video showing how the arts can be usedto teach prevention and prosocial skills. Activities inthis resource package cover topics such as decision-making, understanding consequences of actions, andidentifying healthy ways to cope with feelings andemotions. The sample activities address these andother drug and violence prevention issues throughvarious art forms and the foundation abilities ofconflict resolution education.

Using the arts to teach the message that conflictscan be resolved without violence is exciting andoffers many opportunities to bring teachers, par-ents, and other members of the community intothe process. Although varied in scope and focus,these projects share the goal of demonstrating the

potential for addressing social problems throughthe arts. Students learn not only the process of anart form, but also nonviolent alternatives to con-flicts. Working together as a team brings results:completed art projects through peaceful conflictresolution.

California Lawyers for the ArtsAs an outgrowth of its mediation program, andwith support from the National Endowment forthe Arts, California Lawyers for the Arts (C.L.A.)uses the arts to address the effect on youth of suchsocial issues as unemployment, violence, and gangs.Through grants from the San Francisco Mayor’sOffice of Children, Youth, and Their Families andthe Office of Community Development, C.L.A. fa-cilitated the placement of 50 low-income youth insummer jobs at 17 San Francisco arts organizations.This project was followed by an afterschool culturalenrichment program coordinated with 6 collaborat-ing arts education providers who are serving morethan 600 at-risk youth from diverse ethnic communi-ties. C.L.A. provides the youth with seminars onlife skills that include conflict resolution education,communication skills, and job readiness.

Conflict resolution training for youth involved in artenrichment activities is specific for each site and agegroup. For example, a session recognizing emotionsand feelings was developed for 6- to 8-year-oldsinvolved in afterschool movement and performanceclasses. After a brief exercise using their newly ex-panded vocabulary to describe emotions and feel-ings, the children developed and acted out shortskits to display what they had learned regardingtheir own and others’ feelings. In contrast, the focusof a session for youth ages 9 to 14 years involveddeveloping a showcase production on how to worktogether as a group, listen to each other, and useproblem-solving processes rather than argue, name-call, and disagree. For older teens placed in summerjobs at arts organizations, a workshop was providedto develop communication and basic employmentand negotiation skills through the role-playing ofart-related problems. Similar programs are in opera-tion in Southern California and in the Washington,D.C., area.

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Notes1. Sneve, V.D.H. 1987. “Women of the Circle.”In H. Thompson, A. Huseboe, and S. Looney (eds.),A Common Land, A Diverse People. Sioux Falls, SD:Nordland Heritage Foundation.

2. Brendtro, L., and N. Long. 1993 (Spring). “ViolenceBegets Violence: Breaking Conflict Cycles.” Journal ofEmotional and Behavioral Problems, p. 5.

3. Ibid.

4. Ibid., pp. 5–6.

5. Beekman, S., and J. Holmes. 1993. Battles, Hassles,Tantrums & Tears: Strategies for Coping with Conflict andMaking Peace at Home. New York, NY: Hearst Books,William Morrow & Company, Inc., Publishers, p. 90.

6. Wong, P., M. McLaughlin, and M. Moore. 1995(July). Evaluation of Phase 1 of the Whole School ConflictResolution Project. Final report. Stanford, CA: StanfordUniversity School of Education.

7. The Second Step and Conflict Managers programsare available for use in local Boys & Girls Clubs by con-tacting the Boys & Girls Clubs National Headquarters(see appendix A under “Community-Based Programs”).

8. Cox, J.D. 1996 (May). Personal communication.

9. Contact information for the AmeriCorps Conflict Reso-lution Training Project and the National Association forCommunity Mediation is included in appendix A under“Community-Based Programs.”

10. Wilson, B. In press. The Quiet Evolution: ImplementingDiscipline-Based Art Education in Six Regional ProfessionalDevelopment Consortia. Santa Monica, CA: Getty Centerfor Education in the Arts.

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Chapter 8: Conflict Resolution Researchand Evaluation

Research on conflict situations within schools andon the impact of conflict resolution education pro-grams provides strong support for establishingthese programs in schools. Many of the studies con-ducted to date have focused on mediation programs,which are distinctive and perhaps more prevalentin schools than programs employing one of the otherthree approaches to conflict resolution education.Because the peaceable classroom and process cur-riculum approaches integrate conflict resolutioneducation into the normal curriculum, evidence ofthe success of these approaches has been somewhatdifficult to document. However, the positive outcomesassociated with mediation programs hold promise thatbroader based conflict resolution programs that usemediation will be successful as well. Comprehensivestudies to evaluate the two peaceable school programshighlighted in chapter 5 are under way.

Early ResearchIn 1974, DeCecco and Richards published the re-sults of one of the most comprehensive studies onconflict within schools.2 They interviewed more than8,000 students and 500 faculty members in morethan 60 junior and senior high schools in New YorkCity, Philadelphia, and San Francisco and foundthat more than 90 percent of the conflicts reportedby students were perceived to be either unresolvedor resolved in destructive ways. Moreover, negotia-tion of conflicts was practically nonexistent.

Studies on the Teaching StudentsTo Be Peacemakers ProgramMore recently, David Johnson and Roger Johnsonconducted 11 research studies to examine the

effectiveness of the Teaching Students To Be Peace-makers program.3 Results demonstrate the impactthat conflict resolution training programs have onthe ability of students to manage their conflicts con-structively. Johnson and Johnson conducted care-fully controlled studies in inner-city and suburbanschool districts throughout the United States andCanada. The grade level of the students involvedin the research ranged from the 1st through the 10thgrades. Two approaches to training in peer media-tion were studied. In one, the total student bodyreceived the training; in the other, a small group ofteachers and students received the training. Studentswere randomly assigned to one of these approaches,while teachers were rotated across approaches. Thefollowing is a summary of the questions asked bythese studies and their findings:

♦ How often do conflicts among students occur, andwhat are the most commonly occurring conflicts?

The findings indicated that students engagedin conflicts daily. In the suburban schools studied,the majority of reported conflicts resulted fromthe possession of and access to resources, choiceof available activities, playground issues, andturn-taking. Some conflicts involved physicaland verbal aggression. In one urban elementaryschool studied, the vast majority of conflicts re-ferred to mediation involved physical and verbalviolence.

Research in this field indicates that conflictresolution and mediation programs showpositive effects in reducing violence.1

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♦ Did the program training increase overallacademic achievement?

In three of the studies, the training was integratedinto English literature units. While studying anovel, students learned the negotiation and me-diation procedures, which were applied to thedynamics among the major characters. At theconclusion of the unit, students were given anachievement test, and several months later theywere retested. The results indicated that the stu-dents who received the integrated training earnedsignificantly higher achievement and retentiontest scores than the students who studied the novelbut did not learn conflict resolution procedures.

♦ Did the program training result in fewer disciplineproblems that required teacher and administrationmanagement?

During the studies, the number of disciplineproblems requiring teacher management de-creased by approximately 80 percent, and re-ferrals to the principal were reduced to zero.

♦ Did the program training create more positiveattitudes toward conflict?

Untrained students uniformly had negative atti-tudes toward conflict. After training, studentsdeveloped more positive attitudes toward conflict.Teachers, administrators, and parents believedthat the Teaching Students To Be Peacemakersprogram was constructive and helpful. Manyparents whose children did not participate in theproject requested that their children receive thetraining in the upcoming year. A number of par-ents also asked if they could receive the training toimprove conflict management within the family.

Other ResearchAdditional assessment of the conflict resolution edu-cation field supports the need for conflict resolutionprograms and legitimizes the contention that effectiveprograms must be based on proven negotiation theory,which can be translated into instructional proceduresthat educators can use in the classroom. The followingitems highlight some of the findings of this research:

♦ What strategies did students use to manageconflicts prior to program training?

Before training, students generally managed theirconflicts in one of three ways: verbal or physicalabuse, teacher intervention, or withdrawal fromthe conflict and the other person. A teacher statedin her log, “Before training, students viewed con-flict as fights that always resulted in a winnerand a loser. To avoid such an unpleasant situation,they usually placed the responsibility for resolv-ing conflicts on me, the teacher.” Students didnot know how to engage in problem resolutionor integrative negotiations.

♦ Did the program training successfully teachstudents negotiation and mediation procedures?

After the training ended, students knew the nego-tiation and mediation procedures and retainedthis knowledge.

♦ Could students apply the negotiation andmediation procedures to conflicts?

For the three measures used (written responsesto conflict scenarios, oral responses to conflictscenarios given in an interview, and role-playingresponses to conflict scenarios that were video-taped), students were able to apply the negotiationand mediation procedures to various conflicts.

♦ Did students transfer the negotiation and media-tion procedures to nonclassroom and nonschoolsituations?

The findings showed that students used the nego-tiation and mediation procedures in the hallwaysand lunchroom as well as on the playground.They also used the procedures in family settings.

♦ Did students rely on “win-lose” strategies or nego-tiation strategies when presented with an option?

After completing the program training, studentswere placed in a negotiation situation that pre-sented the opportunity either to win or to maxi-mize joint outcomes. Although untrained studentsfrequently tried to win, the majority of trainedstudents focused on maximizing joint outcomes.

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♦ The Ohio School Conflict Management Demon-stration Project, conducted in 17 schools between1990 and 1993, improved student attitudes to-ward conflict, increased understanding of non-violent problem-solving methods, and enhancedcommunication skills.4

♦ During the 1992–1993 school year, the ClarkCounty Social Service School Mediation Programin Nevada reduced the amount of conflict amongstudents in the two participating elementaryschools and helped prevent fights among stu-dents. Peer mediators mediated 163 conflictsand resolved 138 (85 percent). Peer mediatorsdemonstrated a significant increase in conflictmanagement skills, self-esteem, and assertiveness.After the program, the number of teachers whospent less than 20 percent of their time on disci-pline increased by 18 percent. Similar resultswere reported for the 1993–1994 school year.5

♦ Evaluation of a mediation program in a suburbanChicago high school indicated positive results.Researchers testing the hypothesis that “media-tion is an effective alternative to traditional disci-pline” found that mediation was more effectivethan traditional discipline in reducing the numberof interpersonal conflicts. The researchers alsoreported that the majority of disputants andstudent mediators were very satisfied with allaspects of the mediation.6

♦ Evaluation of the impact of the Resolving Con-flict Creatively Program (RCCP) in four multi-racial, multi-ethnic school districts in New YorkCity showed that 84 percent of teachers who re-sponded to a survey reported positive changesin classroom climate; 71 percent reported moder-ate or significant decreases in physical violencein the classroom; and 66 percent observed lessname-calling and fewer verbal insults. Similarpercentages of teachers characterized studentsas demonstrating improved perspective-takingskills, a greater willingness to cooperate, andmore “caring behavior.” More than 98 percentof respondents said that the mediation compon-ent gave children an important tool for handlingconflicts. Other changes reported includedspontaneous usage of conflict resolution skills,

improved self-esteem and sense of empowerment,increased awareness and articulation of feelings,and greater acceptance of differences.7

♦ Five of the six New York City high schools par-ticipating in Project S.M.A.R.T. (School Media-tor Alternative Resolution Team) experienceda 45- to 70-percent reduction in suspensionsfor fighting during the program’s first year ofoperation.8

♦ An evaluation report of the Mediation in SchoolsProgram of the New Mexico Center for DisputeResolution (NMCDR) reported that teachers inprogram schools noticed less violence and harm-ful behavior among students, whereas teachersin nonprogram schools noticed more violence.One Albuquerque elementary school principalreported that “We were having 100 to 150 fightsevery month on the playground before we startedthe program. By the end of the school year, wewere having maybe 10 [fights].” Other elemen-tary schools using the same NMCDR programreported that playground fighting had been re-duced to such an extent that peer mediatorsfound themselves out of a job.9

Program teachers frequently used positive, non-coercive conflict resolution strategies—especiallymediation—when responding to “hurtful” be-havior among students. On the other hand, non-program teachers often used coercive, win-lose,adult-authored strategies—especially detentionand referrals to the principal’s office—whenresponding to problem behavior.

Students successfully operated the peer mediationprocess initiated through the program. In a totalof more than 2,300 mediations, only 250 requiredadult intervention. Students trained as mediatorshad clearer definitions of mediation and conflictresolution strategies and skills than their un-trained peers. Untrained students did not fullyunderstand the benefits of win-win situations orspecific and creative conflict resolution strategies.In addition, untrained students neither showedthe levels of self-esteem and confidence nor feltas positive about school as trained students. Theamount of time staff members in program schools

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spent handling conflicts was reduced, as was thenumber of violent incidents among students.10

♦ The International Center for Cooperation andConflict Resolution at Columbia Teachers Col-lege in New York initiated a conflict resolutionresearch project at a New York City alternativehigh school. Results from the program indicatedpositive effects on the students trained in conflictresolution. These students improved their abilityto manage conflicts while experiencing more so-cial support and less victimization from othersthan before. Improving relations with others ledto increased self-esteem, more positive feelingsof well-being, and decreased feelings of anxietyand depression. Along with more self-esteem,students perceived themselves as having greaterpersonal control over their fates. The increasedsense of personal control and positive feelingsof well-being led to improved academic perfor-mance. Indirect evidence suggested that exposureto the training also enhanced work readiness andperformance.11

♦ The Harvard Graduate School of Education issystematically evaluating the impact of the Pro-gram for Young Negotiators (PYN). Preliminaryfindings from the evaluation team suggest thatthe majority of participating students are learningand using the basic techniques taught by the pro-gram. Most interviewed participants were ableto discuss in depth the importance of “talking itout” to avoid fights and accomplish goals. Theystated that the program taught them that theyhave options for dealing with conflicts with peers,parents, and teachers. Reports from parents andteachers confirmed that the youth did changetheir behavior and handled conflicts withoutresorting to violence. Participants also stated thatthe program taught them skills for how to getahead in life, such as making plans and learninghow to state what they want and what they reallymean. The majority also described the experienceas fun because it used games and role-plays. Thispoint is important, because the fun experiencekeeps students engaged in the training processand facilitates their recall of the basic messages.

Interviews revealed that most students could citeconcrete examples of using their negotiation skillswith peers and parents. Several students reportedthat the practice of negotiation at home surprisedtheir parents, but generally the parents respondedpositively to the switch from arguing, complain-ing, and resisting to negotiating. Parents havereported that the use of negotiation has createdopportunities for positive parent-child discussions.

Teachers who taught the curriculum evaluatedthe training as useful to their work both in thePYN and in their other classes. They reportedthat the curriculum content and structure—particularly the role-plays and negotiationgames—promoted important discussion of topicssuch as decisionmaking, planning for the future,and conflict resolution. The teachers also reportedseeing changes in the communication and con-flict resolution styles of many of the studentsparticipating in the program. The benefits citedby the six principals interviewed included animprovement in the students’ ability to talkthrough disagreements and an opportunity forteachers to think through their own conflictmanagement style.12

♦ In 1991, the Peace Education Foundation (PEF)Conflict Resolution and Peer Mediation programswere initiated throughout the region II publicschools in Dade County, Florida. School staffwere trained to establish classroom-based andschoolwide student mediation programs and toincorporate conflict resolution instruction intoschool curriculums.

A review of mediator reports showed that 86 per-cent of mediated conflicts were resolved. StudentCase Management Systems, a system used toreport incidents, showed a significant reductionin the rate of referrals for general disruptive be-havior in the elementary schools that had thehighest levels of implementation. Furthermore,the PEF conflict resolution model affected studentattitudes toward resolving conflicts positively.Student surveys indicated that those who re-ceived training were more willing to resolveconflict situations through actions other thanthreats and violence.13

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In 1994, staff teams from seven alternative andtwo middle schools with a high percentage of at-risk students received training in the PEF Con-flict Resolution model. Postintervention surveysshowed that students significantly changed theirattitudes toward conflict after learning the PEFmodel. Students were more inclined to explain,reason, compromise, or share in an effort to resolvetheir conflicts. Students were less likely to involveauthority figures or to use aggression and threatswhen resolving conflicts. Additional surveys indi-cated that teachers felt more respected and lessfrustrated after the implementation of the PEFmodel.14

♦ Evaluations of a conflict resolution initiative inthe Palm Beach County school district showed aconsiderable reduction in student referrals andsuspensions. For example, after the Safe SchoolCenter initiated a conflict resolution programusing the PEF curriculum at Spady ElementarySchool, the number of referrals at the schooldropped from 124 between September and De-cember 1992 to 5 during the same period in 1994.

Between January and June 1995, the SafeSchool Center sponsored 49 Fighting Fair forFamilies workshops throughout the Palm BeachCounty school district. Parents who attended oneof these workshops, which used PEF materials,noticed favorable results. In a 2-month followupsurvey of 163 participants, 79 percent reportedimproving how conflicts were handled at home,76 percent reported improving how feelings weretreated at home, and 70 percent reported improv-ing how people listened to each other at home.In addition, 80 percent still displayed the Rulesfor Fighting Fair poster in their homes.15

♦ During the 1992–1993 school year, a middleschool with an enrollment of more than 700students in Orange County, North Carolina,initiated a conflict resolution program that in-cluded a combination of components from var-ious conflict resolution projects. Nine teachersand 391 sixth-grade students were taught aboutconflict resolution through lectures, discussiongroups, and role-playing. The students were

taught about individuality, anger, and power.The project also taught the students the PEFRules for Fighting Fair from the same FightingFair curriculum used in the Florida study describedabove. Twenty-six students were selected by theirpeers to be trained in peer mediation. After four4-hour training sessions, the peer mediators pro-vided mediation when needed. Mediation sessionslasted up to 1 hour and took place in a counselor’soffice or a conference room. Adults were nearbyif requested.

The outcomes of this conflict resolution projectwere significant. The sixth-grade students’ behav-ior patterns exhibited a marked change from the1991–1992 school year to the 1992–1993 schoolyear. Disciplinary referrals to the principal’s officedropped from 150 to 27 (82 percent), in-schoolsuspensions decreased from 52 to 30 (42 percent),and out-of-school suspensions decreased from 40to 1 (97 percent). The reduced number of disci-plinary actions suggests that the conflict resolu-tion project had a beneficial effect, but it is notclear whether the 1991–1992 school year wasatypical with regard to behavior problems, and itis not known whether the decreases representedspecific disciplinary actions or all kinds of actions.Nevertheless, the reductions are impressive.16

♦ The Mediation Project of the Public Justice De-partment of St. Mary’s University in San Anto-nio, Texas, has provided middle and high schoolstudents with conflict resolution training througha school-university-community project. Prelimi-nary studies of the first schools trained have shownsignificant reductions in disciplinary problems andin student violence on school campuses. SmithsonValley Middle School recorded a 57-percent de-crease in disciplinary actions during the first yearof its peer-based mediation program.17

♦ Through the Lawyers Adopt-a-School Programof the American Bar Association, Section ofDispute Resolution, lawyers have successfullyadopted several schools in Montgomery County,Maryland: Bradley Hills Elementary School,Springbrook High School, Francis Scott KeyMiddle School, and White Oak Middle School.

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After 1 year of operation, the program reportedthe following middle school results: office refer-rals were reduced from 384 to 67, suspensionsfor disruptive behavior were reduced from 54to 14, and fights were reduced from 52 to 9. Thedisputes were usually mediated during lunchbreak, with the average mediation lasting 22minutes. As a result of the program’s success,the Lawyers Adopt-a-School Program is beingreplicated in sites across the country.18

Further research and evaluation of conflict resolu-tion education programs are needed for comprehen-sive identification of the strengths and weaknessesof program elements and strategies. Research shouldaddress cultural issues and developmentally appro-priate practices for conflict resolution education.The body of research on conflict resolution educa-tion is expected to grow along these lines. This typeof information will be invaluable to program admin-istrators and practitioners. The findings will helpstrengthen the adoption and implementation of con-flict resolution education and foster sustained sup-port in schools, youth-serving organizations, andcommunity and juvenile justice settings. In addition,data from future studies may illuminate lessonslearned from successful use of conflict resolutionskills by young people in all aspects of their lives.

