CODE SWITCHING IN

PRIMARY MATHEMATICS CLASSROOMS

by

NEO KlAN SEN

Dissertation Presented to the School of Educational Studies

Universiti Sains Malaysia In Partial Fulfilment ofthe Requirements

for the Degree of

Doctor of Education

Universiti Sains Malaysia Pulau Pinang

April2011

..

Acknowledgements

First, I would like to express my gratitude to my supervisor Associate Professor

Dr. Lim Chap Sam for inspiring me to investigate this research topic and giving me

continuous advice, guidance and encouragement as well as invaluable assistance.

would also like to thank Dr. Leong Lai Mei and Dr. Tan Kok Eng for their helpful

suggestioHs for improving my research presentations and research dissertation. My

sincere appreciation also goes to my former superior, Dato' Professor Dr Hussin @

Mohamad Bin Abd Rahman from the MARA University of Technology, Kelantan

Branch Campus for his advice, assistance special arrangements of my work schedule to

allow me to attend the 15 compulsory courses for the Ed D programme at USM Penang

Campus. I also owe much gratitude to my research subjects and their gate keepers.

They are school administers, teachers and students from 16 schools in Kelantan. Without

their cooperation and support, I would not have completed this project. Finally, thank

you to my family members, especially my wife Madam Heng Buai Chin, our two

children Neo E-On and Neo On E, and my parents Mr Neo Hai Min and Madam Chua

Chu Lang, for their love and unwavering support throughout the very long and arduous

journey of my graduate school studies.

II

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgements

Table of Contents

List of Tables

List of Figures

Abstrak

Abstract

..

CHAPTER 1 -- INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

1.2 Statement ofthe Problem

1.3 Objectives ofthe Study

1.4 Research Questions

1.5 Theoretical Framework

1.6 Conceptual Framework

1.7 Significance ofthe Study

1.8 Operational Definitions

CHAPTER 2 -- REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Types of Code-switching

2.2.1 Definitions of Code-switching

2.2.2 Categorization of Code-switching

2.3 Mother Tongue Use in Bilingual Education

2.4 The Functional Models of Code-switching

2.4.1 Ferguson's ( 1959) Notion of Diglossia

2.4.2 Fishman's ( 1965) Domain Theory

Ill

II

Ill

VIII

XI

xiii

XV

2

5

6

6

14

17

19

21

22

22

24

29

32

32

"" .).)

2.5

2.6

2.7

2.8

2.4.3 BJorn and Gumperz's (1972) Signalling and Interpretive Model

2.4.4 Giles's (1973, 1977) Speech Accommodation Theory (SAT)

2.4.5 Halliday's (1973, 1975, 2004) Functional Grammar Theory

2.4.6 Gumperz's (1982) Interactional Sociolinguistic Approach

2.4.7 Myers-Scotton 's ( 1983, 1993) Markedness Model

2.4.8 Marasigan 's ( 1983) Six Functions of Illocutionary Acts

2.4.9 Appel & Muysken 's (1987) Six Functions of Language Use

2.4.1 0 Summary ofthe Functional Models of Code-switching Before the 1990s

Functions of Code-switching in Classroom: Studies in the 1990s •.

2.5.1 Meritt et al. 's ( 1992) Study

35

38

40

45

48

50

52

56

56

58

2.5.2 Canagarajah's ( 1995) Study 59

2.5.3 Eldridge's(l996)Study 61

2.5.4 Summary of the Three Studies on Functions of Code-switching in 62 Classrooms and Implications on This Study

Functions of the L I and L2 Used in Mathematics Classrooms: A Psycholinguistic Model

Functions of Code-switching in Mathematics Classrooms

2.7.1 Studies in the United States

2.7.2 Studies in Africa

2.7.3 Studies in Malaysia

Conclusion

65

71

71

75

79

80

CHAPTER 3 -- METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

3.2

3.3

3.4

3.5

Research Design

Participants

Methods of Data Collection

3.4.1 Classroom Observation

3.4.2 Interview

Procedure of Data Collection

IV

83

83

84

87

87

88

89

3.6

3.7

3.8

3.9

3.8

3.9

3.10

Pilot Study

Data Analysis

3.7.1 Verbatim Transcription

Method of Data Analysis

91

93

94

95

3.8.1 Unit of Analysis: Utterance of C-unit 95

3.8.2 Languages Used in Utterance of C-Unit 99

3.8.3 Estimation of the Use of L I (students' mother tongue) in I 00 Classroom Discourse

3.8.4 Types of Code-switching and Counting of Cases I 02

3.8.5 Communicative Functions of Languages Used I 04

3.8:6 Instances of Code-switching in the Progression of a Lesson I 08

Presentation of Research Findings

3.9.1 Quantitative Analysis

3.9.2 Qualitative Analysis

Ethical Issues and Confidentiality

Reliability and Validity ofthe Study

Summary

110

I 12

113

118

CHAPTER 4 -- DATA ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS

4.1

4.2

Introduction

Languages Used in Primary Mathematics Classrooms

121

121

4.2.1 The Use ofthe L1, L2 and Code Mixing ofthe Ll and L2 in 122 Mathematics Classrooms of a National Primary School (SK)

4.2.2 The Use of the L I, L2 and Code Mixing of the L I and L2 in 124 Mathematics Classrooms of a Chinese Primary School (SJKC)

4.3 The Extent to which Teachers and Students Resorted to Code-switching in 127 Teaching and Learning Mathematics

4.4 Comparison ofthe Use ofthe Ll and L2 in the Mathematics Classrooms 130

4.4.1 Types of Schools: SK and SJKC

4.4.2 Types of Classes: The Good Class and the Weak Class

4.4.3 Location of Schools: Urban and Rural

v

131

132

134

4.5

4.6

4.7

4.8

4.9

4.4.4 Teaching Experiences: Super Senior, Senior and Junior Teachers

When does code-switching occur during the mathematics lessons?

