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Concept of Waste Management
59
3
CCOONNCCEEPPTT OOFF WWAASSTTEE MMAANNAAGGEEMMEENNTT
Excessively consumer – oriented culture and human greed have done
irreparable damages to the environment and ecology of this planet. Waste
and its disposal is the gravest problem before the mankind. ‘Waste is the
wrong amount of wrong thing in the wrong place at the wrong time’. Since
environmental pollution has reached menacing dimensions, several studies
have been done by eminent persons and institutions at national and
international levels.
3.1 Background of Waste Management.
The problem of waste and waste disposal is entirely man-made.
Before ‘Homo Sapiens’ appeared on earth, there were no real waste
materials. The body constituents of most plants and animals are efficiently
recycled after they die. The dead organism is rapidly broken down by other
animals, by fungi and by bacteria so that its essential chemicals are
liberated in to the soil. There they serve as nutrients for growing plants,
which in turn are consumed by herbivorous animals. Most of the nutrients
are then quickly returned to the soil in the herbivore’s excrement. The
herbivores themselves also serve as food for carnivores, which similarly
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recycle nutrients in their excrement. Finally, the bodies of the carnivores
are incorporated into the soil for further use by the plants. Thus breakdown
and decay is the general environmental rule. (G.R. Chhatwal, 1997)
The distinguished archaeologist Jacquetta Hawkes writes Waste
disposal by human beings may be said to have begun when hunters of
the earliest Stone Age tossed their gnawn bones over their Shoulders......
She points out that Paleolithic hunter were not cave-proud. They
allowed bones and other animal debris, wood ash and waste flakes of
flint knapping to accumulate under them until the cave might be reduced
to half its heights. So their methods of disposal were not very efficient
and most ancient settlements were eventually buried under their own
debris.(G.R. Chhatwal, 1997)
Man’s impact on his environment goes back far beyond the beginning
of history. Man’s earliest ancestors were forest – dwellers whose evolution
gradually led them out into the savanna and the open plains. With this change
of habitat would be associated some change of diet, since food gathering
would no longer be confined to wild fruits and vegetable sources, while dead
meat, fishes and large insects would be picked up often enough to substitute
an omnivorous for a vegetarian pattern. Such a more diversified, opportunist
existence would lend enhanced survival value to cunning, learning and
mobility, and would inevitably lead to conflicts with other scavenging and
eventually predatory animals with rival claims to prey.
Nomadic people were, and often still are unhygienic, moving their camp
sites when they become too unpleasant. The wastes produced by our
unhygienic ancestors, and the materials found in their kitchen middens have
enabled archaeologists to produce a picture of their life- style and eating habits.
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61
Jacquetta Hawkes comments on London as follows: The city of
London may be regarded as a modest from of tell (i.e., an artificial mound
of accumulated remains of ancient settlements) with the streets of the
Roman town lying some 20 feet below our own. It provides a convincing
proof of the greater civic efficiency of the Romans over Londoners of the
middle Ages. At both periods pits were dug and filled with waste, but while
in Roman times, these held ash and other dry materials, those of a thousand
years were used for organic domestic refuse that must have added to the
notorious Stink of medieval London’s. Similarly reports of excavations of
Anglo-Saxon York show that much of the rubbish often remained within
the house, where the floors were covered with material which had ‘many
resemblances to that of herbivorous dung’ and which supported a similar
fauna of scavenging insects. (G.R. Chhatwal , 1997)
Until a hundred years ago, waste disposal and sewage treatment in
London and other cities was very ineffective. In the cities most refuse
was allowed to rot in the street, where it encouraged vermin of various
types.
The stage of human existence in settled communities vastly altered
the relationship between man and the natural environment. First, it created
a more or less continuously occupied site, or cluster of sites, on which arose
structures for shelter and living, middens of refuse such as shells and
bones, crude work places and primitive latrines, and stockades or other
peripheral barriers against animal or human raiders. Such sites formed the
first nuclei for the growth and spread of pollution, disease and erosion, and
the first regular targets for the incipient art of warfare, which itself has so
greatly, contributed to injuring the natural environment.
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When humans came to live in towns and cities, there was usually
some attempt to reduce pollution of the whole environment from
excrement, although this was not successful. A couple of centuries ago
there were no proper drainage systems. However in the towns much of the
excrement was voided into some sort of latrine.
The introduction of the water closet provided the opportunity for
improving the situation. Flushing water closets were then widely introduced
with a great improvement in urban conditions, but the untreated human
wastes were discharged into the Rivers. During the summer the windows
were covered with cloths soaked in disinfectant. The river became dead and
all fish and most other forms of aquatic life were eliminated. The year 1856
became known as ‘the year of the great stink’. (G.R. Chhatwal , 1997)
The situation improved from the end of the 19th century onward.
Various methods of sewage treatment were installed in all parts of the world.
In the Western countries, during the agrarian past, throwing garbage out
into the street for roving pigs to eat seemed like a perfectly reasonable
method of waste management. As manufacturing became a larger part of
industries and materials had potential for recycling, there evolved the advent
of another kind of scavenger, ‘the junk man’ who pulled from the waste
stream, those materials that had value. This practice increased during the
Great Depression and even more so during World War II. Later tremendous
improvements were made in the safe disposal of wastes.