Implications of Research on RiskFactors and ResilienceResearch on social development indirectly supportsthe value of conflict resolution education, particu-larly for at-risk youth. Some youth whose socialand economic circumstances place them at riskfor violent or self-destructive behavior are ableto avoid outcomes such as dropping out of school,using drugs, getting pregnant, or participating ingang activities. These youth have been identifiedas possessing “resilience” derived from factors suchas a sense of belonging, the ability to communicateeffectively, flexibility, and good problem-solvingskills. Resilience has been defined as “the abilityto overcome the effects of [a] high-risk environ-ment and to develop social competence despiteexposure to severe stress.”19 Resilient youth are

“Mom, can I tell you something? I’m worried.All of the boys I grew up with are dead. I lieawake at night and think about it. What amI supposed to do?” The question was froma thirteen-year-old boy in New Orleans andcaused his mother to realize that, of a groupof six-year-olds who started school togetherseven years earlier, only her son was stillliving. All the others had met violent deaths.20

Risk Factors for Violent and AntisocialBehaviorIn their work on social development, Catalanoand Hawkins have identified four major categoriesof risk factors that consistently predict delinquentor antisocial behavior among youth. Figure 6 liststhese risk factors identified in longitudinal studiesas predictors of health and behavior problems. Thespecific problems predicted by each risk factor arechecked in the figure.21

Although the presence of these risk factors doesnot guarantee violent or antisocial behavior in thefuture, it increases the probability of such behavior.Awareness of risk factors can alert teachers, coun-selors, and others to the need for early intervention.For example, bullying is an early indicator of life-long antisocial problems, so intervening at the pre-school and early elementary school levels is a logicalstep to help prevent these outcomes.

Protective FactorsProtective factors are conditions or influences thatmitigate risk factors and promote resilience. Onthe basis of the evidence concerning protective fac-tors, Hawkins, Doucek, and Lishner have formu-lated a theory of social development that identifies

able to overcome risk factors such as inadequatebonding or caring, low expectations, a negativeschool climate, academic failure, and economic orsocial deprivation. Table 3 lists the characteristicsfound in resilient children.

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bonding—the feeling of being connected to others—as the overarching protective factor in the develop-ment of healthy behavior. Early in life, resilientchildren often establish positive adult and peer re-lationships that bond them to family, school, andcommunity. Hawkins and colleagues outline threeprotective processes necessary for the development ofstrong bonds: opportunities, skills, and recognition.22

♦ Opportunities. Children must have the oppor-tunity to contribute to their family, school, andcommunity. The goal is to provide children withmeaningful, challenging, developmentally ap-propriate opportunities that help them feel re-sponsible and significant. Research shows thatbonding to school occurs when instructional meth-ods emphasize proactive classroom management,interactive teaching, and cooperative learning.

♦ Skills. Students need opportunities to learn thecognitive and social skills that are necessary tosolve problems and interact with others. If theylack the appropriate skills, children will experi-ence frustration and failure and their opportuni-ties to bond will be limited.

♦ Recognition. Children feel potent and powerfulwhen their contributions are valued by their peers,

teachers, and families. Children must be recognizedfor their capabilities and for their participation.

The Relation Between Resilience andConflict ResolutionThe relation between resilience and conflict resolu-tion is clear and significant. The characteristics ofresilience listed in table 3 are essentially the sameas the foundation abilities of conflict resolution(orientation, perception, emotion, communication,and creative and critical thinking).23 In developing aconflict resolution education program, a school cre-ates an environment that fosters the development ofresilience in children in three ways. First, resolvingconflicts in principled ways promotes and preservesrelationships, thereby facilitating the bonding thatis essential to the development of resilience. Second,conflict resolution education develops resilience byshowing youth that they can control their behaviorby making choices that satisfy their needs. Finally,in offering youth the opportunity to resolve conflictspeacefully, conflict resolution education sends anempowering message of trust and perceived cap-ability in which the characteristics of resiliencecan thrive.

Table 3: Characteristics of Resilient Children

Social Competence

♦ Responsiveness to others.

♦ Conceptual and intellectualflexibility.

♦ Caring for others.

♦ Good communication skills.

♦ Sense of humor.

Problem-Solving Skills

♦ Ability to apply abstractthinking.

♦ Ability to engage in reflectivethought.

♦ Critical reasoning skills.

♦ Ability to develop alternativesolutions in frustratingsituations.

Sense of Autonomy

♦ Positive sense of independence.

♦ Emerging feelings of efficacy.

♦ High self-esteem.

♦ Impulse control.

♦ Planning and goal setting.

♦ Belief in the future.

Source: Benard, B. 1993 (November). “Fostering Resiliency in Kids.” Educational Leadership, pp. 44–48. Reprinted withpermission of the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

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Adolescent Problem Behaviors

Risk Factor

Community

Availability of drugs ✔

Availability of firearms ✔ ✔

Community laws and norms favorable toward drug use, ✔ ✔ ✔firearms, and crime

Media portrayals of violence ✔

Transitions and mobility ✔ ✔ ✔

Low neighborhood attachment and community organization ✔ ✔ ✔

Extreme economic deprivation ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Family

Family history of the problem behavior ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Family management problems ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Family conflict ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Favorable parental attitudes and involvement in the problem behavior ✔ ✔ ✔

School

Early and persistent antisocial behavior ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Academic failure beginning in elementary school ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Lack of commitment to school ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Individual/Peer

Rebelliousness ✔ ✔ ✔

Friends who engage in the problem behavior ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Favorable attitudes toward the problem behavior ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Early initiation of the problem behavior ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Constitutional factors ✔ ✔ ✔

Figure 6: Risk Factors for Health and Behavior Problems

Source: Catalano, R., and J.D. Hawkins. 1995. Communities That Care: Risk-Focused Prevention Using the Social Develop-ment Strategy. Seattle, WA: Developmental Research and Programs, Inc., p. 10. Reprinted with the permission of the authorsand of Developmental Research and Programs, Inc.

Sub

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Del

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Teen

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Pre

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Sch

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Vio

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Notes1. Hechinger, F. 1994. “Saving Youth From Violence.”Carnegie Quarterly 39(1):7.

2. DeCecco, J., and A. Richards. 1974. Growing Pains:Uses of School Conflict. New York, NY: Aberdeen Press.

3. Johnson, D., and R. Johnson. 1995. “Teaching Stu-dents To Be Peacemakers: Results of Five Years ofResearch.” Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology1(4):417–438. See also Johnson, D., and R. Johnson.1995. Teaching Students To Be Peacemakers. 3d edition.Edina, MN: Interaction Book Company.

4. Ohio Commission on Dispute Resolution and ConflictManagement. 1994. Conflict Management in Schools: SowingSeeds for a Safer Society. Columbus, OH: Ohio Commissionon Dispute Resolution and Conflict Management, p. 11.

5. Carpenter, J. 1993, 1994. Clark County Social ServiceSchool Mediation Program Evaluation Reports. Clark County,NV: Clark County Social Service.

6. Tolsen, E.R., S. McDonald, and A. Moriarty. 1990.Peer Mediation Among High School Students: A Test of Effec-tiveness. Chicago, IL: Center for Urban Research andDevelopment, University of Illinois.

7. Resolving Conflict Creatively Program: 1988–89 Summaryof Significant Findings. 1990 (May). New York, NY: MetisAssociates, Inc.

8. Lam, J. 1989. The Impact of Conflict Resolution Programson Schools: A Review and Synthesis of the Evidence. 2d edition.Amherst, MA: National Association for Mediation inEducation.

9. Smith, M. 1996. “Strategies to Reduce School Vio-lence: The New Mexico Center for Dispute Resolution.”In A.M. Hoffman (ed.), Schools, Violence, and Society.Westport, CT: Praeger, p. 256.

10. Carter, S. 1994. Evaluation Report for the New MexicoCenter for Dispute Resolution: Mediation in the Schools Program,1993–1994 School Year. Albuquerque, NM: New MexicoCenter for Dispute Resolution.

11. Deutsch, M., V. Mitchell, Q. Zhang, N. Khattri,L. Tepavac, E.A. Weitzman, and R. Lynch. 1992. TheEffects of Training in Cooperative Learning and ConflictResolution in an Alternative High School. New York, NY:Columbia University.

12. Nakkula, M., and C. Nikitopoulos. 1996 (May).Preliminary Evaluation Findings for the Fall 1995 Implemen-tation of the Program for Young Negotiators. Harvard Uni-versity Graduate School of Education, Cambridge, MA.

Photocopy. Note: The findings in this report are extractedfrom a longer evaluation document that is updated monthlyand is available from the Program for Young Negotiators(see appendix A for contact information).

13. Hanson, M.K. 1994 (Fall). “A Conflict Resolution/Student Mediation Program: Effects on Student Attitudesand Behaviors.” ERS Spectrum 12(4):9–14.

14. Hanson, M.K. 1995 (September). Conflict ResolutionTraining at Selected Middle and Alternative Schools,1994–1995, Dade County Public Schools, Office ofEducational Accountability (personal communication).

15. Lewis, R. 1996 (May). Results from a telephone sur-vey conducted by the Safe School Center, 330 ForrestHill Boulevard, Suite B–121, West Palm Beach, FL33406 (personal communication).

16. Powell, K.M., L. Muir-McClain, and L. Halasyamani.1995. “A Review of Selected School-Based Conflict Re-solution and Peer Mediation Projects.” Journal of SchoolHealth 65(10):426–431.

17. Leal, R. 1993 (August). “The Next Generation ofCampus Mediation Programs.” Paper presented at theregional meeting of the Society of Professionals in Dis-pute Resolution, San Antonio, Texas. See also Leal, R.,P. Hollis, and D. Cole. 1996 (April). “A CollaborativeSchool-University Mediation Program.” Paper presentedat the Second Annual Alternatives to Violence Confer-ence, Sam Houston University, Galveston, Texas.

18. Dabson, J. 1994. “Internal Report: Youth At Risk.”Washington, D.C.: American Bar Association, Sectionof Dispute Resolution, p. 3.

19. Wright, N.D. 1994. From Risk to Resilience: The Roleof Law-Related Education. Chicago, IL: American BarAssociation, p. 2.

20. Hechinger, p. 1.

21. Catalano, R., and J.D. Hawkins. 1995. CommunitiesThat Care: Risk-Focused Prevention Using the Social Develop-ment Strategy. Seattle, WA: Developmental Researchand Programs, Inc., p. 10.

22. Hawkins, J.D., H. Doucek, and D. Lishner. 1988(Spring). “Changing Teaching Practices in MainstreamClassrooms To Improve Bonding and Behavior of LowAchievers.” American Research Journal 25(1):31–50.

23. Bodine, R., and D. Crawford. In press. DevelopingEmotional Intelligence Through Classroom Management: Creat-ing Responsible Learners in Our Schools and Effective Citizensfor Our World. Champaign, IL: Research Press, Inc.

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Chapter 9: DevelopmentallyAppropriate Practice

This chapter presents a developmental sequenceof behavioral expectations associated with the foun-dation abilities and practice of conflict resolution.The expectations are reasonable for the generalage groupings if learning opportunities and amplepractice have been provided. This developmentalsequence (tables 4 and 5) is based on an examina-tion of the literature in the field of conflict resolutionand an examination of school practices that offerconflict resolution training to students. It is intendedto provide guideposts for developing proficiency inconflict resolution. It is not intended to cover everyaspect of conflict resolution.

As with any educational program, the outcome of aconflict resolution program will be optimal when itis designed to meet the specific needs of the studentsenrolled in it. Best practice suggests that to developthe proficiency expected at any given age level, stu-dents must already have developed the proficiencyexpected at all the preceding age levels. Studentscannot be expected to use behaviors they have notyet been taught. For example, if a conflict resolutionprogram is initiated for high school students, that pro-gram must address more than just the developmentalsequence targeted to high school students. Because allstudents cannot be presumed to have developed profi-ciency in the foundation abilities and problem-solvingprocesses of conflict resolution, the program must pro-vide them with age-appropriate opportunities to learnand demonstrate the proficiencies that appear in thesequence for all prior age levels. The developmentalcontinuum in tables 4 and 5 suggests what to assessto determine a youth’s proficiency level.

Finally, any definitive developmental sequencingshould be subordinate to consideration of the individ-ual. Although every individual experiences conflict,each individual enters and exits conflicts differently.

Age-Appropriate InstructionIf conflict resolution is to be taught successfully, thecurriculum and program must include practice bothin building the foundation abilities and in using theproblem-solving processes. First, students need tolearn the intellectual framework for conflict resolu-tion and to develop the tools to think systematicallyabout conflict. They must then be given the oppor-tunity to practice these skills in a real-life context.The emphasis must be on practice. To complete thetransition from learning about the processes of con-flict resolution to using those processes in actualsituations, the processes must be “overlearned.” Suf-ficient and diverse age-appropriate activities thatgive students the opportunity for practice, evalua-tion, and further practice are crucial to the successof any conflict resolution program.

The following learning tools and activities aresuggested for use at each developmental level:

♦ Early childhood education (kindergartenthrough grade 2): Using stories, role-plays,games that promote cooperation, classroomprojects, field trips involving the greatercommunity, activity cards, posters, puppets,skits, demonstrations, and activities thatencourage interaction with older children.

The test of a first-rate intelligence is theability to hold two opposed ideas in themind at the same time, and still retain theability to function.

F. Scott Fitzgerald

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♦ Elementary school (grades 3–5): Integratingproblem-solving analysis into the standard cur-riculum and using role-plays, classroom projectsand class meetings, school-based peer mediationprograms, videos, games, school assemblies, class-room demonstrations, and student presentationsto parent and community groups.

♦ Middle school (grades 6–8): Teaching studentsto train younger students in the problem-solvingstrategies of conflict resolution by helping themto negotiate or by facilitating consensus decision-making sessions, integrating conflict resolutioninto the regular school curriculum, holding schoolassembly demonstrations, having students createrole-play exercises, having students perform in-formational demonstrations or skits for the par-ents and community, and having students provideactual conflict resolution services to communityorganizations.

♦ High school (grades 9–12): Establishing peermediation programs; teaching students to trainother students as peer mediators; holding school

assemblies and demonstrations; creating role-play exercises; producing videos; having studentsand school professionals provide conflict resolu-tion training to the community; letting studentsassist schools with the development of conflictresolution programs for younger children; havingstudents serve as mediators or facilitators forcommunity programs for younger children, seniorcitizens, and other community-based groups; andhaving students serve as mediators in local schooland community disputes. In the departmentalframework of most secondary schools, conflictresolution education can be offered as a specificcourse in the general curriculum, integrated intoother courses, or organized as a special instruction-al unit within appropriate subject matter courses.

In summary, the developmental sequence presentedin tables 4 and 5 is valid for educating youth, regard-less of the setting. If the youth has not developed theproficiency expected of someone younger, that pro-ficiency must be developed through age-appropriateinstruction and activities.

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♦ Understands that havingconflicts is natural andknows that involvementin conflicts is all right.

♦ Knows that conflictscan be solved throughcooperation.

♦ Views peace as a desiredcondition and identifiesseveral peacemaking andpeacebreaking behaviors.

♦ Differentiates betweenprejudice and a dislike.

O r i e n t a t i o n A b i l i t i e s

Table 4: Age-Appropriate Sequence for Acquiring theFoundation Abilities of Conflict Resolution

Early Childhood to Grade 2 Grades 3–5 Grades 6–8 Grades 9–12

♦ Recognizes that the sourcesof conflict and the problem-solving processes of conflictresolution are applicableto all types of conflicts—interpersonal, intergroup,and international.

♦ Diagnoses conflicts appro-priately and selects conflictresolution strategies forconflicts in various settings(such as school, home, andneighborhood).

♦ Exhibits effective responsesto another person who, ina shared conflict, choosesa soft or hard response.

♦ Takes action to inform whenprejudice is displayed.

♦ Suggests a peacemakingaction as an alternative toa displayed peacebreakingaction.

♦ Maintains various goodworking relationships withparents, family, siblings,boyfriends, girlfriends,teachers, and bosses.

♦ Analyzes conflict in thecontext of a present relation-ship and uses an appropriateproblem-solving strategy.

♦ Recognizes patterns in hisor her responses to conflictand strives for positivegrowth and change in thosepatterns.

♦ Understands that conflictresolution skills are lifeskills.

♦ Confronts prejudice effec-tively in self and othersand in the school as aninstitution.

♦ Promotes equal access andopportunity on many fronts.

♦ Seeks diverse and multi-cultural experiences andrelationships.

♦ Works actively to promotepeace in the school and inthe community.

♦ Understands that conflict isinevitable and that it can bea positive force for growth.

♦ Understands that conflictscan become better or worse,depending on the chosenresponse.

♦ Understands and recognizessoft, hard, and principledresponses to conflicts.

♦ Participates in cooperativeendeavors.

♦ Recognizes prejudice in selfand in the actions of others.

♦ Understands own behaviorin terms of the need forbelonging, power, freedom,and fun.

♦ Understands peace as apersonal action and dif-ferentiates between peace-making and peacebreakingbehaviors in self and others.

P e r c e p t i o n A b i l i t i e s

♦ Critically analyzes ownperceptions and modifiesunderstanding as newinformation emerges.

♦ Articulates how own words,actions, and emotions areperceived by others.

♦ Analyzes how perceptionsof others relate to probableintent or purpose.

♦ Understands how problem-solving strategies can beinfluenced and regularlychooses to exercise positiveinfluence.

♦ Prevents escalation ofconflicts, even with adults.

♦ Helps others recognizethe potential for violenceand for nonviolent conflictresolution.

♦ Recognizes the limitationsof own perceptions andunderstands that selectivefilters affect seeing andhearing.

♦ Identifies and checksassumptions that selfand others make about asituation.

♦ Possesses a rudimentaryunderstanding of howproblem-solving strategiescan be influenced.

♦ Recognizes the prevalenceand glamorization of vio-lence in society.

♦ Recognizes that conflictscan escalate into violence.

♦ Identifies and checksown assumptions abouta situation.

♦ Understands how othersperceive words and actions.

♦ Empathizes and acceptsthe feelings and perceptionsof others.

♦ Analyzes a conflict fromthe perspective of unmetbasic psychological needs.

♦ Understands friendshipsand good working relation-ships and strives to buildand maintain them.

♦ Understands the effectsof blaming and accusingbehaviors and choosesnot to act in that manner.

♦ Accepts that he or she is notalways “right.”

♦ Accepts that others may seethings differently.

♦ Describes a conflict fromown perspective and fromthe perspective of others.

♦ Withholds blame.

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Table 4: Age-Appropriate Sequence for Acquiring theFoundation Abilities of Conflict Resolution (continued)

E m o t i o n A b i l i t i e s

♦ Knows that feeling anger,frustration, and fear is allright.

♦ Controls anger.

♦ Expresses feelings in lan-guage that expands beyondhappy, sad, glad, or mad.

♦ Hears and acknowledgesthe feelings of others.

♦ Does not react to emotionaloutbursts of others byelevating own emotionalresponse.

♦ Understands own emotions.

♦ Understands that othershave emotional responsesand that those responsesmay be different from hisor her own.

♦ Expresses emotions effec-tively and appropriately.

♦ Disagrees without beingdisagreeable.

♦ Takes responsibility foremotions.

♦ Accepts and validatesemotions and perceptionsof others.

♦ Possesses effective strategiesfor “cool down” and usesthem at appropriate times.

♦ Remains calm and focusedon problem solving whenconfronted by a strongemotional display fromanother person, includingan adult.

♦ Prevents conflict escalationand violence effectively byusing communication-basedconflict resolution strategies.

C r e a t i v e T h i n k i n g A b i l i t i e s

♦ Describes what is wantedand why it is wanted.

♦ Generates ideas for solvinga problem.

♦ Improves a simple idea.

♦ Distinguishes betweenpositions and interests.

♦ Identifies interestsbeyond own position inany situation.

♦ Separates inventing optionsfrom making decisions.

♦ Identifies mutual andcompatible interests andcreates behavioral optionsto satisfy those interests.

♦ Understands that under-lying interests, not positions,define the problem in con-flict situations.

♦ Understands that multiple,unclear, or conflictinginterests often coexist.

♦ Understands and usesanalytical tools to diagnoseproblems.

♦ Uses problem solvingfor conflicting as well ascommon or compatibleinterests.

♦ Evaluates and reconcilespositions and interests ofself and others in mostsituations.

♦ Prioritizes interests anddevelops a strategy forworking toward agreement,focusing on easier issuesfirst (those of mutual con-cern) and more difficultissues last (those of con-flicting concerns).

♦ Articulates mutual interestsand reconciles conflictinginterests.

♦ Switches perspectives togenerate new options.

♦ Manages brainstormingeffectively, separatesinventing from deciding,and advocates optionsfor mutual gain.

♦ Brainstorms multipleoptions in any situation,improving, refining,embellishing, and expand-ing on current options.

♦ Uses analytical tools todiagnose problems, devel-op new approaches, andevaluate those approaches.

Early Childhood to Grade 2 Grades 3–5 Grades 6–8 Grades 9–12

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C o m m u n i c a t i o n A b i l i t i e s

♦ Listens without interrup-tion while another persondescribes an incident andsummarizes what thatperson has said.