Why do mathematics teachers code-switch at that particular point of communication during the progress of a mathematics lesson?

4.6.1 The Communicative Functions of Code-switching

Comparison of Language Use in Two Types of Primary Schools when Teachers Performed Six Key Communicative Functions in Teaching

4.7.1 Function of Discussion

4.7.2 Function of Description

4.7.3 Function of Instruction

4.7.4 Function of Definition

4.7.5 Function of Representation

4.7.6 Function ofTranslation

The Textual, Conversational, Affective and Social Functions of Code­switching

135

136

142

142

146

146

149

153

158

161

167

175

4.8.1 Textual Metafunction on Topic or Activities Shift 176

4.8.2 Coping Strategy for Lack of Appropriate Terms in Other Languages 176

4.8.3 Following the Preceeding Talk to accommodate other People's Speech 177

4.8.4 Addressee Specification 179

4.8.5 To Attract Attention 181

4.8.6 To Express Humour 181

4.8.7 To Express Dissatisfaction 181

4.8.8 To Scold 182

4.8.9 To Give Encouragement 183

4.8.1 0 To Express Disapproval 183

4.8.11 To Express Group Solidarity 184

Summary 184

CHAPTER 5-- DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS AND IMPLICATIONS

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Discussion of Findings

VI

186

186

5.3

5.4

5.5

5.6

5.2.1

5.2.3

5.2.4

What languages are used in mathematics teachers' discourse and to what extent do teachers resort to code-switching?

When does code-switching occur in mathematics classroom discourse?

Why do teachers code-switch at that particular point of communication during the progress of a mathematics lesson?

Implications ofthe Study

Limitations ofthe Current Study

Suggestions for Future Research

Conclusion •.

References

Appendices

Vii

186

189

192

197

198

200

202

204

221

Table 1.1

Table 1.2

Table 2.1

Table 2.2

Table 2.3

Table 3.1

Table 3.2

Table 4.1

Table 4.2

Table 4.3

Table 4.4

Table 4.5

Table 4.6

Table 4.7

Table 4.8

Table 4.9

LIST OF TABLES

Page List of Factors Influencing Language Choice 7

Three Major Components of Code-switching in Discourse from the 12 Functional Perspective

Principal Code-switching Patterns 25

Functions/Patterns/Principal Factors in Selection and Switching 28

Summary ofTheories/Models for Functions of Code-switching in 55 Various Social Contexts other than School Settings

The frequency distribution of subjects based on the types of class 86 and the class level

Sample of assigning utterances the value of types of language use I 07 and communicative functions based on observation of Teacher T9

Language Uses of eight classes at SK 123

Language Uses of eight classes at SJKC 125

Cases of intersentential and intrasentential code-switching by 128 teachers and students in eight mathematics classrooms at SK

Cases of intersentential and intrasentential code-switching resorted 129 by teachers and students in eight mathematics classroom at SJKC

Comparison of the use of the L 1, L2, the mixed codes of the L1 and 131 L2 between two types of schools

Comparison of the use of the L I, L2, the mixed codes of the L I and I"" .).)

12 between two types of classes

Comparison ofthe use ofthe Ll, L2, the mixed codes ofthe Ll and 135 L2 between two locations of schools

Comparison ofthe use ofthe Ll, L2, the mixing codes ofthe Ll and 136 12 among three groups of teachers in terms of their years of service

Ll and L2 Language Use against the Flow of Instructional Time in 137 National School Mathematics Classrooms

VIII

Table 4.10 Ll and L2 Language Use against the Flow of Instructional Time in 140 Chinese School Mathematics Classrooms

Table 4.11 Communicative Functions of the L I and L2 in SK Mathematics 143 Classrooms

Table 4.12 Communicative Functions of the L 1 and L2 in SJKC Mathematics 144 Classrooms

Table 4.13 Comparison of the ranking of frequency of the language use for the 145 communicative functions between two types of primary schools

Table 4.14 The types of language use (the Ll, L2, code-mixing of the Ll & L2) 147 when teachers performed the function of Discussion in teaching

•.

Table 4.15 Sample of Teacher T6's utterances when performing the Discussion 147 function and others

Table 4.16 The types of language use (the L I, L2, code-mixing of the Ll & L2) !50 when teachers performed the function of Description in teaching

Table 4.17 Sample of Teacher T8's utterances when performing the Description 150 function and others

Table 4.18 The types of language use (the L I, L2, code-mixing of the L I & L2) !54 when teachers performed the function of Instruction in teaching

Table 4.19 Sample of Teacher Tl3's utterances of Teacher Tl3 when !55 performing the Instruction function and others

Table 4.20 Sample of Teacher T9's utterances when performing the Instruction !56 function and others

Table 4.21 The types of language use (the Ll, L2, code-mixing of the L I & L2) 158 when teachers performed the function of Definition in teaching

Table 4.22 Sample of Teacher Til's utterances when performing the Definition 159 function and others

Table 4.23 The types of language use (the L I, L2, code-mixing of the L I & L2) 162 when teachers performed the function of Representation in teaching

Table 4.24 Sample of Teacher T7's utterances when performing the 162 Representation function and others