Conclusion
In short we can say that generation of solid waste is not a new
phenomenon. It is as old as the human civilization. The way one manages
one’s waste material is a sign of the times. Solid waste management will
Concept of Waste Management
63
not be a problem in the earlier periods, since there was less population and
a lot of fallow land. But in modern times rapid increase in population
growth and urbanization aggravated the amount of wastes and the problem
of waste management.
3.2 Definitions of Waste Management
A.C. Varshney, (1987), defines waste management as the discipline
associated with the control of generation, storage, collection, transfer and
transport, processing and disposal of wastes in a manner that is in accord
with the best principles of public health, economics, engineering,
conservation, aesthetics and other environmental considerations. Waste
management includes all administrative, financial, legal, planning and
engineering functions involved in the whole spectrum of solutions to
problems of waste thrust upon the community by its inhabitants.
The problems associated with management of rural wastes in today’s
society are complex because of the quantity and diverse nature of the
wastes, the funding limitations, and the impact of technology and the lack
of social awareness amongst the village people. The activities associated
with the management of wastes may be grouped into six functional
elements: (1) waste generation, (2) storage, (3) collection, (4) transfer and
transport, (5) processing and recovery, and (6) disposal. A universal
solution cannot be applied to waste management problems. Alternative
waste management methods exist, creating a lead for economic analysis to
determine the least cost solution. The least cost waste management method
is a function of the type and volume of waste produced, and utilization,
return, and treatment costs.
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A solid waste management sector is a complex system of different
strongly interrelated activities primary and secondary collection, transport
to processing plants and disposal sites and recovery and recycling activities.
This sector as a whole consists of ‘formal’ and ‘informal’ sector.
Formally the municipality in cities of most developing countries is
responsible for processing household, commercial and institutional waste.
It is supposed to provide containers, keep the streets clean, collect and
transport solid waste and process it in some manner. Sometimes private
enterprises assist the municipal authorities in doing so.
Part of the solid waste generated in urban areas is processed by large
or small recycling enterprises. Before solid waste materials reach such
enterprises, they go through many wings of the informal sector- those of
individuals and groups of waste pickers, dealers and wholesalers selling
solid waste as raw materials to recycling enterprises. (Marijk 1994)
Prof. M.B. Nirmal opined that ‘waste is not waste until wasted’.
According to him waste management is necessary due to the following
eight reasons. They are.
1) Prevent environmental hazards
2) Conserve natural resources
3) Save water bodies
4) Ensure hygiene
5) Save trees by recycling paper
6) Encourage organic farming using compost generated
7) Generate employment opportunity and
8) Reduce the consumption of energy.
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G.R.Chhatwal, (1997) in his important work Encyclopedia of
Environmental Waste Pollution examines different types of wastes and its
disposal methods. Waste management is the gravest problem before
mankind today. Solid wastes are any non-liquid waste materials arising
from domestic, trade, commercial, industrial, agriculture and mining
activities and from the public services. A material becomes waste only
when a specific owner ceases to have a use for it. Current waste disposal
philosophy is to Endeavour to treat all wastes are resource materials; some
for recycling; some for conversion to fertilizer or as a source of energy; and
the balance for land reclamation.
As the level of wastes rises and the amount of space available to store
it safely without contaminating ground water declines, what can be done?
The traditional answer involves the three R’s:– Reduce, Reuse, Recycle.
Tom Tietenberg (1998 )
According to Baumol and Wallace (1979), growth in population and
in output per-capita can be expected to increase the amount of solid waste.
Many cities are having trouble disposing of the mounting heaps of trash.
Neighboring areas are reluctant to serve as the cities dumps and locations
near cities that are suitable for landfill operations are getting scarce. Other
method of waste disposal is now recognized to create problems of their
own. Burning garbage pollutes the air, while treatment of liquid waste
leaves a sludge which must be disposed of. Dumping wastes into the ocean
nearby is not costless to society, sludge dumped into the sea can kill or
contaminate marine life and pollute nearby waters and beaches. The
changing composition of solid wastes also adds to the problem of disposal.
For example, plastics, make up an increasing percentage of solid waste all
in all, the problem of solid waste disposal can hardly be viewed with
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equanimity. It surely represents a major environmental problem that is
likely to grow worse.
Proper solid waste management requires commitment and resources
to deal with. Municipal authorities do not have adequate resources and
technical capacity to deal with the gigantic problem. Successful waste
management requires involvement of the community and private
entrepreneurs to work with local governments. Therefore, the collection
efficiency of municipal solid waste has been reported low. On an average,
roughly 30-40- percent of total waste generated remains uncollected which
is one of the biggest sources of environmental degradation.( Awadhesh and
Sonika,), (2005)
Karpagam, (1991), in his book Environmental Economics observes
that, solid wastes are the most visible form of pollution. Most of the
methods of disposing them pose serious damage to environment and hence
solid waste management should be effectively handled. It is a global
problem and no country on the earth is spared of this problem of garbage.