♦ Describes an incidentintelligibly using “I”statements.

♦ Uses questions such as“How did that make youfeel?” and “What happenednext?”

♦ Answers questions about aconflict.

♦ Uses a conflict resolutionvocabulary (such as“interests,” “options,”“brainstorm,” “negotiate,”and “point of view”).

♦ Summarizes the facts andfeelings of another person’sperspective.

♦ Asks specific, clarifyingquestions to gather moreinformation.

♦ Uses appropriate problem-solving phraseology (e.g.,“and” rather than “but”and “we” instead of “me”or “you”).

♦ Makes “I” statements ratherthan “you” statements whenexpressing perspective.

♦ Recognizes nonverbalcommunication by selfand by others, especiallycommunication related tofeelings.

♦ Communicates desirefor cooperative workingrelationships.

♦ Uses summarizing andclarifying to defuse angerand deescalate conflict.

♦ Withholds judgment andlistens to persuasivediscussions.

♦ Is productively persuasive.

♦ Tests understanding, listensto understand, and speaksto be understood.

♦ Reframes own statementsusing unbiased and lessinflammatory language.

♦ Summarizes positions andinterests of others in conflictsituations efficiently andaccurately.

♦ Acknowledges the validityof emotions and perspec-tives of others.

♦ Reframes statements ofothers, removing biasedor inflammatory messagesto capture the underlyingmeaning.

♦ Expresses interestsexplicitly.

♦ Uses clarifying questionsto uncover hidden interestsof others.

♦ Possesses a conflict reso-lution vocabulary (e.g.,“position,” “interests,”“options,” “alternatives,”“consensus,” “commit-ment,” “legitimacy,” and“brainstorm”) and usesit appropriately.

Table 4: Age-Appropriate Sequence for Acquiring theFoundation Abilities of Conflict Resolution (continued)

Early Childhood to Grade 2 Grades 3–5 Grades 6–8 Grades 9–12

♦ Chooses from multiple ideas.

♦ Understands when some-thing is fair to self and fairto another person.

♦ Explains why something isnot fair.

♦ Expresses a realistic andworkable plan for resolvinga conflict.

♦ Understands the meaningof committing to a plan andbeing trustworthy.

♦ Evaluates realistically therisks and consequences of“flight or fight” in conflict.

♦ Identifies best self-helpalternative in a conflictsituation.

♦ Chooses to work towardmutual fairness in resolvinga dispute rather than toaccomplish self-imposedwill.

♦ Evaluates interests of selfand others according tofairness standards.

♦ Crafts win-win resolutions.

♦ Specifies clear agreementby stating who, what, when,and how.

♦ Challenges assumptionsabout what is possible.

♦ Thinks about short- andlong-term consequencesof proposed options.

♦ Negotiates withoutconceding.

♦ Identifies outside standardsand criteria for fairness(such as legal standardsand school rules) whenevaluating interests andsolutions.

♦ Recognizes the efficacy ofcommitting only to solutionsthat are fair, realistic, andworkable.

♦ Endeavors to fulfillcommitments.

♦ Uses problem-solvingprocesses when engagingin difficult conversations.

♦ Speculates as to bestalternatives to negotiatedagreement for self andothers.

♦ Analyzes ways to improvebest alternatives to nego-tiated agreement.

♦ Analyzes willingness andability of self and otherperson to honor a planof action in any situation.

♦ Identifies uncontrollablefactors that might impactthe ability of the partiesto fulfill an agreement.

♦ Identifies external stan-dards of fairness and usesthose to resolve conflicts.

♦ Honors commitments andencourages others to do thesame.

C r i t i c a l T h i n k i n g A b i l i t i e s

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N e g o t i a t i o n P r o c e s s

♦ Cooperates with a peer inunassisted problem solving—each cools off, tells whathappened, imagines waysto problem-solve, andchooses a solution.

♦ Participates in a negotiationsession coached by an adultor older child.

♦ Manages the negotiationprocess without assistance.

♦ Performs principlednegotiation with peersand adults.

♦ Involves a peer who haslittle or no conflict resolutiontraining in the negotiationprocess.

♦ Understands that nearlyevery interaction is anegotiation.

♦ Teaches younger studentsthe negotiation process.

♦ Negotiates with difficultparties effectively.

♦ Teaches negotiation processto peers and adults.

♦ Enjoys negotiation process.

M e d i a t i o n P r o c e s s

C o n s e n s u s D e c i s i o n m a k i n g P r o c e s s

♦ Participates in a mediationfacilitated by an adult orolder student mediator.

♦ Engages in group problem-solving discussions andprocesses facilitated bya teacher or other adult.

♦ Participates in the media-tion process facilitated byanother student or an adult.

♦ Serves as a peer mediatorin a classroom program ora schoolwide program.

♦ Participates in classroomsessions designed to re-solve group conflicts andproblems.

♦ Mediates disputes amongpeers.

♦ Co-mediates disputesbetween peers and adults.

♦ Coaches younger studentsand peers as they learn tomediate.

♦ Manages consensusproblem-solving sessionsfor classroom groups ofyounger students.

♦ Manages consensus deci-sionmaking in a smallgroup of peers (such asclassroom work group orstudent council committee).

♦ Mediates an array of dis-putes involving variousdisputants.

♦ Trains others in the medi-ation process.

♦ Manages consensusproblem solving in variousgroups.

♦ Facilitates consensus deci-sionmaking as a memberof a group.

Early Childhood to Grade 2 Grades 3–5 Grades 6–8 Grades 9–12

Table 5: Age-Appropriate Sequence for Acquiring theProblem-Solving Processes of Conflict Resolution

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Chapter 10: Establishing ConflictResolution Education Programs

Although there is no set formula for how to imple-ment conflict resolution programs in schools, youth-serving organizations, or community and juvenilejustice settings, most successful programs begin withan extensive needs assessment and planning process.This chapter will use the school setting as an ex-ample of developing and implementing a conflictresolution education program, but this informationis transferable to settings in youth-serving organi-zations, community programs, and juvenile justicefacilities.

To develop, implement, and sustain a successfulconflict resolution program, participants mustembrace the belief that conflicts can be resolvedpeacefully. Many adults in schools and other youth-serving settings are familiar with and most comfort-able using conflict resolution that is grounded inmethods such as the exercise of adult authority,reliance on school rules, discipline hearings, andother administrative procedures. Moving fromthese methods to one that encourages people totalk about their interests and needs and to workcollaboratively to come up with solutions requiresa major paradigm shift.

It is important to realize that students’ success indeveloping an awareness of the positive potentialof conflict resolution is an outgrowth of the endeav-ors and commitment exhibited by the adults in theschool to approach conflict in a positive way. Educa-tors who bring positive ways of resolving conflictinto their classrooms will see results that will havea powerful effect on their own lives and work aswell as on the lives and work of their students andon the communities in which they live.

A successful conflict resolution education program isthe product of a continuous process that begins byorganizing a planning team with broad representation

of the school community, including parents, teach-ers, administrators, and community representatives.Many schools will be able to use the school advisorycommittees or site-based councils that are alreadyin place as a planning team. The planning team isresponsible for conducting a needs assessment andfor facilitating the process of planning the imple-mentation of the program. An example of a processfor planning is provided in appendix H.

Analyzing School Conflict: NeedsAssessmentA needs assessment is critical to establishing a con-flict resolution education program that moves be-yond the efforts of individual staff toward a unitedeffort of the entire school community. The assess-ment surveys teachers, students, parents, and ad-ministrators to determine the nature of conflict inthe school and how conflict is addressed. Supportfor the introduction of any new program into aschool depends to a large extent on:

♦ The degree to which the school staff see that theprogram addresses current needs.

♦ The degree to which the program is incorporatedinto existing school improvement plans and ex-tends or embellishes the school mission.

Many minor arguments become deadlyconfrontations because many young peopleonly know how to use violence to solvetheir problems. Conflict resolution educationshows them another way.

Attorney General Janet Reno1

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Often schools combine various curriculums or por-tions of curriculums to create their own programs.

Implementing Conflict ResolutionEducationThere are many ways to introduce conflict resolu-tion education. Students tend to learn to resolveconflicts best through experiential learning activitiesincorporated into specific curriculum areas (Englishor social studies, for example) and through seeingadults model conflict resolution successfully. Anindividual classroom teacher can provide conflictresolution training for the students of that classroomthrough a process curriculum or a peaceable class-room approach. Several staff can develop and im-plement a schoolwide peer mediation program. Allstaff members can agree to implement one of theproblem-solving strategies of conflict resolution—perhaps negotiation or consensus decisionmaking—in every classroom of the school. The entire schoolcommunity can decide to commit to the long-termdevelopment of a peaceable school, with the com-mitment eventually reaching beyond the school tothe creation of peaceable homes and a peaceablecommunity.

A high school can decide that all ninth grade studentswill be taught conflict resolution skills over a 10-weekperiod. English teachers can integrate conflict resolu-tion into their curriculum during one class per weekand then expand the weekly lesson into their otherlessons during the week. School counselors and ad-ministrators often co-teach with the classroom teacherto provide mutual support for the teaching of conflictresolution skills and strategies.

Selecting Staff DevelopmentProviders/TrainersRegardless of which program or curriculum is cho-sen, it is important to select staff development pro-viders carefully. Quality trainers are experiencedin resolving conflicts in schools and in implementingprograms in schools. The forms in appendix G canhelp school personnel to assess the offerings and

Figure 7 presents a sample of a needs assessmentquestionnaire. These questions are intended to helpthe planning team think about the kind of informa-tion needed to develop an action plan for establish-ing a conflict resolution program. A sample conflictresolution survey is presented in figure 8. A needsassessment form is provided in appendix E.

Selecting Conflict ResolutionEducation Programs/CurriculumsOnce the goals and desired outcomes are clearly iden-tified, the planning team is ready to explore variousprograms and curriculums that could be implementedto achieve the outcomes. Many program and curric-ulum resources are available (see appendix B for arepresentative list). A form to help school personneldetermine whether a conflict resolution program orcurriculum meets the criteria set forth in this Guideand how well it matches the needs and resources ofthe school is provided in appendix F. Specifically, theform facilitates assessment of:

♦ The extent to which the concept of conflictresolution is advanced.

♦ The extent to which the foundation abilities forconflict resolution are developed.

♦ The extent to which the fundamental principlesof conflict resolution are incorporated into thecurriculum.

♦ The extent to which problem-solving strategiesare used and modeled by adults.

♦ The kinds of learning strategies that deliver theconflict resolution program to students.

♦ The various implementation components ofconflict resolution.

In addition to a written assessment, it may be help-ful to talk with individuals who have used the pro-grams and curriculums being considered. Askingquestions about what has worked, what has notworked, and why can provide information that willfocus the selection process. Also, materials should bepreviewed to be sure that they are age appropriate.

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Figure 7: Sample Needs Assessment Questionnaire

♦ To what extent are conflicts interfering with teaching and learning processes within the school?

♦ What percentage of conflicts is attributable to:The competitive atmosphere of the school or classroom?An intolerant atmosphere in the school or classroom?Poor communication?Inappropriate expression of emotion?Lack of conflict resolution skills?Adult misuse of authority in the school or classroom?

♦ To what extent are diversity issues manifested as conflicts in the school community?

♦ To what extent is representation in decisionmaking an issue manifested in the conflicts observedin the school?

♦ What percentage of the conflicts arising in the school is:Between students?Between teachers and students?Between teachers?Between students and school expectations, rules, or policies?Between teachers and administrators?Between school staff and parents?Between other groups specific to the school?

♦ What procedures are followed when conflicts cause disruption of teaching and learningprocesses? Who administers which procedures?

♦ Who are the sources of referrals to these procedures?

♦ How effective are these procedures according to the perceptions of students? parents?teachers? administrators? others?

♦ What existing attitudes or behavior will facilitate the implementation of a conflict resolutionprogram in the school? Who exhibits these?

♦ What existing attitudes or behavior will impede the implementation of a conflict resolutionprogram in the school? Who exhibits these?

♦ Which foundation skills for conflict resolution are now included in the school curriculum?When are they developed? Who provides the training in these skills? Which students receivethis training?

♦ Which staff members have training in conflict resolution? How many hours of training?

♦ What staff development opportunities in conflict resolution are available? What opportunitiesare desired?

♦ What present and future monetary resources are available to support implementation of aconflict resolution program?

♦ What conflict resolution processes currently exist within the school? Within the schoolcommunity?

♦ What community resources exist to assist the school in designing and implementing a conflictresolution program?

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competency of providers of conflict resolution train-ing and to determine how well they meet the train-ing needs the school has identified. Before contract-ing the services of a staff development provider, aschool should interview the provider and contactreferences to obtain information on the provider’sperformance in various school settings. Clearly,quality staff development programs include waysto build the capacity of the school to do its owntraining in the future.

Important Factors for SuccessfulImplementationBoth research findings and practitioner experiencesupport the idea that tailoring a program to a givensite strengthens the probability of its success. Pro-grams that are designed to address specific con-cerns, use existing resources, and build the capacityof staff are more likely to be sustained over time.

Figure 8: Sample Conflict Resolution Survey

Respond to the following statements by circling the number you believe to be most accurate.1 2 3 4 5Strongly StronglyDisagree Agree

1. There are conflicts interfering with the educational process within the school.1 2 3 4 5

2. There is an atmosphere of intolerance within the school.1 2 3 4 5

3. There is a lack of a process for dealing with conflicts within the school.1 2 3 4 5

4. Student-student conflicts are a problem within the school.1 2 3 4 5

5. Student-teacher conflicts are a problem within the school.1 2 3 4 5

6. Teacher-teacher conflicts are a problem within the school.1 2 3 4 5

7. The school does not have adequate procedures for handling conflicts within the school.1 2 3 4 5

8. Current procedures for conflict resolution are effective.1 2 3 4 5

9. The school would benefit from a conflict resolution program.1 2 3 4 5

10. Additional Comments:

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Pitfalls To Avoid

However, the commitment and support of theadministration, faculty, and parents appear to beuniversal success factors for conflict resolutioneducation programs.

Administrative Commitment and SupportEvery successful conflict resolution educationprogram enjoys leadership and support from boththe school’s and the school district’s administration.Administrators provide leadership and support forprograms in a variety of ways:

♦ Using staff meetings and parent meetings todiscuss programs and their benefits in relationto student/adult outcomes.

♦ Participating in training and staff developmentprograms.

♦ Leading staff meetings and problem-solvingsessions using conflict resolution processes.

♦ Recognizing program success during assemblies,schoolwide announcements, parent-teacher asso-ciation meetings, school board meetings, and onother occasions.

♦ Making use of effective conflict management andthe language of conflict resolution in the schooland on the playground.

♦ Teaching or co-teaching conflict resolutionlessons in the classroom.

Faculty Commitment and SupportWhen the faculty have little knowledge of the prin-ciples and the processes of conflict resolution, aconflict resolution program is not likely to be sus-tained. If faculty are not involved in training andprogram development, they are not likely to acceptresponsibility for achieving the program’s goals.Behind every successful program is a core of facultywho believe passionately in the value of having

Going Too FastEagerness to implement a program can leadto beginning without adequate discussion andpreparation. Successful programs develop fromcareful planning and training before implemen-tation is begun. Programs implemented withoutadequate preparation tend to be less successfuland to hinder the implementation of future pro-grams. People say, “We tried that one time but itdidn’t work, so let’s not try now.”

Going Without SupportPrograms usually fail when administrators andfaculty have no knowledge of or do not support“interest-based” conflict resolution approaches.Administrators and faculty who feel no responsi-bility for achieving the program’s goals will nothelp support the program.

Selecting the Wrong Program and TrainersFailure to match the program to the school’sparticular needs will result in problems. Suc-cessful implementation of a program at oneschool does not mean it will be the right pro-gram for every school. Selecting a trainer who isnot qualified or who will not build the school’straining capacity will also create future problemsin implementing and, more importantly, in sus-taining a program.

Failing To “Hang In There” for the Long HaulAbandoning a program when it gets difficultor seems to be in a logjam is a mistake. With somany other demands on teachers, counselors, andadministrators, it is tempting to stop some of themore time-consuming activities that are not spe-cifically academic in nature. However, true resultsfrom conflict resolution programs are seen onlyafter some time has elapsed.

Laura Otey, Administrator, K–12Austin Independent School District, Austin, Texas 2

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students and adults resolve their differences throughconflict resolution processes. These people are typi-cally the driving force of the program through theirenthusiasm, problem-solving skills, support for oth-ers in trying something new, and refusal to give up.

Successful programs involve the faculty in pro-gram planning and give them adequate initial andongoing training. Programs implemented withoutadequate planning and training are not usually sus-tainable. A shared vision among faculty is a funda-mental building block of program success. One wayto ensure faculty commitment is to involve them inprogram development through a strategic planningprocess. Appendix H provides a brief description ofthe essential components of a strategic plan.

Parent Involvement and SupportParents, like administrators and faculty, need tounderstand the programs that are being imple-mented in their children’s school. Their support isimportant to the success of those programs and canbe built through presentations at parent meetingsin the school and in the community. Presentations inwhich students demonstrate the conflict resolutionprocess provide an excellent forum for discussion.Parents can serve as volunteers helping to imple-ment the program or can attend conflict resolutiontraining designed especially for them. Involving par-ents extends conflict resolution beyond the classroom.

Program EvaluationAny program in schools today needs to establishperformance goals and to measure progress to-ward achieving those goals. An evaluation mustshow whether the program is reaching its goals(student and adult outcomes) and how it is enhanc-ing the learning process. Program evaluation alsoprovides valuable data for continuous improve-ment. Programs that are unable to report progress,outcomes, and impact rigorously are not likely tosurvive.

Implementing a conflict resolution program isan extremely complex process that demands con-siderable energy and time from the adults involved.The impact of conflict resolution programs occursover time. It is important to remember that conflictresolution education is not a “quick fix.” The initialtime invested eventually pays off in time gainedwhen students resolve their own problems withoutthe intervention of the adults in the school.

Notes1. Reno, J. 1996. “Attorney General Announces NewEffort To Prevent School Violence.” U.S. Departmentof Justice press release, May 29, 1996.

2. Otey, L. 1996 (May). Personal communication.

A–1

Appendix A: Contact Information

The first section of this appendix, “Conflict Resolu-tion Consultation and Training Resources,” suppliescontact information for a number of organizationsthat provide national leadership in the field of con-flict resolution education through their efforts topromote, develop, implement, and institutionalizeconflict resolution education programs. This list isnot intended to be comprehensive.

The second section of the appendix, “Programs Citedin This Guide,” provides contact information for thecommunity programs described in chapter 7. Com-munity mediation centers are an excellent initialresource for information about local programs onconflict resolution education.