IX

Table 4.25 The types of language use (the L 1, L2, code-mixing of the L 1 & L2) 167 when teachers performed the function ofTranslation in teaching

Table 4.26 Sample of Teacher T9's utterances of Teacher T9 when performing 171 the Translation function and others

Table 4.27 The number of teachers using the official language of instruction 173 versus the number of teachers resorting to code-switching as the dominant language used in classroom discourse for the five key communicative functions

Table 4.28 The number of utterances of the L2 (Eng! ish), L J (Malay or J 75 Chinese) and mixed code of the L I & L2 used in classroom discourse while teachers and students for the five key communicative functions

X

LIST OF FIGURES

Page Figure 1.1 Model of Emergent of Functions of Code-switching on a 13

Bi/Multilingual Language Site

Figure 1.2 Functions of Code-switching (CS) That Can be Studied Under 17 Various Perspectives of Linguistics

figure 2.1 A Model for Considering the Role of Language in Mathematical 67 Activity

XI

Appendix A

Appendix B

Appendix C

Appendix D

Appendix E

Appendix F

Appendix· G

List of Appendices

Functions of Code-switching Broken down into the Dimensions of "Meanings" and "Realization of Meaning" Based upon the Conceptual Framework Proposed in 1.6

Guiding Scale for Assigning the Communicative Functional Values to Utterances

Structured Interview Questions given to Mathematics Teachers

Structured Interview Questions given to Mathematics Teachers of National Primary Schools (Soalan Temubual Berstruktur Yang Dikemukakan Kepada Guru Matematik diSK)

Structured Interview Questions given to Mathematics Teachers of

Chinese Primary Schools (SJKC) ( ~1f. 1HtiJ$~Yffi[H]~B18<J}]J1

7t ~ 11F Er-J i'PJ ~)

A Brief on the Particulars of Objectives, Targeted Participants and Methods of the Present Study Submitted to the Administrator of SK

A Brief on the Objectives, Targeted Participants and Methods of the Present Study Submitted to the Administrator of SJKC

Page 222

230

2.,,., _)_)

235

238

240

241

Appendix H Schedule of Classroom Observation Filled by the Administrator of 242 SK

Appendix I Schedule of Classroom Observation Filled by the Administrator of 243 SJKC

XII

ABSTRAK

Bahasa pengantar bagi subjek Matematik dan Sains di Malaysia ialah bahasa

Inggeris. Sungguhpun guru matematik mematuhi polisi bahasa rasmi untuk dua subjek ini,

namun kajian empiris telah menunjukkan bahawa bahasa pertama pelajar {Melayu, Cina,

Tamil) turut digunakan. Maka fenomena peralihan kod di bilik datjah matematik berlaku.

Walau bagaimanapun, maklumat berkenaan fenomena tersebut masih kurang. Kajian ini

menyelidik isu berkenaan apa, bila dan mengapa peralihan kod berlaku dalam bilik darjah

matematik di Sekolah Kebangsaan (SK) dan Sekolah Jenis Kebangsaan Cina (SJKC) di

Kelantan. Enambelas pengajaran kelas dari SK dan SJKC telah dicerap dan dirakamkan

dengan perakam video. Antara 16 pengajaran tersebut, Iapan daripadanya dari SK dan

yang baki dari SJKC. Antara empat pengajaran di setiap sekolah itu pula, dua

daripadanya ialah Darjah 2 dan dua yang lain iaiah Darjah 5. Bahasa pengantar rasmi

untuk kelas matematik d i semua kelas adalah bahasa Inggeris. Masa pencerapan untuk

setiap pengajaran berbeza dalam lingkungan masa setengah jam hingga satu jam. Sesi

temubual dengan guru dan enam orang pelajar (Darjah 5 sahaja) dari setiap peserta kelas

dalam kajian turut dijalankan sebaik sahaja sesi pencerapan pengajaran tamat.

Penemubualan untuk dua kumpulan orang ini dijalankan berasingan masa. Bahasa yang

digunakan dalam temubual ialah bahasa Melayu untuk peserta kajian SK dan bahasa Cina

untuk peserta kajian SJKC. Proses temubual dirakamkan dengan alat pcrakam suara.

Data yang dipungut daripada rakaman video dan audio ditranskripsi verbatim. Data

kajian menunjukkan bahawa kebanyakan guru matematik sekolah rendah menggunakan

peralihaan kod dalam pengajaran. Terdapat 42.46% penggunaan perkataan Melayu dalam

perbualan bilik darjah di SK, manakala di SJKC pula, penggunaan perkataan Cina dalam

XIII

perbualan bilik darjah ialah 40.43%. Peralihan bahasa merupakan strategi, alat dan

sumber komunikasi yang berkesan. Pertimbangan pedagogi sebegini menyebabkan

timbulnya penggunaan peralihan kod secara dalam ayat dan di antara ayat di kalangan

guru matematik sekolah rendah. Dalam kajian ini, penggunaan pendekatan peralihan kod

berlaku dari permulaan kelas sampai penamatan kelas. Sembilan fungsi komunikasi

penggunaan bahasa dalam kelas matematik dwibahasa yang dikemukakan oleh Clark

(1974) serta skala pemberian nilai fungsi komunikasi yang dibangunkan oleh pengkaji

yang digunakan dalam kajian ini telah terbukti berguna dan sesuai untuk menentukan

corak dan tujuan peralihan kod. Selain mencapai fungsi-fungsi komunikasi tersebut untuk

memenuhi keperluan perkembangan kognitif di kalangan pelajar, guru-guru kerap juga

menukar kod kepada bahasa ibunda pelajar untuk mencapai tujuan-tujuan lain dari segi

pengungkapan, pertuturan, afektif, sosial dan pengurusan, antaranya, termasuk

mengambil hati pelajar yang fasih dan yang kurang fasih dalam bahasa lnggeris; menarik

perhatian; menegaskan sesuatu isi penting dan lain-lain lagi. Data rakaman bilik darjah

juga menunjukkan bahawa beberapa kelas menjadi kurang aktif apabila guru secara

bandingan menggunakan lebih bahasa Inggeris dalam pengajaran mereka. Fenomena ini

juga sebaliknya membayangkan bahawa penggunaan peralihan kod para guru merupakan

strategi yang penting apabila menghadapi pelajar yang kurang fasih bahasa Inggeris.