The author pointed out some chief methods of disposal of solid
wastes which include – dumping in landfills, dumping in ocean,
incineration, using as cattle and hog feed, pyrolysis and controlled tipping
and sanitary landfills. The other two methods of disposal include
Composting and Recycling. Efficient management of solid waste means
exploring the possibilities for utilization recovery of usable materials from
them and recycling
Prof. V.R. Reghunandan (2004) in his study pointed out that
Management of waste involves purposeful and systematic control of the
generation, storage, collection, transport, processing and disposal of these
Concept of Waste Management
67
misplaced resources - that is what they are. The author observes that waste
materials generated by activities connected with the market, agriculture,
industry and household have become a major public health hazard. Solid
waste management has become a matter of prime. Management of waste
involves purposeful and systematic control of the generation, storage,
collection, transport, processing and disposal of these ‘misplaced
resources‘– that is what they are. Solid waste management promoting waste
treatment initiatives in local self government institutions in Kerala through
Technology Adaptation and Transfer
Prof. Benny Joseph, (2005), has given a hierarchy of municipal solid
waste management which involves Avoid Minimize Recycle
Treat and Dispose. He pointed out that there are several MSW management
practices such as source reduction, recycling, composting and prevention or
diversion of materials from the waste stream. He also said that illegal dumping
is the disposal of solid and hazardous waste in a non-permitted area. Illegal
dumping may also be known as’ open dumping’, ‘fly dumping’ or ‘midnight
dumping’ because materials are often dumped in open areas, dumped from
vehicles along roadsides and /or late at night. Illegal dumped wastes are
primarily non - hazardous materials that are dumped to avoid either disposal
fees or the time and effort required for the proper disposal.
In his paper presentation Prof.K.Ramasamy, (2008), pointed out that,
waste management will help to
To protect human health
To contribute the quality of life
To maintain ecological equilibrium and
To ensure safe disposal of waste.
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He also pointed out that there are five stages of waste management,
they are;
Waste collection and transport
Waste treatment
Intermediate waste storage
Waste dumping and
Waste recycling.
in the Proceedings of the Indian Environment Congress, 2004, it is
considered that major share of the solid waste generated from the
households, markets, hospitals, hotels and small scale industries like coir
processing units etc is degradable waste and it can be managed through
composting process, either a windrow composting or vermin composting.
The Solid Wastes generated in hotels can be managed through constructing
a compost plan of size 1m X 1m X 0.5m by the hotel owners themselves.
Since, the Neighbourhood Groups are very active in composting units
either for every Neighbourhood Groups or 3-4 Neighbourhood Groups
together is proposed. Two women from the Neighbourhood Groups can be
given the responsibility to operate, maintain and manage each unit and they
can even get a nominal honorarium for this by selling the compost
produced through this programme.
The Economic Review (2008), Published by State Planning Board
considered that, with the rapid urbanization, the solid waste management
in most of the cities in Kerala is posing a major environmental problem
now days. Rough estimates reveal that the quantity of waste generated
from the urban towns in the State comes to the tune of 2800-3000 tons
per day. It is estimated that only 50% of the waste generated is collected
Concept of Waste Management
69
for disposal. Every day a quantity of about 1500 tons of waste is left to
decompose on road margins, drains, canals, water bodies and open
space. The reason for poor waste management is due to the absence of
segregation and primary collection from the source of its origin. To fill
up this lacuna, Kudumbasree- the State Poverty Eradication Mission has
initiated an innovative enterprise namely, ‘Clean Kerala Business’.
Under this enterprise women from the financial backward families who
are the members of the Community Based Organizations (CBOs) of
Kudumbasree are engaged in door to door household waste collection
and transport to the transit points fixed by the Urban Local Bodies.
Now 155 Kudumbasree solid waste management groups are in
operation in 18 urban local bodies in the State. The advantage of
Kudumbasree model of solid waste collection group is that it can fill the
existing gap of solid waste collection and segregation without any
additional financial to the urban local bodies.
Dhanalakshmy, (2008), pointed out that the problem of waste disposal
has become very acute in towns and cities as disposal facilities have lagged far
behind the quantity of wastes produced. The common methods used currently
for garbage disposal pose serious threat to the health of environment. A series
of health and environmental issues emerge from the poor service and
management of solid waste disposal. Only recently, scientific requirements
linked to the protection of our natural environment have produced a social
awareness and a genuine desire to ensure natural ecological balance.
Conclusion
Instead of exploiting nature, we should respect the intrinsic value of
the natural world and make attempts to preserve its remnants. Such
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attempts must include an awareness which would help us to integrate
economic and ecological considerations which will preserve the integrity,
stability and beauty of the biotic community leading to sustainable
development.
3.3 Sustainable Development
Sustainable development has come to the top of the international and
domestic policy agendas. Sustainable development is defined as development
that meets the needs of present generations without compromising the ability
of future generations to meet their needs. This definition underlines the
intergenerational responsibilities placed on the earth’s inhabitants.
(Ian Goldin and L. Allen, 1995).