Conflict Resolution Consultationand Training ResourcesAmerican Bar AssociationSection of Dispute Resolution740 15th Street NW., Ninth FloorWashington, DC 20005202–662–1680202–662–1032 (fax)

Anti-Defamation LeagueA World of Difference Program823 United Nations PlazaNew York, NY 10017212–885–7810212–490–0187 (fax)

Children’s Creative Response to ConflictP.O. Box 271Nyack, NY 10960914–353–1796914–358–4924 (fax)

Community Board Program, Inc.Conflict Resolution Resources for Schools and Youth1540 Market Street, Suite 490San Francisco, CA 94102415–552–1250415–626–0595 (fax)

Conflict Resolution and CooperativeLearning Center

Teaching Students To Be Peacemakers ProgramUniversity of MinnesotaCollege of Education and Human Development60 Peik Hall159 Pillsbury Drive SE.Minneapolis, MN 55455612–624–7031612–626–1395 (fax)

Educators for Social Responsibility23 Garden StreetCambridge, MA 02138617–492–1764617–864–5164 (fax)

Harvard Negotiation Project500 Pound HallHarvard Law SchoolCambridge, MA 02138617–495–1684617–495–7818 (fax)

Illinois Institute for Dispute ResolutionNational Peaceable School Project110 West Main StreetUrbana, IL 61801217–384–4118217–384–8280 (fax)

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New Mexico Center for Dispute ResolutionNational Resource Center for Youth Mediation800 Park Avenue SW.Albuquerque, NM 87102800–249–6884 (publications)505–247–0571 (information)505–242–5966 (fax)

Ohio Commission on Dispute Resolutionand Conflict Management

77 South High Street, 24th FloorColumbus, OH 43266614–752–9595614–752–9682 (fax)

Peace Education Foundation1900 Biscayne BoulevardMiami, FL 33132800–749–8838305–576–5075305–576–3106 (fax)

Program for Young Negotiators, Inc.20 University RoadCambridge, MA 02138888–832–2479 [888–TEACH–PYN (toll free)]617–354–8467 (fax)

Resolving Conflict Creatively ProgramNational Center163 Third AvenueP.O. Box 103New York, NY 10003212–387–0225212–387–0510 (fax)

Programs Cited in This Guide

The Arts and Conflict ResolutionArts and Prevention ProjectsU.S. Department of EducationOffice of Elementary and Secondary EducationSafe and Drug-Free Schools Program1250 Maryland Avenue SW.Washington, DC 20202–6123202–260–3954202–260–3748 (fax)

International Center for Cooperationand Conflict Resolution

Teachers College at Columbia University525 West 120th StreetBox 53New York, NY 10027212–678–3402212–678–4048 (fax)

Iowa Peace Institute917 10th AvenueP.O. Box 480Grinnell, IA 50112515–236–4880515–236–6905 (fax)

National Association for Community Mediation1726 M Street NW., Suite 500Washington, DC 20036–4502202–467–6226202–466–4769 (fax)

National Crime Prevention Council1700 K Street NW., Second FloorWashington, DC 20006–3817202–466–6272202–296–1356 (fax)

National Institute for Citizen Educationin the Law

711 G Street SE.Washington, DC 20003202–546–6644202–546–6649 (fax)

National Institute for Dispute ResolutionNational Association for Mediation in Education1726 M Street NW., Suite 500Washington, DC 20036–4502202–466–4764202–466–4769 (fax)

National School Safety Center4165 Thousand Oaks Boulevard, Suite 290Westlake Village, CA 91362805–373–9977805–373–9277 (fax)

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California Lawyers for the ArtsNorthern California ProgramFort Mason Center, Building C, Room 255San Francisco, CA 94123415–775–7200415–775–1143 (fax)

Southern California Program1641 18th StreetSanta Monica, CA 90404310–998–5590310–998–5594 (fax)

National Assembly of Local Arts Agencies927 15th Street NW., 12th FloorWashington, DC 20005202–371–2830202–371–0424 (fax)

National Endowment for the Arts1100 Pennsylvania Avenue NW., Room 726Washington, DC 20506202–682–5537202–682–5613 (fax)

Pathways to Success ProgramU.S. Department of JusticeOffice of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency

Prevention633 Indiana Avenue NW.Washington, DC 20531202–307–1150202–514–6382 (fax)

Urban smARTSDepartment of Arts and Cultural Affairs222 East Houston, Suite 500San Antonio, TX 78205210–222–2787210–228–0263 (fax)

Washington Area Lawyers for the Arts410 Eighth Street NW., Suite 601Washington, DC 20004202–393–2826202–393–4444 (fax)

Community-Based ProgramsAmeriCorps Conflict Resolution Training ProjectNational Association for Community Mediation1726 M Street NW., Suite 500Washington, DC 20036–4502202–467–6226202–466–4769 (fax)

Boys & Girls Clubs of AmericaNational Headquarters1230 West Peachtree Street NW.Atlanta, GA 30309–3447404–815–5781404–815–5757 (fax)

Conflict Managers ProgramCommunity Board Program, Inc.1540 Market Street, Suite 490San Francisco, CA 94102415–552–1250415–626–0595 (fax)

East Cleveland Youth Services MobileMediation Project

14801 Shaw AvenueEast Cleveland, OH 44112216–681–7526216–681–5733 (fax)

Effective Alternatives in Reconciliation Services3319 Rochambeau AvenueBronx, NY 10467718–654–4931718–654–4942 (fax)

Lawyers Adopt-a-School ProgramAmerican Bar AssociationSection of Dispute Resolution740 15th Street NW., Seventh FloorWashington, DC 20005202–662–1687202–662–1683 (fax)

Roxbury Conflict Resolution ProjectThe Conflict Management Group20 University RoadCambridge, MA 02138617–354–5444617–354–8467 (fax)

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Second Step ProgramCommittee for Children2203 Airport Way South, Suite 500Seattle, WA 98134–2027206–343–1223206–343–1445 (fax)

Parent EducationFranklin Mediation Service97 Franklin StreetGreenfield, MA 01301413–774–7469413–773–3834 (fax)

Parents Anonymous, Inc.675 West Foothill Boulevard, Suite 220Claremont, CA 91711909–621–6184909–625–6304 (fax)

Parents as Teachers National Center10176 Corporate Square Drive, Suite 230St. Louis, MO 63132314–432–4330314–432–8963 (fax)

Community Relations Service,U.S. Department of Justice

Regional OfficesRegion I: New England (Connecticut, Maine,

Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island,Vermont)

99 Summer Street, Suite 1820Boston, MA 02110617–424–5717617–424–5727 (fax)

Region II: Northeast (New Jersey, New York,Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands)

26 Federal Plaza, Room 3402New York, NY 10278212–264–0700212–264–2143 (fax)

Region III: Mid-Atlantic (Delaware, Districtof Columbia, Maryland, Pennsylvania, Virginia,West Virginia)

Room 208 Custom HouseSecond and Chestnut StreetsPhiladelphia, PA 19106215–597–2344215–597–9148 (fax)

Region IV: Southeast (Alabama, Florida,Georgia, Kentucky, Mississippi, North Carolina,South Carolina, Tennessee)

75 Piedmont Avenue NE., Room 900Atlanta, GA 30303404–331–6883404–331–4471 (fax)

Region V: Midwest (Illinois, Indiana, Michigan,Minnesota, Ohio, Wisconsin)

55 West Monroe Street, Suite 420Chicago, IL 60603312–353–4391312–353–4390 (fax)

Region VI: Southwest (Arkansas, Louisiana,New Mexico, Oklahoma, Texas)

1420 West Mockingbird Lane, Suite 250Dallas, TX 75247214–655–8175214–655–8184 (fax)

Region VII: Central (Iowa, Kansas, Missouri,Nebraska)

323 West Eighth Street, Suite 301Kansas City, MO 64105816–374–6522816–374–6530 (fax)

Region VIII: Rocky Mountain (Colorado,Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Utah,Wyoming)

1244 Speer Boulevard, Room 650Denver, CO 80204–3584303–844–2973303–844–2907 (fax)

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Region IX: Western (Arizona, California, Guam,Hawaii, Nevada)

33 New Montgomery Street, Suite 1840San Francisco, CA 94105415–744–6565415–744–6590 (fax)

Region X: Northwest (Alaska, Idaho, Oregon,Washington)

915 Second Avenue, Room 1898Seattle, WA 98174206–220–6700206–220–6706 (fax)

Field OfficesDetroit Field Office211 West Fort Street, Suite 1404Detroit, MI 48226313–226–4010313–226–2568 (fax)

Houston Field Office515 Rusk Avenue, Room 12605Houston, TX 77002713–718–4861713–718–4862 (fax)

Los Angeles Field Office888 South Figueroa Street, Suite 1880Los Angeles, CA 90071213–894–2941213–894–2880 (fax)

Miami Field Office51 SW. First Avenue, Room 424Miami, FL 33130305–536–5206305–536–7363 (fax)

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Appendix B: Conflict ResolutionCurriculum Resources

The intent of this appendix is to illustrate some ofthe most current and readily available conflict reso-lution curriculum resources. These representativematerials were selected through a nomination pro-cess by national leaders in the field of conflict reso-lution education. This list is neither exhaustive norintended as a recommendation of these curriculumsby the U.S. Department of Justice or the U.S. De-partment of Education. The materials have beencategorized into five groups: Foundation Abilities,Process Curriculum, Mediation, Peaceable Class-room, and Peaceable School.

Many of the publications listed here are availablethrough the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delin-quency Prevention’s Juvenile Justice Clearing-house, a component of the National Criminal JusticeReference Service (NCJRS). An NCJ (NationalCriminal Justice) number after a citation indicatesthat the publication is available from the Clearing-house on microfiche or through paper reproductionor interlibrary loan. For further information, contactthe Clearinghouse by telephone at 800–638–8736;via the electronic bulletin board at 301–738–8895;or through the Internet at askncjrs@ncjrs.org.

Foundation AbilitiesAggressors, Victims, & Bystanders: Thinking andActing to Prevent Violence. 1994. Ronald Slaby,Renee Wilson-Brewer, and Kimberly Dash, Edu-cation Development Center, 55 Chapel Street,Newton, MA 02160.Phone: 800–225–4276Audience: Grades 6–9.Focus: To develop skills in solving social problemsnonviolently and in evaluating beliefs regardingviolence.

Key Teaching Strategies: Full-class and small-group discussions, games, role-playing, andskill-building exercises.Type of Material: Teacher’s guide and handouts.Cost: $45.

Anti-bias Curriculum: Tools for Empowering YoungChildren. 1989. Louise Derman-Sparks and theABC Task Force, National Association for theEducation of Young Children, 1509 16th StreetNW., Washington, DC 20036–1426. NCJ 160365.Phone: 202–232–8777Audience: Ages 2–5.Focus: To promote critical thinking regardingcultural bias and diversity and problem-solvingprocesses to resolve conflict.Key Teaching Strategies: Activities and discussions.Type of Material: Teacher’s guide.Cost: $17.

Circles of Learning: Cooperation in the Classroom.1984, 1986, 1990, 1993. David W. Johnson, RobertT. Johnson, and Edythe Holuhec, Interaction BookCompany, 7208 Cornelia Drive, Edina, MN 55435.Phone: 612–831–9500Audience: Grades K–8.Focus: To teach students to work cooperatively toachieve mutual learning goals. Program is researchand theory based.Key Teaching Strategies: Experiential/cooperativelearning, simulations, role-playing, and perspectivetaking.Type of Material: Book, videos, student manual,and audiocassettes.Cost: Book, $10; video, $25; audiocassette, $10.

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Conflict Management: Middle School Curriculum.1990. Elizabeth Loescher, The Conflict Center,2626 Osceola Street, Denver, CO 80212.Phone: 303–433–4983Audience: Grades 6–8.Focus: To reduce levels of physical, verbal, andemotional violence through skill building.Key Teaching Strategies: Role-playing, interactivelessons, self-evaluations, and small- and large-groupdiscussions.Type of Material: Teacher’s guide and handouts.Cost: $20.

Dealing With Anger: Givin’ It, Takin’ It, Workin’It Out. A Violence Prevention Program for AfricanAmerican Youth (female or male version). 1991. Re-search Press, Inc., P.O. Box 9177, Champaign, IL61821.Phone: 217–352–3273Audience: African-American youth in grades 6–12(each set is specific for males or females).Focus: To teach students ways to express angryfeelings, accept criticism, and negotiate a solution.Key Teaching Strategies: Videos, discussion, androle-playing.Type of Material: Video and discussion guide.Cost: Each set of videos, $495; both sets, $740.

Discover the World: Empowering Children to ValueThemselves, Others, and the Earth. 1990. SusanHopkins and Jeffery Winters, New Society Publish-ers, 4527 Springfield Avenue, Philadelphia, PA 19143.Phone: 800–333–9093Audience: Infants, toddlers, and grades pre-Kthrough 5; especially geared toward young children.Focus: To teach respect for oneself and others.Key Teaching Strategies: Activities and lesson plansthat include art, music, movement, and language.Type of Material: Teacher’s guide.Cost: $14.95.

Everyone Wins! Cooperative Games and Activities.1990. Sambhava and Josette Luvmour, New SocietyPublishers, 4527 Springfield Avenue, Philadelphia,PA 19143.Phone: 800–333–9093Audience: Grades pre-K through 4.Focus: To increase self-esteem and interconnected-ness with others through the interaction of game-playing.

Key Teaching Strategies: Playing games.Type of Material: Teacher’s guide.Cost: $8.95.

The Giraffe Classroom. 1990. Nancy Sokol Green,Center for Non-Violent Communication, 3468Meadowbrook Boulevard, Cleveland Heights, OH44118–3660.Phone: 216–371–1123Audience: Grades 1–8.Focus: To promote caring, cooperative, and safeschools through teaching nonviolent communicationskills that empower children and others to get theirneeds met in mutually satisfying ways.Key Teaching Strategies: Cooperative pairs andsmall-group work integrated into language, socialstudies, art, and music.Type of Material: Teacher’s manual.Cost: $14.

Keeping the Peace: Practicing Cooperation and Con-flict Resolution with Preschoolers. 1989. SusanneWichert, New Society Publishers, 4527 SpringfieldAvenue, Philadelphia, PA 19143.Phone: 800–333–9093Audience: Preschool children and adults who liveand work with preschool children.Focus: To increase altruistic behavior, decrease ag-gressive behavior, and enhance a greater toleranceamong children for the differences in others.Key Teaching Strategies: Activities and games.Type of Material: Teacher’s guide.Cost: Paperback, $12.95; hardcover, $34.95.

The Mayor at Kackal Heights. 1987. Rita Herzogand Kathy Smith, Center for Non-Violent Com-munication, 3468 Meadowbrook Boulevard,Cleveland Heights, OH 44118–3660.Phone: 216–371–1123Audience: Grades K–8.Focus: To teach a nonviolent communication ap-proach for solving school conflicts between children/teachers/parents that includes stating one’s ownposition and appreciating the positions of others.Key Teaching Strategies: Role-playing with pup-pets, class meetings, and other experiential learningtechniques.Type of Material: Book, lesson plans, and resourcematerials.

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Cost: Book, $10; curriculum guide, $10; puppets,$40.

The PATHS Curriculum: Promoting AlternativeThinking Strategies. 1994. Carol A. Kusche andMark T. Greenberg, Developmental Researchand Programs, 130 Nickerson Street, Suite 107,Seattle, WA 98109.Phone: 800–736–2630Audience: Grades K–5.Focus: To improve the social and emotional com-petence and behavior of children, reduce peer andclassroom conflict, and improve both student think-ing skills and classroom climate.Key Teaching Strategies: Role-playing, stories,and other language arts activities; problem-solvingmeetings; peer discussions; cooperative learning;and artistic and other creative activities.Type of Material: Scope and sequence instructionalmanual, lessons, pictures, and photographs.Cost: PATHS basic kit, $550 (includes curriculum,instruction manual, materials, photographs, andposters).

Personal and Social Responsibility. 1988. ConstanceDembrowsky, Institute for Affective Skill Devel-opment, P.O. Box 880, La Luz, NM 88337.Phone: 800–745–0418Audience: Grades 9–12.Focus: To teach students to develop critical conceptsand behavioral skills in the areas of self-esteem, re-sponsibility, relating effectively, conflict resolution,problem solving, and goal setting.Key Teaching Strategies: Experientially based,scoped, and sequenced one-semester course usingrole-playing, games, and small-group activities.Type of Material: Teacher manual, student activitybook, parent leader manual, parent activity book,and two videos.Cost: Teacher manual, student activity book, parentleader manual, parent activity book, and two videos,$299; student activity book, $14.95; parent leadermanual, $59.95; parent activity book, $7.95; videos,$59.95 each.

Productive Conflict Resolution. 1996. ColoradoSchool Mediation Project, 3970 Broadway, SuiteB3, Boulder, CO 80304.Phone: 303–444–7671

Audience: Grades K–2, 2–5, 5–8, and high school.Focus: To reduce violence and antisocial behavior;develop long-term change in students’ and teachers’attitudes and behavior toward conflict, diversity,and decisionmaking; promote greater academicachievement and emotional intelligence; and pro-mote a caring, cooperative, disciplined school envi-ronment where learning and creativity take place.Key Teaching Strategies: Role-playing, discussion,brainstorming, journaling, and other experientiallearning.Type of Material: Curriculums for grades K–12,videos, and mediation training manuals.Cost: Grades K–2, $20; grades 2–5, 5–8, and highschool, $25; manuals, $9.95.

Saturday Institute for Manhood, Brotherhood Actual-ization (SIMBA) Replication Manual. 1996. JennieC. Trotter and SIMBA Coalition Members, WSCI-C/O SIMBA Project, 3480 Greenbriar Parkway,Suite 310 B, Atlanta, GA 30331.Phone: 404–699–6891Audience: Ages 8–18.Focus: To teach conflict resolution through the Sat-urday school program for juveniles. Manual includesprogram overview, curriculum on African-Americanhistory, program implementation steps, procedures,and schedules. The model is adaptable for commu-nity settings.Key Teaching Strategies: Art, music, group dis-cussions, drama, role-playing, photography, andvideo production.Type of Material: Curriculum, training manuals,and videos.Cost: Manual, $50; videos, $25.

Second Step: A Violence Prevention Curriculum,Grades PreK–K; Grades 1–3; Grades 4–5; Grades6–8. 1992. Kathy Beland, Committee for Children,172 20th Avenue, Seattle, WA 98122.Phone: 800–634–4449Audience: Grades pre-K through 8.Focus: To reduce impulsive and aggressive behav-ior by teaching students foundational skills in em-pathy, impulse control, problem solving, and angermanagement.Key Teaching Strategies: Stories/discussions,teacher modeling of behaviors and skills, activities,and role-playing.

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Type of Material: 11- x 17-inch photo lesson cards,teacher guide, posters, film strip, puppets, andsong tape.Cost: Grades pre-K–K, $245; grades 1–3, $255;grades 4–5, $235; grades 6–8, $285.

Violence: Dealing with Anger. 1994. Thomas Crum,Centre Communication, 1800 30th Street, No. 207,Boulder, CO 80301.Phone: 303–444–1166Audience: Grades 4–6.Focus: To teach new skills to replace violentreactions in problem situations through studentrole-playing.Key Teaching Strategies: Role-playing interspersedwith teaching exercises.Type of Material: 25-minute video with teachingguide included.Cost: $69.95.

Violence in the Schools: Developing Prevention Plans.1994. Center for Civic Education, 5146 DouglasFir Road, Calabasas, CA 91302–1467.Phone: 800–350–4223Audience: Grades 6–9.Focus: To develop students’ commitment to activecitizenship and governance by teaching the knowl-edge and skills required for effective participation.Key Teaching Strategies: Reading, directed discus-sions, writing, role-playing, small-group problemsolving, cooperative learning techniques, and criticalthinking exercises.Type of Material: Teacher’s guide, student text,and staff development training manual.Cost: Teacher’s guide, $10; student text, $5.50($5 each for orders of 10 or more); set comprisinga teacher’s guide and 30 student texts, $150.

Violence Prevention Curriculum for Adolescents. 1987.Deborah Prothrow-Stith, Education DevelopmentCenter, Inc., 55 Chapel Street, Newton, MA 02160.Phone: 617–969–7100Audience: Grades 9–12.Focus: To increase students’ awareness of the causesand effects of violence; illustrate that violence ispreventable; teach that anger is a normal part of lifethat can be expressed and channeled in healthy,constructive ways; and encourage students to thinkabout alternatives to violence in conflict situations.

Key Teaching Strategies: Minilectures, facilitatedclass discussions, role-playing, and observation andanalysis.Type of Material: 110-page teacher’s guide, studenthandouts, and video.Cost: Teacher’s guide, $30 ($25 each for ordersof 10 or more); video rental, $60; teacher’s guideand video, $150.

A World of Difference Institute: A National Edu-cation and Diversity Training Program of the Anti-Defamation League. Elementary Guide, SecondaryGuide, and Youth Services and Pre-School ActivityGuides. Anti-Defamation League, 823 UnitedNations Plaza, New York, NY 10017.Phone: 212–490–2525Audience: Grades preschool–12.Focus: To promote positive self-concept whilerecognizing and appreciating diversity in allforms, and to raise awareness and understandingof the detrimental effects of racism, prejudice,anti-Semitism, and discrimination.Key Teaching Strategies: Activities, discussion,role-playing, and readings.Type of Material: Resource guides, audiovisualmaterials, and articles.Cost: Elementary and secondary guides, $35; activ-ity guide, $25. (Guides are only sold through teachertraining sessions.)

A Year of SCRC: 35 Experiential Workshops for theClassroom. 1992. Kinshasha Nia Azariah, FrancesKern-Crotty, and Louise Gomer Bangel, Center forPeace Education, 103 William Howard Taft Road,Cincinnati, OH 45219. NCJ 160380.Phone: 513–221–4863Audience: Grades K–6.Focus: To promote the attitudes of inclusion andrespect for self and others and teach the skillsneeded for problem solving.Key Teaching Strategies: Experiential learningactivities, including games, role-playing, and groupdialog.Type of Material: Program guide and workshopmanual.Cost: Program guide, $15; workshop manual, $23.