Implikasi daripada dapatan kajian ini ialah guru-guru harus digalakkan menggunakan

bahasa pertama pelajar juga selain daripada menggunakan bahasa pengantar rasmi.

Pendekatan ini membolehkan guru menyampaikan pengajaran dengan lebih berkesan

serta perbualan bilik darjah juga akan lebih relevan dengan keperluan pelajar, khususnya

ia dapat menggalakan penglibatan aktifpelajar dalam pembelajaran matematik.

XIV

ABSTRACT

The medium of instruction for mathematics and science in Malaysia is English.

Available empirical research findings have shown that although Malaysian teachers

comply with the official language policy for the teaching of these two subjects, the

students' first languages (Malay, Chinese and Tamil) are still used, leading to the

phenomenon of code-switching in the classrooms. However, information about the nature

of the phenomenon of code-switching remains scarce. This study examined the issues of

what tyP.es, when, and why code-switching occurred in national and Chinese primary

mathematics classrooms in Kelantan. The teaching of mathematics in 16 classes from two

types of school was observed and video-recorded. Of the 16 classrooms, eight were from

two national schools (SK) and the other eight were from two Chinese primary schools

(SJKC). Within the four classrooms of each school, two were Standard 2 and the other

two were Standard 5. The duration of each observed class varied from half an hour to an

hour. Interviews with teachers and six students in Standard 5 from each of the

participating classes were conducted immediately after each classroom observation but

separately and consecutively. The language used in the interviews at the SK schools was

Malay, whereas at the SJKC schools, interviews were conducted in Mandarin. Each

interview was audio-recorded. All video-recorded and audio-recorded data were

transcribed verbatim. The research data showed that most primary mathematics teachers

resorted to code-switching in teaching, from the beginning to the end of the lessons. -It

was found that in mat'hematics classroom discourse, mathematics teachers at SK resorted

to code-switching to the students' first language ( 42.46%) more often than SJKC teachers

did (40.43%). Alternation of languages served as a useful communicative resource, tool

XV

and strategy. Pedagogical considerations gave rise to the use of intrasentential and

intersentensial code-switching among the teachers observed. The nine communicative

functions of language use proposed by Clark (1974) and the tentative guiding scale

developed by the researcher for assigning the Clark's communicative functional values

were found to be feasible and useful in examining the patterns and purposes of code­

switching. Besides achieving the nine communicative functions for fulfilling the needs of

students' cognitive development, teachers occasionally code-switched to students L I to

achieve textual, conversational, affective, social and managerial purposes, such as

appealing to the literate and the illiterate (L I & L2), capturing attention, emphasizing a

point and other ends. Besides, classroom video recorded data also showed that classes

became less active when teacher used English to teach mathematics. This finding

suggests that teachers' code-switching is an important teaching strategy when dealing

with Limited English Proficient learners. Among the most important implications is

that mathematics teachers should be encouraged to use the students' L I, in

addition to the official language, as use of the students' L 1 can make teaching more

effective, and classroom discourse more relevant to students' needs, specifically through

encouraging active involvement in the learning of mathematics.

XVI

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

Malaysia is a multi-ethnic and multi-cultural society. Malays, Chinese and

Indians are the three main ethnic groups. Among these three ethnic groups, the Malays ..

constitute more than half of the total population. Due to its status as a British colonial

state, English was the dominant administrative and educational language at all levels

during the British regime. With this socio-cultural and historical background, most

Malaysians practically are bilingual or multilingual. Most literate Malaysians are able to

speak Malay, the national language, and English, a language prevalent in the Malaysian

business sector and 2.t the global level. However, the proficiency of the language

competencies of Malaysians in these two languages may range from not so fluent to very

fluent. In social communication, the participants who are able to speak English and

Malay may differ in their proficiencies of these two languages and frequently resort to

code-switching to help them in their communication (Dayang Fatimah, 2007; Farid, 1987;

Jacobson, 1993; Jamaliah Mohd. Ali, 1995; Le Yasan, 1996; Morais, 1991; Wong, 1974).

Code-switching other than English to Malay and vice versa (English to Malay) has also

been found to be a very common phenomenon in discourse among Malaysians, who tend

to code-switch from one language to other languages such as Tamil/English/Malay

(David & Hashim, 2001 ); English/Hokkien/Mandarin (Kuang, 2002); Malay/Hokkien

(Chng-Lee, 1995); Malay/English/Hokkien (Pakir, 1989); English/Mandarin/Cantonese/

Malay (Kow, 2003); Malay/English/Seban/Kelabit (Martin, 2005); Arab/English/Malay

(Mohammad, 2006) and Kelantanese Malay/Standard Malay (Zuraidah, 2003).