Sustainable development is a pattern of social, economic and
development which optimizes the economic and societal benefits available
in the present, without spoiling the likely potential for similar benefits in
the future. A primary goal of sustainable development is to achieve a
reasonable and equitably distributed level of economic well-being that can
be perpetuated continually for many human generations.
Long term sustainable development requires an understanding of the
interaction between human activities and natural process.
The Earth is finite. Its ability to absorb wastes and destructive
effluent is finite. Its ability to provide for growing numbers of people is
finite. And we are fast approaching many of the Earth’s limits. Current
economic practices cannot be continued without the risk that global
systems will be damaged beyond repair. A pressure from unrestrained
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71
population growth puts demands on the natural world that can overwhelm
any efforts to achieve a sustainable future. (Richard Baldwin, 1995)
Displacement of materials by industrial and agricultural activities
causes the most severe anthropogenic stress on the natural system. Hence
the understanding of human-induced material flows and the comparison of
this with natural flows is essential to promote sustainable development. To
ensure sustainable development we must ensure a balanced economic and
social progress with concern for the environment and the careful
stewardship of natural resources.
Sustainable development means managing resources efficiently and
maximizing the benefit we get from them so as not to overload the world’s
ecosystem. This requires a combined action of governments, business
organizations and ordinary people around the world.
In order to promote sustainable development, renewable natural
resources should be used in a manner which does not eliminate or degrade
them or otherwise diminish their usefulness for future generations. Non-
renewable mineral resources should be used in such a way that does not
prevent the future generations from accessing it. Thus sustainable
development also requires depleting non-renewable energy resources at a
slow rate so as to ensure the high probability of an orderly society transition
to renewable energy sources. (Prof Benny Joseph, 2006)
Based on the above arguments sustainable development has been
alternatively defined in various manners. State of the Environment Report
– 1999, Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India, has
defined sustainable development as ‘Sustainable development ensures that
the maximum rate of resources consumption and waste discharge for a
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selected development portfolio would be sustained indefinitely, in a defined
planning region, without progressively impairing its bio-productivity and
ecological integrity. Environmental conservation, therefore, contrary to
general belief, accelerates rather than hinders economic development.
Therefore the development plans have to ensure sustainable equitable use
of resource for meeting the needs of the present and future generations
without causing damage to environment. To prevent further damage to our
life-support system; to conserve and nurture the biological diversity gene
pool and other resources for long term food security.
The primary objective of Sustainable Development is to reduce the
absolute poverty of the word’s poor through providing lasting and secure
livelihoods that minimize resource depletion, environmental degradation,
cultural disruption and social instability.
It is clear that sustainable development requires natural resource protection
without causing any damage to our environment. Since environmental
pollution and waste discharge must act as major obstacles to sustainable
development. Therefore our resource consumption will be in such a way
that is available and affordable to our future generations.
Even though India has a rich tradition of environment conservation,
large scale environment degradation has resulted from population pressures,
industrialization and the indiscriminate use of forest areas for fuel, power
generation and irrigation purposes. The spread of input intensive green
technology has given India a certain measure of food security, but it has been
at the cost of falling water tables, degrading soils, poor management of
irrigation systems and the harmful side effects of increasing pesticide and
fertilizer use. Industrial growth and uncontrolled urbanization pollute water, air
Concept of Waste Management
73
and land. Similarly rapid economic growth led to changing life style such as
increasing use of automobiles and plastics are also putting an immense stress
on resources and the environment.
A sustainable policy on non-renewable does not require a complete ban
on their consumption but involves wise, economical use, so we leave as large
stocks as possible for future generations. Most importantly a proportion of
non–renewable should be set aside for producing replacements.
The earth’s assimilative capacities – the atmosphere, rivers oceans
and terrestrial ecosystems we use as ‘sinks’ for wastes – are best thought
of as renewable resources. They are valuable as resources not only
because of their capacity to assimilate wastes, but also because they play
a role in supporting depletable renewable resources and in contributing
to the recycling of continuing resources such as fresh air and clean water.
Rates of emission must therefore take into account of the full ecological
value of these capacities. Once the quality of the media on which we rely
for the disposal of wastes is impaired, the ecosystems they support may
no longer produce yields that can be harvested usefully or even safely,
and may even collapse.
Conclusion
Since a healthy ecology is the basis for a healthy economy the policy
makers and the public must aware that how our society and the economy will
change in order to avoid environmental degradation and thereby promoting and
ensuring sustainable development. By 2050, or planet will need do support some
ten billion people this raises huge challenges in food, clothing and shelter for this
rapidly growing population without depleting the world’s resources and eroding
the inheritance of future generations. The answer is Sustainable Development a
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concept which seeks to balance economic and social progress with concern for
the environment and the careful stewardship of natural resources.
3.4 The Dangers of Waste Management
There are potential risks to health and to the environment form
improper handling of solid wastes. The dangers of solid waste management
can be classified as the following heads
Effects on humans
Effects on animals
Effects on plants
Effects on materials and
Global effects
Let us examine each of these in detail
3.4.1 Effects on Humans
Human beings especially the sanitation workers are most probably
concerned with the direct effects of pollutants upon their health. These
workers need to be protected as far as possible from skin contact with
wastes. They may often under educate and may leave the job when they
are injured or become ill. Improper storage and disposal of waste
provide the conditions for the breeding of disease vectors, primarily flies
and rats.