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Process CurriculumConflict Resolution: An Elementary School Curricu-lum. 1990. Gail Sadalla, Meg Holmberg, and JimHalligan. NCJ 138316.Conflict Resolution: A Secondary School Curriculum.1987. Gail Sadalla, Meg Holmberg, and JimHalligan. NCJ 138329.Community Board Program, Inc., 1540 MarketStreet, Suite 490, San Francisco, CA 94102.Phone: 415–552–1250Audience: Grades K–7 and 7–12.Focus: To help students become aware of theirchoices in conflict situations. Elementary curriculumincludes more than 80 activities focusing on buildingeffective communication and problem-solving skills.Secondary curriculum focuses on enabling studentsto reduce the tensions and hostilities associated withconflict.Key Teaching Strategies: Role-playing, record-keeping, group discussions, brainstorming,demonstrations, small- and large-group work,and experiential practice of skills.Type of Material: Classroom curriculum of morethan 300 pages in a three-ring binder for easycopying of handout materials.Cost: $44 each.

Conflict Resolution for Kindergarten through Grade 3.1995. Linda Dunn, Pat Lewis, Lynda Hall, EileenMcAvoy, and Cynthia Pitts, Mediation Networkof North Carolina, P.O. Box 241, Chapel Hill, NC27514–0241.Phone: 919–929–6333Audience: Grades K–3.Focus: To teach the basics of listening skills,“I”-messages, anger management, choice and con-sequences, feelings, perception, diversity, and nego-tiation. Includes a section on how to make conflictresolution part of regular classroom activities.Key Teaching Strategies: Discussion/dialog, simu-lation games, role-playing, and interactive activities.Type of Material: 191-page teaching curriculum,scoped and sequenced.Cost: $20.

Conflict Resolution in the Schools: A Manual forEducators. 1996. National Institute for Dispute Re-solution and the National Association for Media-tion in Education, 1726 M Street NW., Suite 500,Washington, DC 20036.Phone: 202–466–4764Audience: Educators.Focus: To show educators how to diagnose conflicts,handle difficult confrontations, and implement ap-propriate mediation and problem-solving strategiesfor classroom conflicts, violence, and communitydivisiveness.Key Teaching Strategies: Introduces the conceptsand skills of conflict resolution that can be prac-ticed in the classroom and throughout the schoolcommunity.Type of Material: Book.Cost: $35.

Conflict Resolution: Strategies for CollaborativeProblem Solving. 1992. Ellen Raider and SusanColeman, International Center for Cooperation andConflict Resolution, Teacher’s College, ColumbiaUniversity, Box 53, New York, NY 10027.Phone: 212–678–3402Audience: Educators, parents, and youth leaders.Focus: To teach adults conflict resolution skills thatwill enable them to work collaboratively to resolvedisputes within their homes, communities, andworkplaces, so that they can become role modelsfor their children and colleagues.Key Teaching Strategies: Experiential exercisesand role-playing with audio/video feedback gearedfor the adult reader.Type of Material: Participant manuals andtrain-the-trainer guide.Cost: Not available for purchase without trainingwithin school system or at a teacher’s college.

The Conflict Zoo. 1996. Suzin Glickman, NatalieJohnson, Gina Sirianni, and Judith Zimmer,National Institute for Citizen Education in theLaw, 711 G Street SE., Washington, DC 20003.Phone: 202–546–6644Audience: Grades 3 and 4.

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Focus: To teach students to identify words andactions that can lead to conflict, to understand theperspectives of all parties involved in a conflict,and to develop skills for conflict management.Key Teaching Strategies: Critical thinking, problemsolving, cooperative learning, role-playing, interviews,group dialog, brainstorming, and other experientiallearning strategies.Type of Material: Elementary curriculums.Cost: Not available.

Creative Conflict Solving for Kids, Grade Four. 1991.Fran Schmidt and Alice Friedman. NCJ 160386.Creative Conflict Solving for Kids, Grade Five. 1985.Fran Schmidt and Alice Friedman.Creating Peace, Building Community, Grade Six.1996. Judy Bachoy.Creating Peace, Building Community, Grade Seven.1996. Judy Bachoy.Peace Education Foundation, 1900 BiscayneBoulevard, Miami, FL 33132–1025.Phone: 800–749–8838Audience: Grades 4–7.Focus: Creative Conflict Solving for Kids, Grade Four,introduces the Rules for Fighting Fair and the fouls,the mediation process, empowerment skills such aspeer refusal and assertive language, and ways toenhance conflict resolution skills and communica-tion techniques. Creative Conflict Solving for Kids, GradeFive, focuses on students’ perceptions of conflict byusing news clippings and real-life conflicts and en-couraging them to employ conflict resolution skillsusing goal-setting techniques. Creating Peace, BuildingCommunity, Grade Six, and Creating Peace, BuildingCommunity, Grade Seven, are designed to help stu-dents gain a strong sense of self-worth, values, andthe ability to empathize with others as they learnconflict resolution skills. The sixth-grade materialsfocus on character development, cultural aware-ness, community building, conflict analysis, andaggression control. The seventh-grade materialsaddress effective communication and empathydevelopment; bully, victim, and bystander issues;self-empowerment; and applying peacemakingskills in the real world.Key Teaching Strategies: Brainstorming, coop-erative activities, problem solving, role-playing,simulation, and experiential learning.

Type of Material: Teacher’s guide, studenthandbooks, and poster.Cost: Complete set of materials for each title,$89.95; teacher’s guide including student pages,$23.95.

Fighting Fair: Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. ForKids, Grade Eight. 1990. Fran Schmidt and AliceFriedman. Peace Education Foundation, 1900Biscayne Boulevard, Miami, FL 33132–1025.Phone: 800–749–8838Audience: Grade 8.Focus: To teach nonviolent techniques for solvingconflicts. Combines conflict resolution with thehistory of the civil rights movement.Key Teaching Strategies: Brainstorming, coop-erative activities, problem solving, role-playing,simulation, and experiential learning.Type of Material: Teacher’s guide, studenthandbooks, poster, and video.Cost: Complete set of materials, $139.95; teacher’sguide including student pages, $23.95.

Helping Kids Handle Conflict: A Guide for ThoseTeaching Children. 1995. National Crime Preven-tion Council, 1700 K Street NW., Second Floor,Washington, DC 20006. NCJ 158977.Phone: 202–466–6272Audience: Adults working with youth ages 5–12.Focus: To provide classroom-based activities thatsupplement conflict management sessions and tointroduce the philosophy of conflict managementto a school or community.Key Teaching Strategies: Short-term, self-contained activities for teachers of young persons.Type of Material: Book, activities, followup activ-ities, related children’s books, worksheets, andstandard letters to parents.Cost: $24.95.

Life Negotiations: The PYN Curriculum for MiddleSchools. 1996. Jared R. Curhan. Program for YoungNegotiators, 20 University Road, Cambridge, MA02138.Phone: 888–832–2479Audience: Grades 6–9.Focus: To promote the use of collaboration, commu-nication, and empathy, and foster an environment inwhich individuals can learn to cope with differencesin a productive manner.

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Key Teaching Strategies: Role-playing, case stud-ies, games, performances, reading and writingassignments, videos, and classroom discussions.Type of Material: Teacher’s manuals, studentactivity books, and videos.Cost: Not available for purchase without firstattending the Program for Young Negotiators’training seminar on negotiation.

Peacemaking Skills for Little Kids, Pre K–K. 1993.Fran Schmidt and Alice Friedman.Peacemaking Skills for Little Kids, Grade One. 1996.Doris Berkell, Karen Kotzen, and Sandy Rizzo.Peacemaking Skills for Little Kids, Grade Two. 1996.Elyse Brunt, Alice Friedman, Fran Schmidt, andTheresa Solotoff.Peace Scholars: Learning Through Literature, GradeThree. 1996. Diane Carlebach.Peace Education Foundation, 1900 BiscayneBoulevard, Miami, FL 33132–1025.Phone: 800–749–8838Audience: Grades pre-K through 3.Focus: Peacemaking Skills for Little Kids, Pre K–K,teaches listening and communication skills, exploresemotions, and stresses cooperation and culturaltolerance, introducing students to the I-Care Rulesand the PEF’s conflict resolution model. Peacemak-ing Skills for Little Kids, Grade One, focuses on givingstudents a more indepth understanding of the I-CareRules, stressing cooperative learning and reading,writing, and problem-solving skills. PeacemakingSkills for Little Kids, Grade Two, continues to buildon the skills begun in the previous books, providinglessons and extension activities that can be incor-porated into traditional academic subjects. PeaceScholars: Learning Through Literature, Grade Three,uses a collection of ethnically diverse stories andfolk tales to enhance students’ conflict resolutioncompetency and teach cooperation, self-esteem,empathy, and other life skills.Key Teaching Strategies: Puppetry, discussion,music, experiential learning, cooperative activities,role-playing.Type of Material: Teacher’s guide, student hand-books, poster, puppets, audiocassettes, and buttons.Cost: Complete set of materials for each title,$119.95; teacher’s guide including student pages,$23.95.

Time Out To Resolve It! A School-Based ConflictResolution Program. 1994. Citizenship & Law-Related Education Center, 9738 Lincoln VillageDrive, Sacramento, CA 95827.Phone: 916–228–2322Audience: Grades K–12.Focus: To teach decisionmaking, problem-solving,and communication skills that help students resolvetheir own conflicts peacefully.Key Teaching Strategies: Individual, small- andlarge-group work, practice, and discussions; role-playing; active, cooperative learning activities;performance-based assessment.Type of Material: Student and adult training manu-als, implementation manual, classroom lesson planslinked to middle and high school subject matter, andvideotapes.Cost: Currently available only in conjunction withtraining.

TRIBE: Conflict Resolution Curriculum for MiddleSchool. 1994. Dee Edelman, Copper Coggins,Debbie Rios, and Kathryn Liss, The MediationCenter, 189 College Street, Asheville, NC 28801.Phone: 704–251–6089Audience: Grades 6–8.Focus: To reduce violence and promote cooperativeproblem solving through win/win strategies, angermanagement, and communication and decision-making skills.Key Teaching Strategies: Role-playing, cooperativelearning, metaphorical activities, group dialog, andsimulations.Type of Material: Sequential curriculums for grades6–8 and classroom poster.Cost: Teacher manual, $20; classroom poster, $8.

Violence Intervention Curriculum for Families. 1996.Violence Intervention Curriculum for Juveniles. 1996.New Mexico Center for Dispute Resolution, 620Roma NW., Suite B, Albuquerque, NM 87102.Phone: 800–249–6884Audience: High-risk youth ages 12–18.Focus: To give youth strategies to control impulsivebehaviors, manage personal behavior, make in-formed choices, and acknowledge the consequencesof their own actions for themselves and for others.

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Violence Intervention Curriculum for Families incorpo-rates lessons for parents alone and for parents andyouth together, based on the belief that healthyinteraction between parents/adults and children isessential to improve family functioning and reinforcethe skills taught. Violence Intervention Curriculum forJuveniles is directed to those who work with high-risk youth in schools and community, probation,detention, and correctional settings.Key Teaching Strategies: Exercises in anger man-agement, consequential thinking, problem solving,communication, conflict management, and nego-tiation skills. The curriculum reflects varied ap-proaches that emphasize individual learning stylesand also encourage participants to integrate con-cepts through active learning.Type of Material: 200- to 225-page curriculumand 30-minute instructional videocassette (in coloror black and white).Cost: Violence Intervention Curriculum for Families,$109; Violence Intervention Curriculum for Juveniles, $99.

We Can Work It Out!: Problem Solving ThroughMediation, Elementary Edition. 1996. LindaBarnes-Robinson, Sue Jewler, and Judith Zimmer.We Can Work It Out!: Problem Solving ThroughMediation, Secondary Edition. 1993. Suzin Glickmanand Judith Zimmer.National Teens, Crime, and the Community Pro-gram, c/o National Institute for Citizen Education inthe Law, 711 G Street SE., Washington, DC 20003.Phone: 202–546–6644Audience: Grades 5–12.Focus: To promote cooperation over competitionwhile pursuing a nonadversarial method of conflictresolution. The lessons teach students to generatenonviolent options when faced with conflict; developcritical thinking, questioning, and active listeningskills; analyze and solve problems; find commonground when they disagree; and manage conflict intheir daily lives. Lessons culminate in a mock media-tion where students role-play the parts of disputantsand mediators and are evaluated by members of thecommunity involved in related fields.

Key Teaching Strategies: Critical thinking, prob-lem solving, cooperative learning, role-playing,interviews, group dialog, brainstorming, and otherexperiential learning strategies.Type of Material: Curriculums for grades 5–7(elementary edition) and 7–12 (secondary edition).Cost: Elementary edition, $40; secondary edition,$40.

Winning Against Violent Environments (W.A.V.E.)Program. Cleveland Public Schools Center for Con-flict Resolution, 1651 East 71st Street, Cleveland,OH 44103.Phone: 216–432–4605Audience: Students grades K–12, staff, and families.Focus: To teach young people to create peacefuland healthy environments in which to live throughproblem solving, respect for cultural diversity, andcommunication.Key Teaching Strategies: Experiential and coop-erative learning activities, group interaction, team-building activities, and role-playing.Type of Material: Student training, handbooks,handouts, organizational development, classroommanagement, curriculum infusion, and otherresource materials.Cost: $75 per student for training and all materials.Materials are available only with the training.

WinWin! 1994. Fran Schmidt. Peace EducationFoundation, 1900 Biscayne Boulevard, Miami, FL33132–1025.Phone: 800–749–8838Audience: Grades 9–12.Focus: To tackle tough problems like violence,anger, cultural differences, and sexual harassmentwhile teaching conflict resolution skills. Presentedin a magazine format.Key Teaching Strategies: Brainstorming, coop-erative activities, problem solving, role-playing,simulation, reading, and experiential learning.Type of Material: Teacher’s guide, student hand-books (magazine format), poster, and video.Cost: Complete set, $214.95.

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MediationArizona Department of Education Peer MediationVideo. 1992.On-Going Training Activities for Student Mediators.1990, revised 1995.School Mediation Project, Our Town FamilyCenter, P.O. Box 26665, Tucson, AZ 85726.Phone: 520–323–1708Audience: Student mediators, grades 3–12.Focus: To review, sharpen, and extend studentmediators’ skills.Key Teaching Strategies: Role-playing, brain-storming, group dialog, games, and worksheets.Type of Material: Instructor’s manual and orienta-tion videos for elementary, middle, and high school.Cost: Manual, $20.50; video, $28.

Classroom Conflict Resolution Training for Grades3–6. 1995. Community Board Program, Inc., 1540Market Street, Suite 490, San Francisco, CA 94102.Phone: 415–552–1250Audience: Grades 3–6.Focus: To introduce conflict management conceptsand skills to third through sixth grade classes beforea selected group of students is trained as ConflictManagers.Key Teaching Strategies: Activities to buildcommunication and problem-solving skills.Type of Material: Manual.Cost: $13.

Conflict Management for Juvenile Treatment Fa-cilities: A Manual for Training and Program Imple-mentation. 1992. Meg Holmberg and Jim Halligan.Community Board Program, Inc., 1540 MarketStreet, Suite 490, San Francisco, CA 94102.NCJ 138326.Phone: 415–552–1250Audience: Juvenile justice facility professionals.Focus: To provide a complete overview of a pro-gram to reduce conflict and tension in juveniletreatment facilities through conflict resolution.Includes a full curriculum for training juvenilefacility residents as conflict managers and alsocovers staff development and program evaluation.Key Teaching Strategies: Role-playing, small-groupdiscussion, journal keeping, cooperative games,experiential practice of skills, recordkeeping,simulations, and demonstrations.

Type of Material: Training manual and imple-mentation guide.Cost: $27.

Conflict Manager Training for Elementary SchoolStudents. 1995. Nancy Kaplan.Mediation Training for Middle School Students. 1995.Nancy Kaplan.Mediation Training for High School Students. 1995.Nancy Kaplan.Conflict Resolution Unlimited, 845 106th AvenueNE., Suite 109, Bellevue, WA 98004.Phone: 206–451–4015Audience: Grades K–6, 6–9, and 9–12.Focus: To create a comprehensive conflict resolu-tion program for the entire school and parentcommunity.Key Teaching Strategies: Demonstrations,exercises, and role-playing.Type of Material: Curriculum manual, video andleader’s guide, classroom teacher’s manual, andtraining aids. Videos and student handouts alsoavailable in Spanish.Cost: Elementary edition: curriculum manual, $200;classroom teacher’s manual, $150; video and leader’sguide, $95; package consisting of all manuals, video,and teaching aids, $295. Middle school and highschool editions: curriculum manual, $250; classroomteacher’s manual, $200; video and leader’s guide,$150; package consisting of all manuals, video, andteaching aids, $395.

Conflict Managers in Action. 1987. CommunityBoard Program, Inc., 1540 Market Street, Suite490, San Francisco, CA 94102.Phone: 415–552–1250Audience: Grades 3–12.Focus: To introduce the program. Student conflictmanagers in action are highlighted, and national TVcoverage of these programs in elementary, middle,and high schools is featured.Key Teaching Strategies: Models and profileseffective peer mediation programming.Type of Material: Video.Cost: $30.

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Conflict Managers Training Manual for Grades 3–6.1995. Community Board Program, Inc., 1540 Mar-ket Street, Suite 490, San Francisco, CA 94102.Phone: 415–552–1250Audience: Grades 3–6.Focus: To foster enhanced cooperation and reduceviolence through peer mediation, effective com-munication, and peaceful problem-solving skillsand processes.Key Teaching Strategies: Role-playing, groupdiscussion, experiential practice of skills, record-keeping, and demonstrations.Type of Material: Training and implementationmanual.Cost: $17.

Conflict Resolution and Peer Mediation for Grades4 & 5. 1995. Linda Dunn, Pat Lewis, Lynda Hall,Eileen McAvoy, and Cynthia Pitts, Mediation Net-work of North Carolina, P.O. Box 241, Chapel Hill,NC 27514–0241.Phone: 919–929–6333Audience: Grades 4 and 5.Focus: To introduce students to the mediation pro-cess and teach the skills needed to mediate. Media-tion skills are reviewed and refined in the fifthgrade. Can be used to train student mediators inan individual class or for a schoolwide mediationprogram.Key Teaching Strategies: Discussion/dialog,simulation games, role-playing, and interactiveand experiential activities.Type of Material: 135-page scoped and sequencedcurriculum.Cost: $20.

Establishing a Viable and Durable Peer MediationProgram—From “A” to “Z.” 1995. Louis A. Siegaland Lorraine M. López, The Institute for ViolencePrevention, Inc., 155 Landor Drive, Athens, GA30606.Phone: 706–548–4932Audience: Grades 4–12.Focus: To establish peer mediation programs; logis-tics, goals, mediator and adviser selection, training,publicity, and evaluation.Key Teaching Strategies: Brainstorming, vocab-ulary games, simulation exercises, role-playing,team-building, theory, and mediation practicum.

Type of Material: Program coordinator’s manualand training guide, including sample forms, over-heads, and list of resources.Cost: All materials, $199.

Fuss Busters Teacher’s Guide: For ElementarySchool Peer Mediation. 1994. Barbara A. Davis andPaul Godfrey, The Mediation Center, 189 CollegeStreet, Asheville, NC 28801. NCJ 160364.Phone: 704–251–6089Audience: Grades 3–6.Focus: To improve students’ and teachers’ com-munication and conflict resolution skills througha series of experiential activities and discussion.Key Teaching Strategies: Interactive group andpaired activities, role-playing, simulations, andexperiential learning games.Type of Material: Teacher’s manual with lessonplans, ABC’s of mediation poster.Cost: Student manual, $18; three-color poster, $8.

Implementing Mediation in Youth CorrectionsSettings. 1992. Jean Sidwell and Melinda Smith,New Mexico Center for Dispute Resolution, 620Roma NW., Suite B, Albuquerque, NM 87102.NCJ 156847.Phone: 800–249–6884Audience: Grades 6–12.Focus: To implement the mediation process in youthcorrections settings and a training curriculum totrain staff and youth mediators.Key Teaching Strategies: Small- and large-groupcooperative activities, brainstorming, role-playing,and other experiential learning activities.Type of Material: Implementation guide andmediation training curriculum.Cost: $35.

Implementing Parent-Child Mediation in Youth Cor-rections Settings. 1989. Jean Sidwell and MelindaSmith, New Mexico Center for Dispute Resolution,620 Roma NW., Suite B, Albuquerque, NM 87102.NCJ 156847.Phone: 800–249–6884Audience: Grades 6–12.Focus: To implement parent-child mediation forfamilies of youth returning from correctional orresidential settings. Includes a curriculum to trainparent-child mediators.

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Key Teaching Strategies: Small- and large-groupactivities and experiential learning strategies.Type of Material: Implementation guide andmediation training curriculum.Cost: $35.