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Code-switching refers to the use of more than one language within a turn or

utterance in interaction among bi/multilinguals, both in in-group and out-group

encounters (David, 2003a). As has been depicted in empirical research, it is the norm in

discourse in Malaysian multilingual society, and is very commonly found in the

educationaJ·.context (Atan, 1998; Lim, 2003; Norizah Mohd Said, 2004; Ong, 1989;

Paramasivam Muthusamy, 2006; Sumathi Krishnan Kutty, 2005; Tan, 1992; Zaiton

Ismail, 2004). In the "Preface'' to a Special Issue of Multilingua (Journal of Cross­

Cultural and lnterlanguage Communication) on "Code-switching in Malaysia", David

(2003a) reported that code-switching is used by Malaysians as a resource, a tool and a

strategy of communication:

"[I]n Malaysia, while David shows that Malay/English code-switching is seen as a

resource to influence and coerce speech participants .in the courtroom and to exert

power, Jariah Mohd. Jan also sees code-switching as a strategic tool used to

wield power in official government meeting... Zuraidah, discussing Malay

language/dialect code-switching, argues that it is a tool used between members of

community, i.e. the Malay Kelantanese community, to signal rapport and intimacy

and regional identity ... Kow ... provides a range of examples of how ... code­

switching must be viewed as an innovative strategy to communicate and

construct meaning in what children consider efficient and effective ways,

especially when children need to compensate for a limited vocabulary" (p.3-4,

emphasis added by the researcher)

David (2003a) concludes in the Preface by saying that the functions of code-switching

reported in that issue are to soften a directive; to emphasise a point; to help

communication, to indicate regional allegiance, to show power aqd status, to construct

meaning when one needs to compensate for a limited vocabulary.

2

In Malaysia, with the implementation of Teaching and Learning of Science and

Mathematics in English or PPSMI (Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran Sains dan Matematik

dalam Bahasa Inggeris), the medium of instruction of mathematics and science in

National primary schools and Tamil primary schools is English, a language which is not

the mother tongue of the majority of the students in the respective .schools. In Chinese

primary schools, mathematics and science are taught in two languages, i.e. Mandarin and

English, by following the "2-4-3 formula" and "6-2, 3-2 formula". The "2-4-3 formula"

represent&.the time for teaching English as a language and English in the content areas of

mathematics and science. At the lower primary level (level I) which comprises Standard

One, Two and Three, besides two periods of English language, there are four periods of

mathematics and three periods of science taught in English, complementing another six

periods of mathematics and three periods of science which are taught in Mandarin. At

the upper primary level (level II) which comprises Standard Four, Five and Six, the "6-2,

3-2 formula" means the time allocation for the subjects of mathematics and science in the

two languages. That is, besides five periods of English language, there are six periods of

mathematics and three periods of science taught in Mandarin, and only two periods of

mathematics and two periods of science are taught in English (Ong, 2005).

Mathematical language is very specific and consists of a lot of symbols and

several forms of representation (Pimm, 1987). Students might be less familiar with

mathematical language as compared to the everyday language (Shuard & Rothery, 1984).

Morgan (2006) points out that the responsibility of a mathematics teacher includes

teaching students the 'mathematics content', the mathematical language, and the

language of instruction. As a mathematics teacher, (s)he might like to use the students'

mother tongue to enhance students' acquisition of mathematical knowledge as well as the

language of instruction, i.e., English, and the language of mathematics. Therefore, it is

important to examine how mathematics teachers make use of one aspect of the students'

valuable experience encompassing, the mother tongue of the students and the rich culture

embedded in it, and incorporate it with students' present competency in English, to help

the students negotiate the meaning of mathematics. In other words, it is vital to examine

what functions of code-switching can serve in mathematical teaching and learning.

Teachers who are equipped with bilingual/ multilingual capability and have a

sufficient understanding of various educational theories and motivation skills may be

aware of the difficulties caused by the language medium in learning mathematics. In the

learning of mathematics, the process by which a student arrives at the answer to a

problem is even more important than the answer itself. Hence, teachers need to make the

students talk mathematics and participate in classroom activities to explore and construct

mathematical ideas. In short, teachers must help students make their thinking visible to

others by encouraging them to talk and write about the process they use to solve

problems (Bushman, 1995; Lim, 2006). With this in mind, teachers may seek resources

or tools such as the students' first language, to draw upon their great reservoir of

linguistic and cultural experiences loaded in the mother tongue, in order to help the

students in their mathematical conceptual and procedural understanding, and at the same

time, develop students' interest in participating in classroom activities. Prodromou ( 1992)

argues that there are times when the use of mother tongue in the second language (L2)

classrooms can be justified. According to him, the use of mother tongue could be seen (a)

4

as a means of providing support and security for the less confident learners or (b) as a

launching pad for other activities (Prodromou, 1992, p. 63).

·Recent available research in Malaysia concerning classroom practices in relation

to the implementation of PPSMI has found that code-switching is a common feature in

most classrooms (Harshita Aini Haroon, 2005; Lim & Wun, 2003; Sidhu, 2005). In the

classroom context, school teachers and pupils are used to the switching between students'

mother tongue and the language of instruction for a range of managerial, affective and

cognitive development purposes (Atkinson, 1 987; Cook, 200 I; Harbord, 1 992).

So far, research examining the practice of code-switching in primary mathematics

classrooms remains limited. Thus, it is crucial to understand how bilingual teachers and

students utilize their facility with two languages to communicate mathematically within

the primary classrooms. Research makes it possible to better understand the cognitive

and social functions of code-switching in classroom discourse. This knowledge will

enable educators to gain insights into the uses of the mother tongue to fulfill the cognitive

and affective needs in a bilingual context. These constitute two important aspects of the

whole process of bilingual or multilingual development.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

This study has three main objectives. The first one is to identify when teachers

and students code-switch in mathematics classroom discourse; the second one is to

examine the patterns of code-switching, and the third one is to explore the reasons for or

purposes of code-switching in the natural setting of the mathematics classroom. The

5

major concern regarding the purposes of code-switching is on how relevant or significant

the effects of a particular switch are for the learner and the teacher.