The indirect effect of pollution to general public may occur through
various gaseous pollutants like carbon monoxide, sulpher dioxide and gases
from automobile exhausts which may affect the respiratory system, leading
to acute illness and death. Chronic diseases such as bronchitis, pulmonary
emphysema or asthma; nervous impairment, eye irritation and unpleasant
Concept of Waste Management
75
reactions to offensive odors are some of the results of this gaseous
pollutants.
Most of the metals are poisonous to living organisms while some are
essential to plant and animal life. Among them, arsenic, barium, beryllium,
cadmium, chromium, cobalt, copper, led, manganese and mercury are more
toxic.
Nowadays danger from pesticides is increasing enormously and
newer problems are being created. These pollutants are released into the
atmosphere mainly from agricultural practices. DDT, the non bio-
degradable compound is found in all parts of the biosphere evaporates into
the air and the winds carry it all over the planet.
Other chlorinated hydrocarbons, dieldrin, aldrin, BHC, chlordane and
endosulphan behave similarly and all are toxic to man. They affect the
central nervous system and other vital organs. Fluoride present in drinking
water causes dental caries, mottled teeth, bone and skeletal disorders.
Carcinogens are physical and chemical agents which produce cancer in
man. Man made carcinogens like aromatic amines, asbestos and mutagens
may lead to bladder cancer, lung cancer and birth defects respectively.
Radioactive materials cause blood abnormalities, leukemia and
heaemorrhagic diseases, thyroid changes, bone changes, skin changes and
lung changes. Radiations cause damage to germ cells.
Biological contaminants present in our environment are also
detrimental to human health. Air-borne micro organisms cause
cerebrospinal meningitis. The infection by pathogenic bacteria causes
epidemic diseases, such as cholera, typhoid, diarrhea, dysentery and other
enteric diseases. Viruses commonly found in sewage and polluted waters
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may cause infectious hepatitis. Different types of parasites will also cause
ill-health to humans.
3.4.2 Effects on Animals
Environmental pollution poses a serious health problem to animals
also. Air pollutants are known to produce eye and respiratory irritation in
animals. The most serious effect is the poisoning of livestock by fluorides
and by arsenic. The ingestion of these pollutants by cattle causes abnormal
calcification of bones and teeth resulting in loss of weight and lameness.
Sewage, toxic chemicals and disease-producing organisms can make water
unfit for use by farm animals.
Water pollutants can also endanger aquatic life and every year
millions of fish are reported to be killed by municipal sewages and
industrial wastes. Thermal pollution, by which the water in rivers, streams
and lakes get excess heat, can kill fish and other aquatic life. Pesticide
levels in many species of birds reduce the reproduction rates through
mechanisms, such as interference in calcium metabolism.
3.4.3 Effects on Plants
Air pollution plays an important role in affecting plant life by
causing widespread damage to trees, fruits, vegetables and ornamental
flowers. Photochemical smog is proved to bleach many plants, such as
spinach, lettuce, tobacco, alfalfa and other leafy plants. Ethylene
released form automobile exhausts makes carnation petals curl inward. It
also ruins orchids by drying and discoloring their sepals. Retardation of
plant growth may occur even when pollution levels are not high enough
to produce noticeable injury. Some plants are more sensitive than others
Concept of Waste Management
77
to the pollutants and hence there may be complex changes in the plant
eco-system.
3.4.4 Effects on Materials
Pollution accelerates deterioration of materials and construction. Acid
air pollutants, particularly sulpher dioxide gas and sulphuric acid aerosols
corrode metals and building materials. They also cause weakening or
disintegration of textiles, paper and marble. Ozone produces cracks in
rubber. Particulate pollutants cause erosion of building surfaces. Water
pollutants, such as suspended particles and dissolved inorganic compounds,
adversely affect pumps, industrial equipments, bridges, and other materials.
The noise produced by sonic booms can even damage buildings and break
windows.
3.4.5 Global Effects
Over the past century, pollutants have been discharged into the
environment in mounting quantities. Apart from other effects, these
pollutants also affect the climate of the earth as a whole. Human activities
affect the world climate in several ways. Carbon dioxide enters into the
atmosphere will raise the temperature of the earth’s surface. Dust particles
keep the sky become cloudier and the atmospheric turbidity increases.
Exhaust gases from rockets contain certain substances and these
substances pollute the upper atmosphere and produce changes which
might affect the layer of ozone protecting the earth’s surface from harmful
ultra-violet radiations. Clearance of forests and their replacement by
grassland or cultivating causes changes in the local pattern of heating of the
ground and atmosphere.
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Conclusion
Since the quality of our lives depends completely on the health and
vigor of the web of living things that cleanse the air and water, create soil,
capture sunlight and provide us with food and resources, we must recognize
the need to control pollution and the desirability of conserving sample of
the ecological and genetic richness and the natural beauty of the earth.