Lesson Plans for Peer Mediation Training. 1995.Daniel Joyoe, Etta Smith, and Jo Ezzo, ClevelandMediation Center, 3000 Bridge Avenue, Cleveland,OH 44113.Phone: 216–771–7297Audience: Grades K–12.Focus: To teach communication skills, especially“listening” and mediation skills.Key Teaching Strategies: Games, exercises in aware-ness of self and others, and small-group role-playing.Type of Material: Detailed lesson plans, includingmaterials, objectives, and time needed.Cost: $150 per set. Not available for purchasewithout training within the school system.

Lessons in Conflict Resolution for Grades 4–6. 1994.New Mexico Center for Dispute Resolution, 620Roma NW., Suite B, Albuquerque, NM 87102.Phone: 800–249–6884Audience: Grades 4–6.Focus: To develop an understanding of conflict,styles of conflict, feelings, anger management,communication skills, and problem solving.Key Teaching Strategies: Small- and large-groupcooperative activities, brainstorming, role-playing,personal reflection, and other experiential learningstrategies.Type of Material: Booklet.Cost: $20.

Managing Conflict: A Curriculum for Adolescents.1989. Noreen Duffy Copeland and Melinda Smith(editors). New Mexico Center for Dispute Resolu-tion, 620 Roma NW., Suite B, Albuquerque, NM87102.Phone: 800–249–6884Audience: Grades 7–12.Focus: To teach communication, problem-solving,and anger management skills to youth in residentialor correctional settings. This is the first in a series ofthree publications designed to implement mediationand conflict resolution for youth involved in thejuvenile justice and corrections systems.

Key Teaching Strategies: Role-playing, self-reflection, small- and large-group activities, andsome written exercises.Type of Material: Fifteen-lesson curriculum withstudent handouts.Cost: $35.00

Mediation and Conflict Resolution for Gang-InvolvedYouth. 1992. Sara Keeney, Jean Sidwell, andMelinda Smith, New Mexico Center for DisputeResolution, 620 Roma NW., Suite B, Albuquerque,NM 87102. NCJ 141474.Phone: 800–249–6884Audience: Grades 6–12.Focus: To provide training for those working withgang-involved youth. Contains mediation trainingactivities, lessons in conflict resolution for youth,and recommendations for conducting multipartyyouth mediation.Key Teaching Strategies: Small- and large-groupactivities, role-playing, and other experientiallearning strategies.Type of Material: Standard school materials.Cost: $35.

Mediation for Kids. 1992. Fran Schmidt, AliceFriedman, and Jean Marvel, Peace EducationFoundation, 1900 Biscayne Boulevard, Miami,FL 33132–1025. NCJ 160389.Phone: 800–749–8838Audience: Grades 4–7.Focus: To improve communication skills andunderstand the causes of conflict as studentslearn the mediation process.Key Teaching Strategies: Role-playing, discussion,and cooperative activities.Type of Material: Teacher’s guide, studenthandbooks, and posters.Cost: Complete set, $74.95; teacher’s guideincluding student pages, $23.95.

Mediation: Getting to Win/Win! 1994. Fran Schmidtand James Burke, Peace Education Foundation,1900 Biscayne Boulevard, Miami, FL 33132–1025.NCJ 160387.Phone: 800–749–8838Audience: Grades 8–12.

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Focus: To teach the mediation process and advancedmediation techniques such as caucusing. Video con-tains a demonstration of each step of the mediationprocess.Key Teaching Strategies: Role-playing, discussion,reading, video, and cooperative activities.Type of Material: Teacher’s guide, student hand-books, posters, and video.Cost: Complete set, $159.95; teacher’s guideincluding student pages, $29.95.

Peace by Peace. 1995. The Bureau for At-RiskYouth, 645 New York Avenue, P.O. Box 670,Huntington, NY 11743. NCJ 160362.Phone: 516–673–4584Audience: Grades 6–12.Focus: To teach students how to resolve studentdisputes by communicating, negotiating, andshowing mutual respect.Key Teaching Strategies: Guided discoverytechniques, role-playing, and group discussion.Type of Material: Student workbook andfacilitator’s guide.Cost: Complete program, $179.95.

Peer Mediation: Conflict Resolution in Schools. 1996.Revised edition. Fred Schrumpf, Donna Crawford,and Richard Bodine, Research Press, Inc., P.O. Box9177, Champaign, IL 61826. NCJ 160449.Phone: 217–352–3273Audience: Grades 6–12.Focus: To develop a peer-based mediation pro-gram for faculty, student body, and peer mediatorsthrough basic and advanced training and throughstrategic program implementation guidelines.Key Teaching Strategies: Experiential learningactivities, simulations, group discussions, andschedule options for training.Type of Material: Program guide with forms,student manual, and video.Cost: Program guide, $25.95; student manual,$10.95; video, program guide, and student manual,$365; video rental, $55.

Peer Mediation Manual for Middle Schools andHigh Schools. 1995. Cynthia Joyce, CommunityMediation, Inc., 134 Grand Avenue, New Haven,CT 06513.Phone: 203–782–3500

Audience: Grades 5–12.Focus: To implement peer mediation trainingand school-based peer mediation programs.Key Teaching Strategies: Interactive trainingfor extracurricular peer mediation program.Type of Material: Manual includes exercises,games, and role-playing.Cost: $45.

Peer Mediator Training Manual for ElementarySchool Students. 1995. Cheryl Cutrona, DevonneColeman-White, Mary Beth Flynn, Anna Beale,Bob Napper, and Troy Martin, Good Shepherd Me-diation Program, 5356 Chew Avenue, Philadelphia,PA 19138.Phone: 215–843–5413Audience: Grades 4 and 5.Focus: To offer students training in peer mediationand an understanding of the role that conflict playsin their own lives.Key Teaching Strategies: Brainstorming, coop-erative games, role-playing, group dialog, andteam-building exercises.Type of Material: Training manual, handouts, andinteractive exercises.Cost: Manual, handouts, and exercises, $20.

Resolving Conflict: Activities for Grades K–3. 1989.Noreen Copeland and Faith Garfield, New MexicoCenter for Dispute Resolution, 620 Roma NW.,Suite B, Albuquerque, NM 87102.Phone: 800–249–6884Audience: Grades K–3.Focus: To integrate the teaching of communicationand conflict resolution skills into language arts orsocial studies curriculums.Key Teaching Strategies: Role-playing, group dia-log, brainstorming, learning centers, affective artactivities, and other experiential learning strategies.Type of Material: Booklet.Cost: $15.

Starting a Conflict Manager Program. 1992. Com-munity Board Program, Inc., 1540 Market Street,Suite 490, San Francisco, CA 94102.Phone: 415–552–1250Audience: Grades 3–12.Focus: To provide a complete overview of imple-menting the Conflict Manager program in elemen-tary, middle, or high schools.

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Key Teaching Strategies: Five-step implementationprocess to secure support, train teachers, plan imple-mentation, train students, and maintain a successfulprogram.Type of Material: Manual.Cost: $25.

Student Mediator Manual for Middle and HighSchools. 1995. Pat Lewis, Eileen McAvoy, PamelaSherman, and Shelvia Whitehurst. Mediation Net-work of North Carolina, P.O. Box 241, Chapel Hill,NC 27514–0241.Phone: 919–929–6333Audience: Student mediators in middle and highschool.Focus: To serve as a guide for student mediatorsduring training and as a reference after they becomepractitioners. Topics include mediator responsibili-ties, confidentiality, stages of mediation, preparingfor the mediation session, staying in control of themediation, a checklist for a good resolution, andsamples of helpful forms.Key Teaching Strategies: Practice exercises todevelop reflective and active listening skills andcommunication skills; reminder forms.Type of Material: Manual (32 pages, soft-cover,spiral-bound).Cost: $7.

Students Resolving Conflict: Peer Mediation inSchools. 1995. Richard Cohen, GoodYear Books,Scott Foresman and Company, 1900 East LakeAvenue, Glenview, IL 60025. NCJ 160061.Phone: 617–876–6074Audience: Grades 6–12.Focus: To guide educators in implementing peermediation programs in their schools. Theory andpractice of mediation, including overview of conflictresolution and mediation theory, technical assistancefor implementing a program, conflict resolutionlessons for delivery to all students, program forms,and mediation transcripts.Key Teaching Strategies: Role-playing, discussion,brainstorming, games, worksheets, and group dialog.Type of Material: Text.Cost: $14.95.

Training and Implementation Guide for Student Me-diation in Elementary Schools. 1990. Sara Keeneyand Jean Sidwell. NCJ 160378.Training and Implementation Guide for Student Me-diation in Secondary Schools. 1990. Melinda Smithand Jean Sidwell. NCJ 160379.New Mexico Center for Dispute Resolution, 620Roma NW., Suite B, Albuquerque, NM 87102.Phone: 800–249–6884Audience: Grades K–5 and 6–12.Focus: To prepare school staff to implement aschoolwide mediation program.Key Teaching Strategies: Small- and large-groupactivities, brainstorming, and other experientiallearning strategies.Type of Material: Step-by-step staff implementationguide and mediation training curriculum.Cost: $35.

Training Middle School Conflict Managers. 1996.Training High School Conflict Managers. 1996.Community Board Program, Inc., 1540 MarketStreet, Suite 490, San Francisco, CA 94102.Phone: 415–552–1250Audience: Grades 6–9 and 9–12.Focus: To prepare high school students to be con-flict managers who will help their peers resolvedisputes peacefully.Key Teaching Strategies: Role-playing, simulations,group discussion, experiential practice of skills, andrecordkeeping.Type of Material: Training and implementationmanual.Cost: $17.

Peaceable ClassroomConflict Resolution in the Middle School. 1994.William Kreidler, Educators for Social Responsi-bility, 23 Garden Street, Cambridge, MA 02138.Phone: 617–492–1764Audience: Grades 6–8.Focus: To teach conflict resolution skills.Key Teaching Strategies: Role-playing, writinga journal, minilectures, brainstorming, microlabs,and small-group discussion.

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Type of Material: Curriculum and teaching guide,and student handouts.Cost: $35.

Creative Conflict Resolution: More than 200 Activitiesfor Keeping Peace in the Classroom. 1984. William J.Kreidler, GoodYear Books, Scott Foresman andCompany, 1900 East Lake Avenue, Glenview, IL60025. NCJ 160369.Phone: 800–628–4480Audience: Grades K–6.Focus: To teach conflict resolution techniques.Key Teaching Strategies: Discussion, example,activity, and worksheet.Type of Material: Resource and workbook.Cost: $12.95.

Creative Controversy: Intellectual Challenge in theClassroom. 1987, 1992, 1995. David W. Johnsonand Roger T. Johnson, Interaction Book Company,7208 Cornelia Drive, Edina, MN 55435.Phone: 612–831–9500Audience: Grades K–12 and adults.Focus: To increase students’ motivation to learn,academic achievement, creative thinking, and higherlevel reasoning. Students research a position, pre-sent it persuasively, try to refute the opposing po-sition, and synthesize the two positions into their“best reasoned judgment.”Key Teaching Strategies: Experiential/cooperativelearning, simulations, role-playing, and perspectivetaking.Type of Material: Book, video, and audiocassette.Cost: Book, $25; video, $25; audiocassette, $10.

Elementary Perspectives: Teaching Concepts ofPeace and Conflict. 1990. William J. Kreidler, Edu-cators for Social Responsibility, 23 Garden Street,Cambridge, MA 02138. NCJ 160426.Phone: 800–370–2515Audience: K–6 educators.Focus: To help students acquire the concretecooperative and conflict resolution skills neededto become caring and socially responsible citizens.Contains more than 80 activities designed to helpteachers and students define peace, explore justice,and learn the value of conflict and its resolution.Key Teaching Strategies: Role-playing, songs,writing, discussions, and cooperative activities.

Type of Material: Curriculum.Cost: $28.

The Friendly Classroom for a Small Planet: A Hand-book on Creative Approaches to Living and ProblemSolving for Children. 1988. Priscilla Prutzman, LeeStern, M. Lenard Burger, and Gretchen Bodenhamer,Children’s Creative Response to Conflict, P.O. Box271, Nyack, NY 10960. NCJ 160383.Phone: 914–353–1796Audience: Grades pre-K through 6.Focus: To teach conflict resolution skills to thosewho work with young people.Key Teaching Strategies: Experiential activities,including role-playing and small-group work.Type of Material: Handbook.Cost: $14.95.

Making Choices about Conflict, Security, and Peace-making—Part I: Personal Perspectives. 1994. CarolMiller-Lieber, Educators for Social Responsibility,23 Garden Street, Cambridge, MA 02138.NCJ 160430.Phone: 800–370–2515Audience: Grades 9–12.Focus: To explore with high school students thenature of conflict and its relation to public policy;to build a “conflict toolbox” to help students resolvetheir conflicts without resorting to violence; andto provide practical classroom management tools.Key Teaching Strategies: Hands-on activities,role-playing, group brainstorming, innovativeprojects, and problem-solving activities.Type of Material: Curriculum.Cost: $25.

Peacemaking Made Practical: A Conflict Manage-ment Curriculum for the Elementary School. 1991.Elizabeth Loescher, The Conflict Center, 2626Osceola Street, Denver, CO 80212.Phone: 303–433–4983Audience: Grades pre-K through 6.Focus: To reduce levels of physical, verbal, andemotional violence by raising students’ awarenessof conflict in our lives and teaching practical waysto make it productive.Key Teaching Strategies: Modified lecture, groupdiscussions, role-playing, written exercises, andgames.

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Type of Material: Teacher’s guide.Cost: $25.

Talk It Out: Conflict Resolution for the ElementaryTeacher. 1996. Barbara Porro, Association forSupervision and Curriculum Development,1250 North Pitt Street, Alexandria, VA 22314.Phone: 703–549–9110Audience: Elementary teachers.Focus: To incorporate conflict resolution traininginto a daily program at the moment when studentsdisagree.Key Teaching Strategies: Uses 54 children’s prob-lems to teach them the skills of managing anger,listening, oral communication, and critical thinking.Type of Material: Book.Cost: $18.95.

Teaching Students To Be Peacemakers. 1987, 1991,1995. David W. Johnson and Roger T. Johnson,Interaction Book Company, 7208 Cornelia Drive,Edina, MN 55435. NCJ 160422.Phone: 612–831–9500Audience: Grades K–12 and adults.Focus: To create a cooperative learning commu-nity, teach all students how to negotiate and medi-ate, rotate the responsibility of mediator so that allstudents have their turn, and continue to teach stu-dents negotiation and mediation skills throughoutthe school year. Research base is presented.Key Teaching Strategies: Experiential/cooperativelearning, simulations, role-playing, and perspectivetaking.Type of Material: Book, student manuals, video,and audiocassettes.Cost: Book, $25; video, $25; audiocassettes, $10.

Teaching Young Children in Violent Times. 1994.Diane Levin, Educators for Social Responsibility,23 Garden Street, Cambridge, MA 02138.Phone: 800–370–2515Audience: Grades pre-K through 3.Focus: To teach young children to develop theunderstanding and skills for living peacefullywith others.Key Teaching Strategies: Teacher-led discussions,role-playing, class games, and rituals.Type of Material: Teacher’s guide.Cost: $16.95.

Peaceable SchoolCreating the Peaceable School: A Comprehensive Pro-gram for Teaching Conflict Resolution. 1994. RichardBodine, Donna Crawford, and Fred Schrumpf, Re-search Press, Inc., P.O. Box 9177, Champaign, IL61826. NCJ 154760.Phone: 217–352–3273Audience: Grades 3–12.Focus: To create a cooperative school environmentthrough the institution of a rights and responsibili-ties approach to discipline where both adults andstudents learn to manage and resolve conflicts usingthe strategies of negotiation, mediation, and groupproblem solving.Key Teaching Strategies: Experiential learningactivities, learning centers, cooperative learning,simulations, and class meetings.Type of Material: Program guide, student manual,and video.Cost: Program guide, $35.95; student manual,$14.95; video, program guide, and student manual,$365; video rental, $55.

Resolving Conflict Creatively: A Teaching Guidefor Grades Kindergarten Through Six. 1993.NCJ 160361.Resolving Conflict Creatively: A Teaching Guide forSecondary Schools. 1990.RCCP National Center, 163 Third Avenue, No. 103,New York, NY 10003.Phone: 212–387–0225Audience: Grades K–6 and 7–12.Focus: To reduce violence and promote caring andcooperative schools and communities through show-ing children that they have many choices for dealingwith conflict other than through passivity or ag-gression, through teaching them skills to make realchoices in their own lives, and through increasingtheir understanding and appreciation of their ownculture and other cultures.Key Teaching Strategies: Role-playing, interviews,group dialog, brainstorming, and other affectiveexperiential learning strategies.Type of Material: Curriculum, videos, resourcematerial.Cost: Curriculum not available for purchase withouta 3- to 5-year commitment to the program within aschool system. Videos are available from $24 to $40.

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Appendix C: Conflict ResolutionReading List

Many of the publications listed in this appendix areavailable from the Office of Juvenile Justice andDelinquency Prevention’s Juvenile Justice Clear-inghouse, a component of the National CriminalJustice Reference Service (NCJRS). An NCJ(National Criminal Justice) number after a citationindicates that the publication is available from theClearinghouse on microfiche or through paper re-production or interlibrary loan. For further infor-mation, contact the Clearinghouse by telephone at800–638–8736; via the electronic bulletin board at301–738–8895; or through the Internet ataskncjrs@ncjrs.org.

American Psychological Association. 1993. Violenceand Youth: Psychology’s Response. Volume I: SummaryReport on the American Psychological Association Com-mission on Violence and Youth. Washington, DC:American Psychological Association. NCJ 160391.

Arbetman, L.P., E.T. McMahon, and E.L. O’Brien.1994. Street Law: A Course in Practical Law, 5th edition.St. Paul, MN: West Publishing Company.

Banks, J. 1993. Multi-Cultural Education: Issues andPerspectives, 2d edition. Des Moines, IA: LongwoodDivision, Allyn & Bacon.

Banks, J. 1994. Multi-Ethnic Education: Theory andPractice, 3d edition. Des Moines, IA: LongwoodDivision, Allyn & Bacon.

Blechman, F. 1996. Evaluating School Conflict Resolu-tion Programs. Fairfax, VA: Institute for ConflictAnalysis and Resolution (ICAR), George MasonUniversity.

Bodine, R., and D. Crawford. 1995 (March). “OurSchool’s Choice: Creating Peace or Struggling withViolence.” Illinois Principals Association Building Leader-ship Practitioners Bulletin 2:1–2, 5–6. NCJ 160458.

Bodine, R., and D. Crawford. In press. DevelopingEmotional Intelligence Through Classroom Management:Creating Responsible Learners in Our Schools and EffectiveCitizens for Our World. Champaign, IL: ResearchPress, Inc. NCJ 160393.

Bradley, S., and F. Henderson. 1994 (Spring). “ACalm Approach to Violence in the Schools.” PopularGovernment, pp. 34–40.

Brekke-Miesner, P. 1994. Keeping the Peace. Oakland,CA: Oakland Unified School District, Office ofHealth and Safety Programs.

Brendtro, L., and N. Long. 1993 (Spring). “Vio-lence Begets Violence: Breaking Conflict Cycles.”Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Problems, pp. 2–7.NCJ 160460.

Brewer, D., J.D. Hawkins, R. Catalano, andH. Neckerman. 1994. Preventing Serious, Violentand Chronic Juvenile Offending: A Review of Evaluationsof Selected Strategies in Childhood, Adolescence and theCommunity. Seattle, WA: Developmental Research& Programs. NCJ 160394.

Cahill, M. 1993. Beacon School-Based CommunityCenters and Violence Prevention: A Discussion Paper.New York, NY: Youth Development Institute.NCJ 160396.

Cardenas, J. 1995. Multi-Cultural Education: A Gen-eration of Advocacy. Des Moines, IA: LongwoodDivision, Allyn & Bacon.

Cities in Schools, Inc. 1993. Seeds of Hope: A Guide forProgram Resources. Alexandria, VA: Cities in Schools,Inc. NCJ 160400.

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Fisher, R., W. Ury, and B. Patton. 1991. Gettingto Yes: Negotiation Agreement Without Giving In.New York, NY: Penguin Books. NCJ 160412.

Frias, G. 1994. “Rhetoric and Realism: We Needa National Strategy for Safe Schools.” HarvardEducation Newsletter 3(3):4–5. NCJ 160464.

Gaustad, J. 1991 (October). “Schools Attackthe Roots of Violence.” ERIC Digest, no. 63.NCJ 138814.

Gaustad, J. 1992 (December). “School Discipline.”ERIC Digest, no. 78. NCJ 160466.