. 1.4 Research Questions

To achieve the objectives stated in the above section, the following research

questions were formulated to guide the study:

I.

•.

What languages are used in primary mathematics classrooms and to what

extent do teachers and students resort to code-switching in teaching and

learning mathematics?

2. When does code-switching occur in mathematics classroom discourse?

3. Why do mathematics teachers code-switch at that particular point of

communication during the progress of a mathematics lesson?

1.5 Theoretical Framework

Code-switching is a norm and naturally occurs in many multilingual and bilingual

communities (Swigart, 1992; Goyvaerts & Zembele, 1992). This variation of language is

used by bilinguals in negotiation of meanings and accomplishment of certain

conversational goals (Auer, 1998; Heller, 1988; Jacobson, 1998; Li, 2000a; Milroy &

Muysken, 1995a). Bilinguals usually have a conscious strategic consideration while

resorting to code-switching as a tool or resource to establish, maintain or alter power

relati-ons in a discourse (Gumperz, 1982; Mayers-Scotton, 1983; Tay, 1989; David,

2003a). Fishman (1965) argues that the form of code-switching produced in the discourse

is not randomly constructed, but rather is a rule-governed phenomenon. This viewpoint

6

has been confirmed by research (Poplack, 2004). Contextual factors come in to play their

roles in conditioning and constraining bilinguals' choice of meanings and forms of

realization in words while code-switching (Auer, 1998; Blom & Gumperz, 1972;

Gumperz, 1982; Heller, 1988; Jacobson, 1998; Li, 2000b; Milroy & Musken, 1995b;

Myers-sotton, 1993). Such factors are participants' demographic background like class,

gender, age, ethnic identity, educational level, occupation and religious beliefs (Grosjean,

1982, p. 136, see Table 1.1 ). Others include preference of audiences, local culture, social

regulations, context of discourse, and speaker's experience and competence in that

language.

Table 1.1: List of Factors Influencing Language Choice

Factors Influencing Language Choice

Participants

Language proficiency Language preference Socioeconomic status Age Sex Occupation Education Ethnic Background History ofspeakers' linguistic interaction Kinship relation Intimacy Power relation Attitude toward languages Outside pressure

[Source: Grosjean, 1982, p.136]

Situation

Location Presence of mono! inguals Degree of formality Degree of intimacy

Content of Discourse

Topic Type of vocabulary

Function of interaction

To raise status To create social distance To exclude someone To request or command

The types of code-switching can be categorized into different ways from various

perspectives. From the syntactic perspective, Poplack (1980) proposed three-way

7

divisions named as tag code-switching, intra-sentential code-switching and intersentential

code-switching. Muysken (1995) analysed the mixture of words at the word, phrase,

clause and sentence levels and produced a three-way division named as alternation,

insertion and congruent lexicalization. Based on the contributing factors, BJorn and

Gumperz (1972) categorized code-switching into two main types: situational code­

switching and metaphorical code-switching. By looking into the metaphorical meanings

concerning the attribute of 'in-group' and 'out-group' in code-switches, Gumperz (1982)

advanced t-wo more categories of code-switching called 'we-code' and 'they-code'. Auer

(1990, cited in Auer, 1998) proposed two types of code-switching: discourse-related

switching and participant-related code-switching. These two types are differentiated by

the influence oftwo major factors in the context of conversation: participants and topic of

discourse. Clyne (1972) also attempted to categorize types of code-switching according

to the triggered factors by referring to them as internal or external factors. His model is

internally conditioned code-switching versus externally conditioned code-switching. The

idea subsequently proposed by Valdes-Fallis (1978) is also similar to Clyne's (I 972)

model but comes with a brief explanation of the constitution factors where Valdes-Fallis

categorized patterns of code-switching into two main groups, which she referred to as

switching patterns that occur in response to external or internal factors.

Similar to the above practice, functions of language in code-switching have been

categorized by different linguists or researchers in different ways. They are proposed

according to the key determinants of language choice in the use of code-switching.

Among them, a functional model which originates from the field of grammar and which

was proposed by Halliday (I 994) has gained popularity recently in text analysis and

8

discourse analysis, and other models are, in fact, derived directly from the studies on

code-switching.

Halliday (1973, 1975, 1985, 1994, 2004), the key founder of the Systemic

Functional Grammar theory, proposed three highly generalized adult language functions,

named as ideational function, interpersonal function, and textual function. These

metafunctions are developed from the maturity of children's micro-functions of language,

namely, instrumental, regulatory, interactional, personal, heuristic, imaginative, and

informative. The key determinant in Halliday's model is the functional selection of the

process and product of meaning potential (networking of semantic system) getting done

by language in a discourse context comprised of the interaction of field, tenor and mode.