3.5 Waste Management and Pollution
The first and most important source of pollution is the growing
population. Our earth is crowded with people who consume resources and
crate wastes. This population growth leads to pollution as it causes a
disproportionately negative impact on the environment. When the
population increases the discharged human wastes are also increased. If the
percapita amounts of pollutants and wastes were to remain constant the
residue loading on the environment would rise precisely in relation to the
growth of the population and it is beyond the assimilative capacity of
environment
Human life means garbage and sewage and exhaled air. And the
greater the number of human beings and the higher the standard of living
attained by them, the greater tends to be the volume undesired by-products
of production and consumption is returned to the environment. This is why
environmental pollution is a more serious problem for us today than it was
for earlier generations and why it threatens to be even more serious for the
generations ahead. Besides population growth, increases in urbanization
and industrialization and rising standards of living are the major reason for
increasing pollution.
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79
There are several kinds of pollution differentiated on the basis of the
nature of the pollutant. A pollutant is a physical agent which if found in
excess amount alters the quality of the environment adversely. The
different types of pollution includes Air pollution, Water pollution, Soil
and Land pollution, Thermal pollution, Radioactive pollution and pollution
due to Biomedical waste, Infectious waste, chemical waste and E-waste.
Each of these is discussed in detail.
3.5.1 Air Pollution
Air pollution may be described as the imbalance in the quality of air
which causes ill effects. Different types of pollutants are continuously
emitted into the atmosphere and removed by the self purification process of
air. But when the rate of pollution exceeds or when the self-purifying
capacity decreases, accumulation of pollutants causes serious public health
problems. Air pollution in cities has increased as more and more people
have crowded in.
Sources of air pollution can be broadly classified into natural and
anthropogenic. The natural sources include volcano, forest, fire and pollens.
The anthropogenic sources include everything human activities. Major air
pollutants and their harmful effects are given below.
Carbon monoxide is an odorless colorless poisonous gas that
comes mainly from motor vehicles and other combustion exhaust.
Carbon monoxide interferes with the blood’s ability to carry oxygen to
the brain, heart and other tissues and it is particularly dangerous for
people with existing heart disease and unborn or new born children.
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Ozone is harmful in the lower atmosphere and ozone in the upper
atmosphere protects us form ultraviolet radiation. Ozone reacts with lung
tissue. It can inflame and cause harmful changes in breathing passages,
decrease the lung’s working ability and cause both coughing and chest
pains.
High levels of Nitrogen dioxide exposure can give people cough
and can make them feel short of breath. People who are exposed to
Nitrogen Dioxide for a long time have a higher chance of getting
respiratory infections. Sulpher dioxide constricts air passages, making it
a problem for people with asthma and for young children. Even brief
exposure to relatively low levels of sulpher dioxide can cause difficulty
in breathing
Particulate air pollution is a complex mixture of small and large
particles of varying origin and chemical composition. Larger particles
usually comprise smoke and dust from industrial processes, agriculture,
construction and road traffic as well as plant pollen and other natural
sources. Smaller particles include soot from vehicle exhaust, which is often
coated with various chemical contaminants and fine sulphate and nitrate
aerosols that form when Sulphur Dioxide and Nitrogen Oxides condense in
the atmosphere. Particulate pollution has been linked to increased hospital
admissions and emergency room visits for respiratory problems and to a
substantial increase in premature deaths. Exposure to high levels of lead
can damage the blood, brain, nerves, kidneys, reproductive organs and the
immune system. Lower levels can result in impaired mental functioning
and raising blood pressure.
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3.5.2 Water pollution
Water pollution may be defined as the adverse change in the
composition or condition of water such that it becomes less suitable for
the purposes for which it would be suitable in its natural state. The
changes include physical, chemical and biological changes. Water
pollution nowadays is considered not only in terms of pubic health but
also in terms of conservation, aesthetic and preservation of natural beauty
and resources.
The sources of water pollution are numerous. Most industrial
effluents are discharged into rivers. These contain both organic and
inorganic hazardous materials and non-biodegradable ones too. Industrial
effluents, when discharged through the sewage system poison the
biological purification mechanisms of sewage treatment and these sewages
on subsequent discharge result in pollution of rivers. If the industrial
effluents are discharged directly, then they are injurious to public health.
Another important industrial waste is heat. Heated effluents can drastically
alter the ecology of a stream or lake.
The next principal contributor is municipal sewage. These in
combination with industrial wastes pose newer public health problems.
Since population growth is increasing the quantity of waste water is also
increasing in addition to the production of large quantities of sewage.
Waste from agricultural practices is another source of water pollution.
Drainage from silage and manure slurry form intensive husbandry causes
heavy pollution. Plant nutrients, insecticides and pesticides are also
introduced into water caused by agricultural practices. Sediment from land
erosion containing mostly inorganic materials is also classified as a pollutant.
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Underground water pollution occurs by the substances leached from
refuse and spoils heaps, from fertilizers over the land and from silage
making. Water pollution may also arise from the disposal of industrial
wastes in disused mine-shafts and quarries. It is deemed that the pollution
affecting underground aquifers is more serious than it would be in a surface
water course due to the impossibility of treating the polluted water. Since
saline waters are drawn into the aquifer, over pumping in coastal areas is
considered to cause ground water pollution.