General Accounting Office. 1995. School Safety:Promising Initiatives for Addressing School Violence.Washington, DC: U.S. General Accounting Office.NCJ 160070.

Girard, K., and S.J. Koch. 1996. Conflict Resolution inthe Schools: A Manual for Educators. San Francisco,CA: Jossey-Bass, Inc., Publishers.

Glass, R. 1994 (February). “Keeping the Peace:Conflict Resolution Training Helps Counter Vio-lence.” American Teacher (a publication of AmericanFederation of Teachers, AFL–CIO) 78(5):6–7, 15.NCJ 160468.

Grossnickle, D., and R. Stephens. 1992. DevelopingPersonal and Social Responsibility: A Guide to CommunityAction. Malibu, CA: Pepperdine University Press.NCJ 160415.

Haberman, M., and V. Schreiber Dill. 1995.“Commitment to Violence Among Teenagers inPoverty.” Kappa Delta Pi Record 31(4):148–156.NCJ 160472.

Hamburg, D. 1994. Education for Conflict Resolution.Report of the President. New York, NY: CarnegieCorporation of New York. NCJ 154823.

Hammond, R. 1994. Dealing with Anger: A ViolencePrevention Program for African American Youth.Champaign, IL: Research Press, Inc.

Hawkins, J.D. 1992. Social Development Strategy:Building Protective Factors in Your Community. Seattle,WA: Developmental Research and Programs, Inc.NCJ 160418.

Community Board Program. 1992. Starting a ConflictManagers Program. San Francisco, CA: CommunityBoard Program, Inc.

Crawford, D., R. Bodine, and R. Hoglund. 1993.The School for Quality Learning. Champaign, IL:Research Press, Inc. NCJ 160406.

Curwin, R., and A. Mendler. 1988. Discipline withDignity. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervisionand Curriculum Development.

Davis, A. 1994 (Fall). Justice Without Judges.PC# 7380100 0803. Chicago, IL: American BarAssociation, National Law-Related Resource Center.

Davis, A., and K. Porter. 1985 (Winter). Tales ofSchoolyard Mediation. PC# 7380100 0901. Chicago,IL: American Bar Association, National Law-Related Resource Center.

Davis, A., and R. Salem. 1985 (Spring). ResolvingDisputes: The Choice is Ours. PC# 7380100 0902.Chicago, IL: American Bar Association, NationalLaw-Related Resource Center.

DeJong, W. 1994 (Spring). “School-Based Vio-lence Prevention: From Peaceable School to thePeaceable Neighborhood.” Forum, no. 25, pp. 8–14.NCJ 149673.

DeJong, W. 1994 (Fall). “Creating a More PeacefulWorld.” School Safety. National School Safety Center(NSSC) News Journal. NCJ 160463.

Deutsch, M. 1973. The Resolution of Conflict. NewHaven, CT: Yale University Press. NCJ 160410.

Diaz-Rico, L., and K. Weed. 1995. The CrossculturalLanguage and Academic Development Handbook: AComplete K–12 Reference Guide. Des Moines, IA:Longwood Division, Allyn & Bacon.

Dreyfuss, E. 1990 (Spring). Learning Ethics inSchool-Based Mediation Programs. PC# 7380100 1402.Chicago, IL: American Bar Association, NationalLaw-Related Resource Center.

Fairfax County Public Schools. 1995. Fairfax CountyPublic Schools Task Force on Hispanic Youth and GangViolence, Preliminary Report. Fairfax, VA: FairfaxCounty Public Schools. NCJ 160411.

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Hawkins, J.D., H.J. Doucek, and D.M. Lishner.1988. “Changing Teaching Practices in MainstreamClassrooms to Improve Bonding and Behavior ofLow Achievers.” American Research Journal 25(1):31–50. NCJ 160474.

Hechinger, F. 1994. “Saving Youth From Violence.”Carnegie Quarterly 39(1):1–5. NCJ 148902.

Institute for Conflict Analysis and Resolution. 1994.Understanding Intergroup Conflict in Schools: Strategiesand Resources. Fairfax, VA: Institute for ConflictAnalysis and Resolution (ICAR), George MasonUniversity. NCJ 160420.

Iowa Peace Institute. 1994. Fostering Peace: A Com-parison of Conflict Resolution Approaches for StudentsGrades K–12. Grinnell, IA: Iowa Peace Institute.

Jenkins, J., and M. Smith. 1987. School Medi-ation Evaluation Materials. Albuquerque, NM:New Mexico Center for Dispute Resolution.

Johnson, D. 1994. Cooperative Learning in the Class-room. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervisionand Curriculum Development.

Johnson, D., and R. Johnson. 1993 (December/January). “Cooperative Learning and ConflictResolution.” The Fourth R 42:1, 4, and 8.NCJ 160477.

Johnson, D., and R. Johnson. 1995. Reducing SchoolViolence through Conflict Resolution. Alexandria, VA:Association for Supervision and Curriculum Devel-opment. NCJ 160421.

Kirschenbaum, H. 1995. 100 Ways to Enhance Valuesand Morality in Schools and Youth Settings. Des Moines,IA: Longwood Division, Allyn & Bacon.

Kohn, A. 1994 (December). “The Risks of Rewards.”ERIC Digest. NCJ 160478.

Lantieri, L., and J. Patti. 1996. Waging Peace in OurSchools. Boston, MA: Beacon Press.

Leal, R. 1989. The Next Generation of Campus Media-tion Programs. San Antonio, TX: Public JusticeDepartment, St. Mary’s University.

Leal, R. 1994 (November). “Conflicting Views ofDiscipline in San Antonio Schools.” Education andUrban Society 27(1):35–44.

Levy, J. 1989. “Conflict Resolution in Elementaryand Secondary Schools.” Mediation Quarterly 7(1):73–87. NCJ 120961.

Lockona, T. 1991. Education for Character: How OurSchools Can Teach Respect and Responsibility. New York,NY: Bantam Books.

Maxwell, J. 1989. “Mediation in the Schools:Self Regulation, Self Esteem and Self Discipline.”Mediation Quarterly 7(2):149–155. NCJ 123098.

Miller, E. 1994. “Promising Practices: Peer Media-tion Catches On, But Some Adults Don’t.” HarvardEducation Newsletter 3(3):8. NCJ 160483.

Miller, S. 1993 (Winter). Kids Learn About Justiceby Mediating the Disputes of Other Kids. PC# 73801001701. Chicago, IL: American Bar Association.

Moore, P., and D. Batiste. 1994 (Spring). “Prevent-ing Youth Violence: Prejudice Elimination and Con-flict Resolution Programs.” Forum, no. 25, pp. 15–19.NCJ 149674.

National Association for Mediation in Education.The Fourth R (bimonthly newsletter published bythe National Institute for Dispute Resolution, 1726M Street NW., Suite 500, Washington, DC 20036).

National Institute for Dispute Resolution. 1994(Spring). “Dispute Resolution, Youth and Violence”(special issue). Forum, no. 25. NCJ 160439.

National Institute of Justice. 1995 (March). Researchin Action: PAVNET Online User’s Guide. Washington,DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of JusticePrograms, National Institute of Justice. NCJ 152057.

National School Safety Center. 1995. School SafetyWork Book. What Works: Promising Violence PreventionPrograms. Malibu, CA: National School Safety Center.

Oehlberg, B. 1995. “Cooperative Conflict Man-agement Strengthening Families.” Resolution 4:1.NCJ 160485.

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Ohio Commission on Dispute Resolution andConflict Management. 1994. Conflict Management inSchools: Sowing Seeds for a Safer Society, Final Report ofthe School Conflict Management Demonstration Project1990–1993. Columbus, OH: Ohio Commission onDispute Resolution and Conflict Management.NCJ 149714.

Pastorino, R. 1991. The Mediation Process—Why itWorks: A Model Developed by Students. Grinnell, IA:Iowa Peace Institute. NCJ 160444.

Pettigrew, M. 1993. Confronting Racial, Ethnic, andGender Conflicts in the Schools. Boulder, CO: Univer-sity of Colorado, Conflict Resolution Consortium.NCJ 160445.

Pruitt, D. 1981. Negotiation Behavior. New York, NY:Academic Press. NCJ 097338.

Raffini, J. 1996. 150 Ways to Increase Intrinsic Motiva-tion in the Classroom. Des Moines, IA: LongwoodDivision, Allyn & Bacon.

Resolution (a journal published by the Ohio Commis-sion on Dispute Resolution and Conflict Manage-ment, 77 South High Street, 24th Floor, Columbus,OH 43266).

Rogers, M. 1994. A Series of Solutions and Strategies:Resolving Conflict Through Peer Mediation. Clemson,SC: National Dropout Prevention. NCJ 160447.

Roush, D. 1996. “Social Skills Training in JuvenileDetention: A Rationale.” Juvenile and Family CourtJournal 49(1):1–20. NCJ 160789.

Schmidt, F., and A. Friedman. 1994. Fighting Fair forFamilies. Miami, FL: Peace Education Foundation.NCJ 160448.

Smith, M. 1991 (Spring). Mediation and the JuvenileJustice Offender. PC# 7380100 1502. Chicago, IL:American Bar Association, National Law-RelatedResource Center.

Steele, P. 1991. Youth Corrections Mediation Program,Final Report of Evaluation Activities. Albuquerque,NM: New Mexico Center for Dispute Resolution.NCJ 149709.

Stephens, J.B. 1993 (Winter). “A Better Wayto Resolve Disputes.” School Safety, pp. 12–14.NCJ 141656.

Tennessee Education Association and AppalachiaEducation Laboratory. 1993. Reducing School Violence:Schools Teaching Peace. Charleston, WV: AppalachiaEducational Laboratory. NCJ 156514.

Tolan, P., and N. Guerra. 1994. What Works inReducing Adolescent Violence: An Empirical Review ofthe Field. Boulder, CO: University of Colorado,Institute for Behavioral Sciences. NCJ 152910.

Townley, A. 1994. “Introduction: Conflict Reso-lution, Diversity, and Social Justice.” Educationand Urban Society 27(1):5–10.

U.S. Department of Education and National SchoolBoards Association. 1994. Special Hearings on Violencein the Schools. Proceedings of the National SchoolBoards Association 54th Annual Conference andExposition, New Orleans, LA. NCJ 160452.

Weitz, J.H., President’s Committee on the Artsand the Humanities, and the National Assemblyof Local Arts Agencies. 1996 (April). Coming UpTaller: Arts and Humanities Programs for Children andYouth At Risk. Washington, DC: President’s Com-mittee on the Arts and the Humanities.

Wilson, J.J., and J.C. Howell. 1993. ComprehensiveStrategy for Serious, Violent, and Chronic Juvenile Offend-ers. Washington, DC: Office of Juvenile Justiceand Delinquency Prevention. NCJ 143453.

Wilson-Brewer, R., S. Cohen, L. O’Donnell, andI. Goodman. 1991. Violence Prevention for Young Adoles-cents: A Survey of the State of the Art. Washington, DC:Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development,Carnegie Corporation of New York. NCJ 160454.

Wolfgang, C. 1995. Solving Discipline Problems,3d edition. Des Moines, IA: Longwood Division,Allyn & Bacon.

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Appendix D: Conflict ResolutionGlossary

Active listening: A communication procedurewherein the listener uses nonverbal behavior, suchas eye contact and gestures, as well as verbal behav-ior, including tone of voice, open-ended questions,restatements, and summaries, to demonstrate to thespeaker that he or she is being heard.

Agenda: A list of items for discussion; issues orproblem statements assembled in a sequence thatfacilitates efficient discussion and problem solving.

Aggression: Forceful action or attack.

Arbitration: Intervention into a dispute by an in-dependent third party who is given authority tocollect information, listen to both sides, and makea decision as to how the conflict should be settled.

Avoidance: The practice of nonengagement.

Basic needs: Needs that underlie all human be-havior, such as survival, self-esteem, belonging,self-actualization, power, freedom, and fun. Likeindividuals, groups have basic needs, including theneed for identity, security, vitality, and community.

BATNA: An acronym for Best Alternative To Nego-tiated Agreement, the standard against which anyproposed agreement is measured.

Bias: A preconceived opinion or attitude aboutsomething or someone. A bias may be favorableor unfavorable.

Brainstorming: A storm of ideas. A group thinkingtechnique for helping disputants create multipleoptions for consideration in solving a problem.Brainstorming separates the creative act from thecritical one—all criticism and evaluation of ideasare postponed until later.

Caucus: A private meeting held with mediator(s)and disputant(s) to discuss needs and interests, thenegotiating plan, and ways to make the proceduremore productive.

Clarify: To make clearer or to enhance understand-ing. During a conflict resolution procedure, open-ended questions are often used for clarification.

Collaboration: Working with the other to seek solu-tions that completely satisfy both parties. This in-volves accepting both parties’ concerns as valid anddigging into an issue in an attempt to find innovativepossibilities. It also means being open and exploratory.

Common interests/common ground: Needs and/orinterests that are held jointly by the parties in anegotiation.

Community: A social group having common inter-ests, identity, and customs.

Competition: A strategy in which one pursues thesatisfaction of his/her own interests at the expenseof others—a win-lose approach.

Compromise: Seeking an expedient settlement thatonly partially satisfies both people. Compromisingdoes not dig into the underlying problem, but ratherseeks a more superficial arrangement, e.g., “splittingthe difference.” It is based on partial concessions—giving up something to get something—and mayhave an underlying competitive attitude.

Conflict: An expressed struggle between at leasttwo interdependent parties who perceive themselvesas having incompatible goals, view resources as be-ing scarce, and regard each other as interfering withthe achievement of their own goals; a controversy ordisagreement; coming into opposition with anotherindividual or group.

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Conflict resolution: A spectrum of processes thatall utilize communication skills and creative thinkingto develop voluntary solutions that are acceptableto those concerned in a dispute. Conflict resolutionprocesses include negotiation (between two parties),mediation (involving a third-party process facilita-tor), and consensus decisionmaking (facilitatedgroup problem solving).

Consensus: An agreement reached by identify-ing the interests of all concerned parties and thenbuilding an integrative solution that maximizessatisfaction of as many of the interests as possible;a synthesis and blending of solutions.

Consequence: A result that logically follows anaction.

Cooperation: Associating for mutual benefit;working toward a common end or purpose.

Culture: That part of human interactions and ex-periences that determines how one feels, acts, andthinks. It is through one’s culture that one estab-lishes standards for judging right from wrong, fordetermining beauty and truth, and for judging one-self and others. Culture includes one’s nationality,ethnicity, race, gender, sexual orientation, socio-economic background, physical and mental ability,and age.

Deescalate: To engage in actions that decrease theintensity of a conflict.

Disputant: One who is engaged in a disagreementor conflict.

Diversity: The fact or quality of being distinct.

Empowerment: A method of balancing power ina relationship wherein the lower party acquiresmore power by gaining expertise, obtaining extraresources, building interpersonal linkages, and/orenhancing communication skills.

Escalate: To engage in actions that increase theintensity of a conflict.

Evaluation: The assessment of an option or possibleconflict solution.

Facilitation: The use of a third party or parties toprovide procedural assistance to a group attemptingto reach consensus about a problem.

Framing: The manner in which a conflict solutionor issue is conceptualized or defined.

Ground rule: A basic rule of behavior spelled outand agreed to at the beginning of a conflict resolu-tion procedure.

Hidden interest: A basic need or want that is notimmediately evident in a conflict situation, but thatmust be recognized and addressed before meaning-ful dialog can occur.

Integrative bargaining: The process of attemptingto address and satisfy as many interests or needs aspossible.

Interest: A substantive, procedural, or psychologicalneed of a party in a conflict situation; the aspect ofsomething that makes it significant.

Mediation: Intervention in a dispute by an impartialthird party who can assist the disputants in negotiat-ing an acceptable settlement.

Mediator: An invited intervener in a dispute whoseexpertise and experience in conflict resolution tech-niques and processes are used to assist disputantsin creating a satisfactory solution. The mediator is aprocess guide whose presence is acceptable to bothdisputants and who has no decisionmaking powerconcerning the issues in the dispute.

Negotiation: An interaction between two or moreparties who have an actual or perceived conflict ofinterest. In a negotiation, the participants join volun-tarily in a dialog to educate each other about theirneeds and interests, to exchange information, and tocreate a solution that meets the needs of both parties.

Option: An alternative course of action; a possiblesolution that may satisfy the interests of a party toa dispute.

Peace: A process of responding to diversity andconflict with tolerance, imagination, and flexibility;fully exercising one’s responsibilities to ensure thatall fully enjoy human rights.

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Position: A point of view; a specific solution that aparty proposes to meet his/her interests or needs. Aposition is likely to be concrete and explicit, ofteninvolving a demand or threat and leaving little roomfor discussion. In conflict resolution, an essentialactivity is for participants to move beyond positionsin order to understand underlying interests andneeds.

Power: The ability to act or perform effectively.

Reframing: The process of changing how a personor party to a conflict conceptualizes his/her oranother’s attitudes, behaviors, issues, and interests,or how a situation is defined. Reframing duringconflict resolution processes helps to mitigate de-fensiveness and deescalate tension.

Resolution: A course of action agreed upon to solvea problem.

Restraint: A method of balancing power in arelationship wherein the party with more powervoluntarily refuses to use some of the power athis or her disposal.

Summarize: To restate in a brief, concise form.Summarizing is an aspect of active listening utilizedby both disputants and mediators to increase com-mon understanding.

Synergy: Cooperative thought and/or action oftwo or more people working together to achievesomething neither could achieve alone.

Trust: To have confidence in or feel sure of; faith.

Value: A principle, standard, or quality consideredworthwhile or desirable.

Violence: Psychological or physical force exertedfor the purpose of injuring, damaging, or abusingpeople or property.

Sources: Schrumpf, F., D. Crawford, and R. Bodine. 1996.Peer Mediation: Conflict Resolution in Schools, revisededition, Champaign, IL: Research Press, Inc. Reprinted withpermission from the authors and Research Press. Girard, K.,and S.J. Koch. 1996. Appendix A. Conflict Resolution in theSchools: A Manual for Educators, pp. 135–139. Reprintedwith permission from Conflict Resolution in the Schools: AManual for Educators, K. Girard and S.J. Koch, copyright©

1996, Jossey-Bass Inc., Publishers, 800–956–7739.

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Appendix E: Conflict Resolution inSchools Needs Assessment

Answer each question by providing the response that most accurately reflects your personal view ofyour school.