Ferguson, one of the pioneer scholars in the study of code-switching, proposed a

Diglossia model. His model is determined by choice of formality in language use where

the language contact is clearly defined as family or societal formal affairs. A common

example is the official language used for formal political speeches and the mother tongue

used for informal conversations with friends (Ferguson, 1959). Fishman ( 1956), another

important figure in leading the early research into code-switching, by considering the

influence of contextual factors, proposed the Domain Theory. The question "who speaks

what language to whom and when?" determines how code-switching handles the shift of

topic, participants and setting. BJorn and Gumperz, proposed a Signalling and

Interpretive Model, to correlate code-switching with situational parameters and stylistic

communicative moves informed by socialization process among bilinguals. For instance,

a shift of language may signal to exclude someone from participating in the discussion or

ll)ay be interpreted as exerting power. Social meaning and situational norms are the two

9

key determinants in Blom & Gumperz's model (Blom & Gumperz, 1972). Giles and his

colleagues (1973) who studied the convergent and divergent forces in speech, proposed

·the Speech Accommodation Theory. This theory considers the creation of social distance

or intimacy in shaping the choice of code-switching. Myers-Scotton (1983) looking into

speaker's right and obligation sets, proposed a Markedness Model in explaining the

function of code-switching related to speaker's intention to maintain or alter his/her right

and obligation sets by resorting to 'deeper meaning' of 'marked' terms.

Besides the above functional models, there are three more 'Six-function models'.

Gumperz ( 1982) drawing on a powerful idea of contextual ization cues and research data

gathered from three language sites, proposed a widely used Six-function model in the

study of code-switching. The six-functions of Gumperz's are: Quotation, Addressee

specification, Interjection, Reiteration, Message qualification, and Personalization versus

objectivization. Marasigan (1983) studied the subtle illocutionary intention A speaker in

the code-switching data collected in Philippines, and proposed another Six-function

model which is mainly founded on Searle's (1976) Speech Act Model. The six functions

of Marasigan are Representative, Directive, Commissive, Expressive, Declarative, and

Conditional. The last Six-function model was proposed by Appel and Muysken (1987).

They are the specialization functions of language use. This model was founded on

Jakobsen's (1960) and Halliday's (1964) work. The six functions are determined by

communicative events. They are Referential, Directive, Expressive, Phatic,

Metalinguistic, and Peotic.

Furthermore, some studies which focused on functions of code-switching in

classrooms during the 1990's have produced the following findings. Meritt et al (1992)

10

claim code-switching is used in the reformulation across codes; bringing new information

to the content of the activity; translation or word substitution within one sentence; and

classroom management routines. Canagarajah (1995) reported on functions of code­

switching in three areas: classroom management, content transmission, and reflection of

social and communicative life outside school. Eldridge (1996) described and analysed

the code-switching of young learners and found seven functions he labeled as

equivalence, floor-holding, metalanguage, reiteration, group membership, conflict control,

and alignme'nt and disalignment.

The above theories and models suggest that language functions are stirred by

speaker's intention (purpose) of communication in negotiating meanings. Some related

words are 'meaning potential', 'to whom and when', 'signaling and interpreting',

'convergent force', 'divergent force', 'deeper meanings', 'contextualization cues',

'creation of social distance and intimacy', and 'specialization' in a shift of conversational

events. In those models, code-switching is viewed as a language tool, resource or

strategy that is consciously used by bilinguals to realize their intentions of speech to

accommodate various speech needs. These speech acts are determined by contextual

factors like: 'formality', 'shift of topic, participants and setting in discourse', 'social

norms', 'ideational, interpersonal, and textual consideration', 'situational parameters',

'socialization process', 'speaker's right and obligation sets', 'communicative moves in

different language sites', and 'types of language use' . .It can therefore be concluded that

the general model is: 'functions of code-switching' are stirred by the 'intentions of code­

switching' where code-switching is used as a strategic verbal device to achieve some

purposes of a conversation, and the intentions are further determined by the interplay of

11

various 'contextual factors'. Table 1.2 below sums up the functional perspective of

three major components of a discourse in code-switching. The ingredients listed in each

ofthe components have been proposed by the researchers as discussed above.

Table 1.2: Three major components of code-switching in discourse from the functional pers ective

Functions of Code-switching Intention of code-switching Contextual factors

• Quotation • Meaning potential • Ideational, interpersonal and

• Addressee specification • To whom & when textual consideration of

• Interjection • Signaling & interpreting meanings & words

• Reiteration • Convergent force • Interaction of field, tenor

• Message qualification • Divergent force and mode of a discourse

• Personalization versus • Contextualization cues • Formality

objectivization • Deeper meaning • Shift of topic, participants

• Representative/ referential • Creation of social distance and setting in discourse

• Directive and intimacy • Social norms

• Expressive • Illocutionary intention • Situational parameters

• Phatic • Specialization • Socialization process

• Metal ingistic • Situational code-switching • Speaker's right and

• Poetic • Metaphorical code-switching obligation sets

• Declaration • We-code • Stylistic communicative

• Conditional • They-code moves

• Instrumental • Classroom management • Language contact

• Regulatory • Transmission of school • Types of language use

• Interactional content • Language Policy

• Personal • Reflection of social life & Language Plan in School

• Heuristic • Grosjean's ( 1982) list of

• Imaginative factors (see Figure I)

• Informative

• Translation

Code-switching only happens in bi/ multilingual language sites. Specifically,

each of the bi/ multilingual language sites IS a typical type of itself. For instance,

practices of code-switching in Vietnam and Malaysia can differ greatly where the

language type in use and language contact in each site are generally not the same,

although both nations are from the same Asean region. In the past, Vietnam was a

colonial state of France whereas Malaysia was that of the British. Thus, Malaysians are

not likely to resort to French in code-switching as the Vietnamese do in a bilingual

12

conversation. The linguistic practices in the above two language sites have been shaped

by the historical and cultural events that occurred at the sites. Inversely, Halliday (2002,

p. 5) pointed out: "Human history is the interplay of material and linguistic forces". Thus,

code-switching is conditioning, and behaviour that is being constrained by linguistic

practices that have their roots in the history and culture of a bi/multilingual language site.