Marine pollution is also another form of water pollution. It can be
defined as the direct or indirect introduction by humans of substances or
energy into the marine environment , resulting in harm to living resources,
hazards to human health , hindrances to marine activities including
fishing, impairment of the quality of sea water and reduction of amenities
. Marine pollution is considered as a human activity thereby omitting all
natural activities that could potentially have damaging effects on the ocean
ecosystem.
The oceans are the ultimate sink for most of the waste we produce.
In addition to natural runoff, atmospheric fall out garbage untreated
sewage from ships, accidental oil spills from tankers and offshore oil
drilling platforms. Barges and ships also dump industrial wastes, sludge
from sewage plants, and materials dredged or scraped from the bottoms of
harbours and streams to maintain shipping channels into the oceans.
Many of these materials are contaminated with disease causing
microorganisms and with toxic substances, including pesticides, metals
such as lead or mercury, oily PCBs and cancer-causing organic
compounds.
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3.5.3 Soil Pollution
Soil pollution usually results from the disposal of solid and semi-solid
wastes in agricultural practices and unsanitary habits. Fall out from
atmospheric pollution also contributes to soil pollution. Year-by-year, solid
wastes are increasing due to the changing consumption pattern of people.
Rapid urbanization with consequent increase in buildings has resulted in
the reduction of land for the wastes to be disposed Dumping of industrial
and municipal wastes causes toxic materials to be leached and to steep
into the soil which affects the ground water course. Agricultural practices
introduce pesticides, fertilizers and manures to land resulting in biological
and chemical contamination. Direct pollution of land by pathogenic
organisms is also seen. The soil gets heavily polluted day-by-day by
hazardous materials; micro-organisms enter the food-chain or water and are
consequently ingested by man.
Disposal of industrial solid wastes is a major source of soil pollution
by toxic chemicals. Industrial wastes are mainly discharged from coal and
mineral mining, metal processing and engineering industries. They contain
toxic metals such as lead, copper etc. Urban wastes comprise both
commercial and domestic wastes including dried sludge of sewage. All
these urban wastes are known as ‘refuse’ which contains garbage, rubbish
materials such as papers, glasses, metallic cans, plastics, fibers , residues
from home fuels, street sweepings rubbles and abandoned vehicles.
Industrial solid wastes are also tipped on the land and the disposal of all
types of solid wastes results in increasing soil pollution. As a result,
hazardous chemicals can enter into surface or ground water and poison the
soil or crops.
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The dumping of solid wastes creates not only aesthetic but also pubic
health problems. Solid wastes may cause diseases in man but they are
hazardous to health. There is an increase in the number of rats and flies due
to dumping of wastes, as they are carriers of insects and other bio-
organisms responsible for plague. The flies which carry pathogenic
organisms cause disease, such as dysentery, diarrhea etc.
Agricultural practices also pollute the soil. Many agricultural areas
have now large surpluses of plant and animal wastes which will cause
pollution. Since agriculture is becoming more and more intensive,
increasing quantities of fertilizers, pesticides and soil-conditioning agents
are used. The wastes formed due to these materials cause severe land
pollution problems.
Throughout the world the use of artificial fertilizers on land has
increased considerably. Though fertilizers are used to fortify soil, they
contaminate the soil with their impurities. When the fertilizers are
contaminated with other synthetic organic chemicals, the soil water gets
polluted.
The use of artificial fertilizers on land has increased considerably.
Though fertilizers are used to fortify soil, they contaminate the soil with
their impurities. When the fertilizers are contaminated with other synthetic
organic chemicals, the soil water gets polluted. The remnants of these
pesticides may be absorbed by soil particles which contaminate root crops
grown in soils.
In addition to fertilizers and pesticides, soil conditioners and
fumigants are used in agriculture. These chemical agents cause alternations
in both the agricultural and horticultural lands. Organic compounds,
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containing lead, mercury and arsenic when applied to land, accumulate the
soil permanently and introduce these toxic metals into the plant products.
3.5.4 Thermal Pollution
Thermal pollution is the process of heating up a body of water
through runoff or discharge. Heat and hot water result form many industrial
processes. They are in particular by-products of the activity of thermal
power stations. The warm water rejected into the marine medium has
harmful effects, primarily on the marine animal life.
Thermal pollution increases water temperature, causing a change of
dissolved oxygen levels. This disrupts the body of water’s ecological
balance resulting in the suffocation of some plant and animal species. The
overgrowth and suffocation causes a cascade reaction with other organisms
that are dependent on the ones that don’t survive and with organisms that
now have to complete with the overgrowing organisms. These upset the
balance of the eco-system.
Human activities can introduce thermal pollution into streams in
several ways. Industries and power plants may use water to cool
machinery and then discharge the warmed water into a stream. Water
temperature rises when trees and tall vegetation providing shades are cut
down. Soil erosion caused by construction, removal of stream side
vegetation, poor farming practices, overgrazing and recreation increases the
amount of suspended solids in the water. Thermal pollution can also occur
though earthquakes.