1. I am a: ❑ student ❑ staff member ❑ parent ❑ other

2. Conflicts interfere with the teaching and learning process:

❑ often ❑ sometimes ❑ rarely

3. Problems between people at this school are caused by:

often sometimes rarelya. expectation to be competitive ❑ ❑ ❑b. intolerance between adults and students ❑ ❑ ❑c. intolerance between students ❑ ❑ ❑d. poor communication ❑ ❑ ❑e. anger and/or frustration ❑ ❑ ❑f. rumors ❑ ❑ ❑g. problems brought to school ❑ ❑ ❑

from somewhere else

4. Without exceeding 100% as the total, estimate the percentage of problems referred fordisciplinary action by the following categories:

a. between students ___________ %b. between student and classroom teacher ___________ %c. between student and other staff members ___________ %d. between student and school rules ___________ %e. other ___________ %

Total 100%

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5. Indicate the types and frequency of conflicts experienced by students in this school:

often sometimes rarelya. put-downs/insults/teasing ❑ ❑ ❑b. threats ❑ ❑ ❑c. intolerance of differences ❑ ❑ ❑d. loss of property ❑ ❑ ❑e. access to groups ❑ ❑ ❑f. rumors ❑ ❑ ❑g. physical fighting ❑ ❑ ❑h. verbal fighting ❑ ❑ ❑i. school work ❑ ❑ ❑j. other: ___________________ ❑ ❑ ❑

6. Indicate the effectiveness of each of the following actions in causing a student to change aproblem behavior:

very effective somewhat not effectiveeffective

a. time out ❑ ❑ ❑b. detention ❑ ❑ ❑c. conference with an adult ❑ ❑ ❑d. suspension ❑ ❑ ❑e. contacting parent(s) ❑ ❑ ❑f. expulsion ❑ ❑ ❑

7. Without exceeding 100% as the total, what percentage of influence do the following groupshave in the way the school operates?

a. students ___________ %b. teachers ___________ %c. parents ___________ %d. principals and school administrators ___________ %e. superintendents and district administrators ___________ %f. board of education ___________ %g. other ___________ %

Total 100%

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8. In this school, I am generally:

most of the about one-half of not very oftentime the time

a. treated fairly ❑ ❑ ❑b. treated with respect ❑ ❑ ❑c. given equal opportunity ❑ ❑ ❑d. treated with compassion ❑ ❑ ❑e. accepted ❑ ❑ ❑

9. I am allowed to solve problems that affect me:

❑ nearly always ❑ sometimes ❑ hardly ever

10. This school should do a better job teaching students to:

definitely yes maybe definitely noa. tell another person how you feel ❑ ❑ ❑b. disagree without making the other ❑ ❑ ❑

person angryc. respect authority ❑ ❑ ❑d. control anger ❑ ❑ ❑e. ignore someone who is bothering you ❑ ❑ ❑f. solve problems with other students ❑ ❑ ❑

11. When I need help, I ask for it:

❑ nearly always ❑ sometimes ❑ almost never

12. If I needed help, I think I could get it from:

definitely yes maybe definitely noa. a parent ❑ ❑ ❑b. a brother or sister ❑ ❑ ❑c. another family member ❑ ❑ ❑d. a teacher ❑ ❑ ❑e. a counselor ❑ ❑ ❑f. another school staff member ❑ ❑ ❑g. another adult ❑ ❑ ❑h. another student ❑ ❑ ❑

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13. I think this school has:

❑ more problems than most other schools❑ about the same amount of problems as most other schools❑ fewer problems than most other schools

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Appendix F: Conflict ResolutionProgram/Curriculum Assessment Forms

General Information

Name of program: __________________________________________________________________

Author(s): _________________________________________________________________________

Publisher’s name, address, phone:

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

Publication date: ____________________________________________________________________

Cost:

Teacher material $ __________

Student material $ __________

Video material $ __________

Other material $ __________

Specify nature of other: ___________________________________________________________

Target audience (check all that apply)

Schools:

❑ Preschool students❑ K–2d grade students❑ 3d–5th grade students❑ 6th–8th grade students❑ 9th–12th grade students❑ Parents❑ Teachers❑ Administrators❑ Other school staff❑ Other adults

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Alternative schools:

❑ Students❑ Staff❑ Parents

Juvenile justice facilities:

❑ Youth❑ Staff❑ Parents

Instruction format:

❑ One-on-one❑ Small group (<15)❑ Classroom (15–30)❑ Schoolwide

Other general descriptive information about curriculum/program:

Strengths and weaknesses:

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Use the following forms to assess the curriculum/program in five critical dimensions.

Foundation Abilities of Conflict Resolution

The program provides for developing understanding of conflict and peace and for the development oforientation, perception, emotion, communication, and creative thinking and critical thinking abilities.

Degree to Which Skill/Concept Is Developed by the Program

Foundation Ability/Concept Thoroughly Well Somewhat Not at all Comments

Understanding conflict 4 3 2 0

Cooperation 4 3 2 0

Appreciation for diversity 4 3 2 0and prejudice reduction

Understanding peace 4 3 2 0

Empathizing 4 3 2 0

Dealing with perceptions 4 3 2 0

Managing emotions 4 3 2 0

Active listening 4 3 2 0

Speaking to be understood 4 3 2 0

Brainstorming 4 3 2 0

Fairness 4 3 2 0

Fundamental Principles of Conflict Resolution

The program incorporates and provides for the development of operational understanding of the fourfundamental principles of conflict resolution.

Degree to Which Principle Is Incorporated Into the Program

Fundamental Principle Extensively Well Somewhat Not at all Comments

Separate people from 4 3 2 0the problem.

Focus on interests not 4 3 2 0positions.

Invent options for 4 3 2 0mutual gain.

Use objective criteria. 4 3 2 0

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Learning Process Criteria

Problem-Solving Processes of Conflict Resolution

The program provides training in and practice with the problem-solving strategies.

Problem-Solving Process Major emphasis Minor emphasis No emphasis

Negotiation Yes No Yes No Yes No

Mediation Yes No Yes No Yes No

Consensus decisionmaking Yes No Yes No Yes No

Learning Opportunities and Styles

Criteria for the learning process relate to the manner in which the curriculum is organized, delivered,and learned.

Degree to which criteria are satisfied

Fully To some extent

100% 75% 50% 25%

The program uses a variety 4 3 2 1 0of learning activities.

The program offers opportunities 4 3 2 1 0to practice conflict resolution inday-to-day situations.

Materials are age appropriate 4 3 2 1 0for the target population.

Materials have clear formats 4 3 2 1 0and directions.

Materials are culturally consistent 4 3 2 1 0for the target population.

Materials are gender sensitive. 4 3 2 1 0

Materials provide ideas 4 3 2 1 0for extending activities andlearning beyond the materials.

Materials offer opportunity or 4 3 2 1 0ideas for parental involvement.

Materials contain ideas for 4 3 2 1 0integrating conflict resolutioninto standard school subjects.

CommentsNot at all

F–5

Implementation

Criteria for implementation relate to the efficacy of the information provided by the program to guideschool personnel in the use of the materials and the program.

Degree to which criteria are satisfied

Fully To some extent

100% 75% 50% 25%

Describes how to use the program. 4 3 2 1 0

Describes appropriate audiences 4 3 2 1 0for the program.

Describes how to address 4 3 2 1 0barriers to implementation.

Offers startup ideas and 4 3 2 1 0suggestions for extending theprogram.

Describes how to identify 4 3 2 1 0students for participation if onlysome students will be involved.

Provides staff with suggestions 4 3 2 1 0for resources that offer additionalinformation and strategies.

Provides schedules and plans 4 3 2 1 0for training students.

Provides practice activities in 4 3 2 1 0conflict resolution.

Offers ideas for promoting the 4 3 2 1 0program within the school.

Provides ideas for managing 4 3 2 1 0program operation.

Delineates adult responsibilities 4 3 2 1 0in program operation.

Provides ideas for obtaining 4 3 2 1 0sponsorships and financialsupport.

Provides tools for assessing 4 3 2 1 0program effectiveness.

CommentsNot at all

Implementation Criteria

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Appendix G: Conflict Resolution StaffDevelopment Provider AssessmentForms

Provider Assessment Form

General Information

Name of provider: __________________________________________________________________

Organizational affiliation: ____________________________________________________________

Provider address:

____________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________

Phone: (_____ )_____________________________________________________________________

Fax: (_____ )_____________________________________________________________________

Training based on specific published materials? ❑ Yes ❑ No

If yes, title of materials: ___________________________________________________________Authors: _______________________________________________________________________Publisher and publication date: ____________________________________________________

Materials included in training costs? ❑ Yes ❑ No

If no, cost: Teacher materials: $ __________

Student materials: $ __________ Required? ❑ Yes ❑ No

Video materials: $ __________ Required? ❑ Yes ❑ No

Other materials: $ __________ Required? ❑ Yes ❑ No

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Type of training provided:

Training audience:

Format of training:

Length of training:

Scheduling options:

Costs of staff development services:

Other general descriptive information about the staff development provider:

Strengths and weaknesses:

G–3

Provider Competency Assessment Form

Qualifications and training in conflict resolution:

Training in negotiation theory? ❑ Yes ❑ NoIf yes, where received? ___________________________________________________________When? ________________________________________________________________________

Training in mediation? ❑ Yes ❑ NoIf yes, where received? ___________________________________________________________When? ________________________________________________________________________

Experience:

Served as a mediator? ❑ Yes ❑ NoIf yes, what were the experiences? _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

School-based experience in education? ❑ Yes ❑ NoIf yes, what were the experiences? _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Implemented a school conflict resolution program? ❑ Yes ❑ NoIf yes, what types of programs? ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Number of years providing staff development in conflict resolution. _______________________

Has trained students in conflict resolution? ❑ Yes ❑ NoHas trained teachers in conflict resolution? ❑ Yes ❑ NoHas trained administrators in conflict resolution? ❑ Yes ❑ NoHas trained other school staff in conflict resolution? ❑ Yes ❑ NoHas trained parents in conflict resolution? ❑ Yes ❑ No

Approximate number of people that have been trained by staff developer: __________________

Involvement in school reform initiatives? ❑ Yes ❑ NoIf yes, what was the involvement? ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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Participated in the development of a strategic plan? ❑ Yes ❑ No

Facilitated the development of a strategic plan? ❑ Yes ❑ No

Has developed published materials? ❑ Yes ❑ No

Provides followup technical assistance and support? ❑ Yes ❑ NoIf yes, services? ______________________________________________________________Costs? ______________________________________________________________________

Provide references for performance as staff development provider:

1)_________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________

2)_________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________

3)_________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________

4)_________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________

School representative may observe staff development provider conducting a training sessionprior to the school committing to a contract with the provider.

❑ Yes ❑ No

If yes, when? ___________________________________________________________________Where? ________________________________________________________________________

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Appendix H: Strategic Planning Process

Schools and other organizations around the countryare engaged in strategic planning on a regular basis.Such planning is valuable to the success of any en-deavor and should be part of the implementation ofany conflict resolution education program. The follow-ing information, which may be very familiar and sec-ond nature to many readers of this Guide, is providedto help readers who are not experienced in the strate-gic planning process to formulate a plan for bringingconflict resolution education into their setting.

Planning ProcessA plan for a conflict resolution program is devel-oped by the planning team in collaboration withthe entire school faculty and is based on the resultsof the needs assessment. A planning team withbroad-based school and community representationincreases “ownership” of the program and commit-ment throughout the school community for its im-plementation. The planning process suggested herehas four basic components: belief statements, a mis-sion statement, program goals, and an action plan.

Belief StatementsBelief statements express fundamental convictionsand tenets related to conflict and conflict resolution.They provide a basis for achieving consensus withinthe school community regarding a conflict resolutionprogram in the school. The belief statements arethe basis for obtaining the school’s commitment toa specific mission to implement such a program.The following are sample belief statements:

♦ Conflict is a natural part of everyday life.

♦ Conflict is an opportunity to grow and learn.

♦ Neither avoidance nor violence are healthyresponses to conflict.

♦ Through awareness of cultural differences, wegrow to respect others and to cherish diversity.

♦ Adults provide powerful behavior models for stu-dents; this is especially true in dealing with conflict.

♦ Students can learn to resolve some of theirconflicts without adult involvement.

Mission StatementThe mission statement is a broad declaration of thepurpose of a conflict resolution program for theschool. It is the cornerstone upon which the entireplan for the program is built. Often expressed asa single, brief, general statement, the mission state-ment articulates the primary focus of the program,emphasizes the distinctiveness of the program, andrepresents the commitment to the program. Thefollowing is an example of a mission statement:

The mission of the conflict resolution educationprogram is to teach students and faculty toresolve conflicts productively, to promote mu-tual understanding of individuals and groupsthroughout the school, and to enhance theclimate of the school.

Program Goals: Adult and StudentOutcomesGoals are expressions of the desired outcomes of theconflict resolution program for students and adultsin the school. The goals are the map for achievingthe mission and give direction to all implementationplanning. They guide the setting of priorities and

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provide the framework for evaluation of the pro-gram. The following are examples of program goals:

♦ Students will utilize the conflict resolution processesof negotiation, mediation, and consensus decision-making to resolve problems between students,between students and adults, and among groups.

♦ Adults will utilize the conflict resolution processesof negotiation, mediation, and consensus decision-making to resolve problems between students,between students and adults, between adults, andamong groups.

Action PlanThe action plan delineates the tasks required to select and implement a conflict resolution program. Itidentifies the person responsible for each task, the timeline for completion, and the resources necessary.Development of the action plan is an ongoing process. As tasks are achieved, new tasks are delineated.The following is an example of an action plan format showing the initial steps in implementing a conflictresolution education program:

1. Preview program/curriculum resourcematerials and selectprogram(s)/curriculum(s).

2. Interview and checkreferences of staff develop-ment providers and selectstaff development provider/trainer.

3. Train planning com-mittee to develop pro-gram and use curriculummaterials.

4. Provide faculty awarenessin-service training on con-flict resolution education.

Program/curriculumassessment forms.Budget: $200.

Planning TeamLeader

Planning Team

Staff developmentprovider competencyassessment forms.Budget: $20 (phone).

Staff developmentbudget.Budget: $2,500.

Published materials,handouts, video rental.Budget: $300.

August–September

October

November

December

Task Responsibility Resources Timeline

Planning Team

Planning Team

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Appendix I: The Story of Little RedRiding Hood and the Wolf, RetoldThrough Negotiation

Step 1: Agree To NegotiateRED: I’m Red Riding Hood. I agree to take turns

talking and listening and to cooperate tosolve the problem.

WOLF: I’m the Wolf. I agree to take turns talkingand listening, and I agree to cooperate withyou, Red Riding Hood, to solve the problem.

Step 2: Gather Points of ViewRED: I was taking a loaf of fresh bread and some

cakes to my granny’s cottage on the otherside of the woods. Granny wasn’t well, soI thought I would pick some flowers for heralong the way.

I was picking the flowers when you,Wolf, jumped out from behind a tree andstarted asking me a bunch of questions.You wanted to know what I was doing andwhere I was going, and you kept grinningthat wicked grin and smacking your lipstogether. You were being so gross and rude.Then you ran away. I was frightened.

WOLF: You were taking some food to your grand-mother on the other side of the woods,and I appeared from behind the tree andfrightened you.

RED: Yes, that’s what happened.

WOLF: Well look, Red, the forest is my home. Icare about it and try to keep it clean. Thatday, I was cleaning up some garbage peoplehad left behind when I heard footsteps. Ileaped behind a tree and saw you comingdown the trail carrying a basket of goodies.

I was suspicious because you were dressed inthat strange red cape with your head coveredup as if you didn’t want anyone to know whoyou were. You started picking my flowers andstepping on my new little pine trees.

Naturally, I stopped to ask you what youwere doing. You gave me this song anddance about going to your granny’s housewith a basket of goodies.

I wasn’t very happy about the way youtreated my home or me.

RED: You were concerned when you saw me in ared cape picking your flowers. You stoppedme and asked me what I was doing.

WOLF: That’s right.

RED: Well, the problem didn’t stop there. WhenI got to my granny’s house, you were dis-guised in my granny’s nightgown. You triedto eat me with those big ugly teeth. I’d bedead today if it hadn’t been for the woods-man who came in and saved me. You scaredmy granny. I found her hiding under the bed.

WOLF: You say I put on your granny’s nightgownso you would think I was your granny, andthat I tried to hurt you?

RED: I said you tried to eat me. I really thoughtyou were going to eat me up. I was hysterical.

WOLF: Now wait a minute, Red. I know yourgranny. I thought we should teach you alesson for prancing on my pine trees inthat get-up and for picking my flowers.I let you go on your way in the woods,but I ran ahead to your granny’s cottage.

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When I saw Granny, I explained whathappened, and she agreed that you neededto learn a lesson. Granny hid under thebed, and I dressed up in her nightgown.

When you came into the bedroom you sawme in the bed and said something nastyabout my big ears. I’ve been told my earsare big before, so I tried to make the best ofit by saying big ears help me hear you better.

Then you made an insulting crack aboutmy bulging eyes. This one was really hardto blow off, because you sounded so nasty.Still, I make it a policy to turn the othercheek, so I told you my big eyes help mesee you better.

Your next insult about my big teeth reallygot to me. You see, I’m quite sensitive aboutmy teeth. I know that when you made funof my teeth I should have had better con-trol, but I leaped from the bed and growledthat my teeth would help me to eat you.

But, come on, Red! Let’s face it. Everyoneknows no Wolf could ever eat a girl, butyou started screaming and running aroundthe house. I tried to catch you to calm youdown.

All of a sudden the door came crashingopen, and a big woodsman stood there withhis ax. I knew I was in trouble . . . there wasan open window behind me, so out I went.

I’ve been hiding ever since. There are ter-rible rumors going around the forest aboutme. Red, you called me the Big Bad Wolf.I’d like to say I’ve gotten over feeling bad,but the truth is I haven’t lived happily everafter.

I don’t understand why Granny never toldyou and the others my side of the story.I’m upset about the rumors and have beenafraid to show my face in the forest. Whyhave you and Granny let the situation go onfor this long? It just isn’t fair. I’m miserableand lonely.

RED: You think that I have started unfair rumorsabout you, and you are miserable and lonelyand don’t understand why Granny didn’ttell your side of the story.

Well, Granny has been sick—and she’sbeen very tired lately. When I asked herhow she came to be under the bed, she saidshe couldn’t remember a thing that hadhappened. Come to think of it, she didn’tseem too upset . . . just confused.

WOLF: So you think it is possible that Grannyjust doesn’t remember because she is sick.

Step 3: Focus on InterestsRED: I want to be able to take flowers to Granny

when I visit her because she is lonely andflowers help cheer her up.

I want to be able to go through the forestto Granny’s house because it is too far totake the road around the forest.

I want you to stop trying to scare me orthreaten me in the forest because I wantto feel safe. Besides, I think the forest isa fun place.

WOLF: You want to go through the forest to visitGranny who is lonely, and you want to feelsafe because you think the forest is a neatplace.

RED: Yes, and I want to take flowers to Granny.

WOLF: I want you to watch where you are walkingand to stop picking my flowers because Iwant to keep my forest home looking nice.

I want the rumors to stop because I wantpeople to like me, and I want to be able toenjoy the forest without being afraid thatsomeone is hunting for me.

RED: You want the forest to be pretty, you wantpeople who visit the forest to like you andnot be afraid of you, and you want to besafe in the forest.

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WOLF: Right, the forest is my home. I should befree to enjoy my own home.

Step 4: Create Win-Win OptionsRED: In order to solve this problem, I could try

to stay on the path when I walk through theforest.

WOLF: I could try to remember to call out when Ihear you coming instead of quietly steppingout from behind a tree. I could plant someflowers over by Granny’s house for you topick.

RED: I could pick up trash I see in the forest andtake it to Granny’s trash can.

WOLF: I could check up on Granny to make sureshe is OK on those days when you can’tmake it. She is my friend, you see.

RED: Granny and I can talk to the woodsmanand tell him we made a mistake about you.I could tell my friends that I’m not afraidof you anymore—that you can be nice.

WOLF: I could meet your friends on the edge ofthe forest and show them through it.

Step 5: Evaluate OptionsWOLF: Do you think if you tell the woodsman and

your friends that you made a mistake aboutme and that I’m really nice, then I won’thave to worry about the woodsman andhis hunters catching me?

RED: I think that will work.

WOLF: Maybe I could go with you to talk to thewoodsman.

RED: Yes, that would help. You could also gowith me when I tell my friends I’m notafraid of you anymore. . . . I’d like to helpyou plant some flowers at Granny’s, and

I could also help you plant some in theforest. It would be nice to visit Grannytogether. She’s pretty lonely.

WOLF: That sounds good.

RED: I agree.

WOLF: I don’t think it will work for you to stay onthe path all the time. I can show you whereto walk so you don’t harm anything.

RED: I think that’s fair.

WOLF: I agree.

RED: Will it work for you to check on Grannywhen I can’t visit her?

WOLF: Yes, if you call me early in the morning.

RED: I think it would be a good idea if I ask myfriends for a donation when you give thema tour of the forest, and we could use themoney to buy more trees to plant and starta recycling program for the trash we pick up.

WOLF: I think we’ve taken care of both of ourinterests.

RED: This solution will help both of us.

Step 6: Create an AgreementRED: I’ll arrange for Granny and myself to talk

to the woodsman. I’ll try to get an appoint-ment for this afternoon, and I’ll let youknow when.

WOLF: I’ll get some flowers to plant at Granny’s.I’ll have them ready to plant Saturday. I’lldraw up a possible forest tour map and giveit to you.

RED: As soon as I get your tour map, I’ll bringsome friends over to try it out. That’s whenI’ll introduce you and tell them you’re nice.

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WOLF: I’ll put a donations box at the edge of theforest for our tree planting and recyclingprogram.

RED: And I’ll call you by 7 o’clock if I can’t govisit Granny.

WOLF: OK. I’ve agreed to get flowers to plant bySaturday, to draw a tour map of the forest, togo along with you to talk with the woodsman,to meet your friends and lead a tour throughthe forest, to take care of the donations box,and to visit Granny when you can’t do it.

RED: I’ve agreed to arrange for an appointmentwith Granny and the woodsman, to plantflowers with you, to bring my friends totour the forest and introduce you as a niceWolf, and to call you by 7 o’clock if I can’tvisit Granny.

(The two shake hands.)

Source: Bodine, R., D. Crawford, and F. Schrumpf. 1994.Creating the Peaceable School: A Comprehensive Programfor Teaching Conflict Resolution. Champaign, IL: ResearchPress, Inc., pp. 102–104, 106, 108, 110, 112. Reprinted withpermission of the authors and Research Press, Inc.