When there is thermal pollution, the warmer water increases the
metabolic rate of fish and other animals in the sea; this decreases the life
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expectancy of aquatic animals. Increase in the water temperature also
affects many other aspects of the ecosystem. Thermal shock and thermal
enrichment are the two effects of thermal pollution.
The sudden change in temperature due to hot waste water can be of
harm to fish and other aquatic animals that have been used to a particular
level of water temperature this can cause fish to migrate to a more
suitable environment. This is termed as thermal shock.
Thermal enrichment occurs when heated water from power plants may
be used for irrigation purposes to extend plant growing seasons, speed up the
growth of fish and other aquatic animals for commercial purposes. However
the harmful effect of thermal pollution outweighs the benefits.
3.5.5 Radioactive Pollution
It is defined as the increase in natural background radiation emerging
from the activities of man involving the use of naturally occurring or
artificially produced radioactive materials. Radiation effects are hazardous
not only to the employees engaged in radiation research but also to the
general public. The chances of radioactive materials spreading into the air
have increased extensively as a result of the discovery of artificial
radioactivity and particularly due to the development of atomic bomb and
of techniques of harnessing nuclear energy.
Environmental radiation may be divided into two types: naturally
occurring radiation and man-made radiation. Naturally occurring radiations
are, cosmic radiations from the outer space reaching the earths surface and
terrestrial radiation from the natural radio-isotopes present in the earth’s
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crust. The primary sources of natural radiations are the ores of uranium
and thorium which contain a wide variety of radioactive nuclides.
Man-made radiations originate from activities of man involving the
use of radioactive materials. Radio-nuclides are used in the production of
nuclear fuel and nuclear weapons and electricity. They are extensively
used as tracers in various fields.
3.5.6 Biomedical Waste
This type of waste includes surgical dressings, cultures, biological
tissues, needles and other sharps Clinical wastes can be of human or animal
origin. Clinical and biological waste must be decontaminated or sterilized
before leaving the hospital .Sharps must be segregated from other types of
clinical and biological waste by collection in an approved sharps container.
Wastes contaminated with higher risk organisms including any
clinical or biological waste of human origin must be thoroughly sterilized
and must be disposed off hazardous waste. Human and animal tissues,
blood or body parts must never be placed in the ordinary garbage stream,
even if decontaminated.
3.5.7 Infectious Waste
The term infectious waste includes; biohazardous waste, biological
waste, medical waste, hospital waste, medical hazardous waste, infective
waste, microbiological waste, pathological waste and blood bag waste.
3.5.8 Chemical Waste
Chemical wastes include solvents, acids, alkalis, organic and
inorganic chemical poisons and cytotoxins. Incompatible chemical wastes
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must be segregated. It is possible to neutralize acidic, alkaline, oxidizing
or reducing wastes in laboratories with experience and technical
competence. If the end product is not hazardous then it may be discarded
into the drain. More experienced personnel are needed to neutralize this
type of wastes.
3.5.9 The Problem of E - Waste
The average functional life span of computer system is from three to
five years. Computer systems will function for many years after that, but
they tend to lack the power or performance required to keep up with
modern applications and software. As a result there is a large amount of
‘out dated’ computer equipment. The problem is that much of this
equipment is ending up in landfills or overseas and is contaminating the
environment.
Environmentally PCs still rate poorly in spite of the ongoing
improvements. Computer manufacturing releases dioxin, halogens and
chlorofluorocarbons, lead, mercury and other pollutants. Some manufacturers
are producing equipment without some of these toxins with recycled-
content glass and plastics or with easily removable parts to facilitate
recycling.
Junk IT hardware is also known as electronic waste or e-waste. Other
electronic equipment such as mobile phones, stereos and microwaves are
also e-waste. The disposal of e-waste is a huge global issue. The problem
is difficult to solve because e-waste is composed of thousands of different
substances including lead, beryllium, mercury, cadmium and brominated
flame retardants. These ingredients are not easy to separate for reuse or
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recycling. Many of the component parts of e-waste are so hazardous that
they pose both-occupational and environmental threats.
It is important to emphasize that the real solution to the problem
of e-waste will eventually be found at the point of design and
manufacture. Governments could encourage the environmentally
responsible manufacturer of IT hardware by creating and enforcing
legislation that would compel vendors to manage the end of life disposal
of their products. Such laws would prevent mainly downstream
problems.
Much of the computer equipment that is manufactured uses various
toxic materials that cannot be disposed off like garbage. These materials
can be acids used in various batteries and capacitors to things like lead
that is used to live the tubes in many computer monitors. Due to the
large amount of this toxic material making it into the environment
through improper disposal, many governments are now looking into
programmes to try and properly recycle or dispose off these components.
Conclusion
We must understand ‘environment’ is the priceless gift of nature. To
protect our environment and maintain the ecological balance, we must
bestow our immediate attention to it. The world will become uninhabitable
if pollution continues unabated. We should be ready to accept the price paid
to set right the environmental degradation, or adverse consequences will be
faced by mankind.
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