Furthermore, there are many ways in constructing and interpreting meanings in a

discourse when the interlocutors exchange their meanmgs In the process of

communicatiop, and code-switching just serves as one of many strategic ways to achieve

certain communicative needs. Besides, it is because of people's experience in a

bi/multilingual language site that certain conversational intentions can best be achieved

by using code-switching, and this has informed people who resort to code-switching for

certain conversational goals. Figure I .I below shows a more general theoretical

framework of the functions of code-switching in a bi/multilingual language site based on

the above elaboration on practice of code-switching.

Making and Interpreting Meanings in a discourse

Speech needs & Purpose of Language uses

History & Culture of a Bi/Multilingual

Figure 1.1: Model ofFunctions ofCode-switching in a Discourse on a Bi/Multilingual Language Site

In Figure I. I, the three ovals with the respective labels in the lower part represent

the three major components of a discourse in code-switching, whereas the three ovals

13

with the respective labels in the upper part represent the three major components of a

'more general model of language uses which involves speech needs, its effects and it is

being constrained by historical and cultural factors of a language site. The arrow lines

show code-switching is one of the common linguistic practices of language uses on a

bi/multilingual language site. The double-headed arrow linking the two ovals in the

right-hand side represents the reality that all possible ingredients in the contextual factors

of a discourse are the product of history and culture of a bi/multilingual language site,

and their interplay inversely contributes to the formation of history and culture of that

bi/multilingual language site. The final goal of any discourse is making and interpreting

meanings, and the functions of code-switching are basically towards this end.

1.6 Conceptual Framework

Function refers to the potential and competence of a particular thing or action in

performing certain tasks in achieving a purpose, or purposes, if there are more than one.

Code-switching refers to the practice of using more than one language in the course of a

single communicative episode (Zentella, 1997). As Zentella's episode refers to a

discourse sequence around one topic that is distinctive and separate of a larger series of

communication, therefore, the definition of functions of code-switching adopted in this

study can simply mean as the communicative effects to be achieved by the bilingual

speakers through the alternation of languages in a turn of discourse. Here, the word

effect means the behavioural or substantial outcomes that achieve a desired goal. Before

a more comprehensive definition is given to the function of code-switching in

mathematics classroom discourse, we need to conceptualize four underlying concepts, i.e.,

14

what is 'discourse', 'language', 'functions of language', and 'language uses in classroom

discourse'.

According to Gee ( 1999), "discourse" usmg a lowercase "d" refers to how

language is used "on site" to enact activities and identities. However, "Discourse" using

an uppercase "D" involves much more than words. A Discourse is a socially accepted

association among ways of using language, other symbolic expressions, and 'artifacts', of

thinking, feeling, belie:ying, valuing and acting that can be used to identify oneself as a

member Of a socially meaningful group or 'social network', or to signal (that one is

playing) a socially meaningful 'role' (Gee, 1999, p. 131 ). In this study, the lower case

discourse is employed to refer to how language (inclusive of body language) is used on

site which reflects a speaker's way of being (roles, beliefs, attitudes, thinking, feelings) in

a particular context, i.e. the mathematics classroom.

Language is a social semiotic system with rich lexica-grammar and meaning

potentials (Halliday, 1973, 1978, 1985, 1994). It is the medium to transmit and reflect

reality and thinking, and by itself is a social action and cultural carrier. From this view

point, as a product, language is a social phenomenon of making sense and meanings

evolve and comply with the grammatical regulations and social conventions; and as a

process, language can serve as a tool, a resource, and a strategy in constructing and

mediating meaning as well as thinking in various styles and forms.

Function of language is the core issue of pragmatics (Verschueren, 1999). It usually

concerns two questions: a) what tasks get done by language? b) ·Jn what ways can

language work for those tasks? The first question usually concerns the basic function of

'what language does', i.e., what communicative meanings can be generated from the

15

effect of interaction among the factors of topics, participants and circumstances 1n a

communicative context; whereas the second question concerns 'how language does what

language does', i.e., the potential of language in realization of meanings corresponding to

the moment (when), the purpose (why), the participants (to whom), the medium and

channel (what), and the language competence of participants (to what. extent), of a

dynamic construction of text in a communicative activity.

Language use in classroom discourse can be categorized according to its tasks as

'language. for classroom management routine', 'language for transmission of curriculum

content', and 'language for establishment and maintenance of social relationships among

classroom participants', including the expression of speaker's identity and attitudes

(Cazden, 2001 ). These tasks achieve a range of managerial, cognitive, affective purposes

in the classroom. Other ways of categorization include the dichotomous grouping of

'safe' versus 'forbidden' (Martin, 2005), and 'academic' versus 'social' (Adendorff,

1996).

Based on the above discussion, the 'function of code-switching' for this study

refers to the interlocutors' use of their language repertoire and competence to

strategically select an alternative language and mix or embed it into the base language at

the word, phrase, clause and sentence levels, to try one's best to comply to the

grammatical systems or subsystems of both languages, to accomplish certain purpose(s)

(explicit and implicit meanings) of discourse that are manifested by specific cultural and

conversational work done in a bilingual/ multilingual context.

Figure 1.2 below shows the conceptual framework for the functions of code­

switching as discussed above.

16

Pragmatics • Sociolinguistics: The relation between the performance of CS and the social and cultural elements in a society

Functions of (contextualizational cues, formality, solidarity, etc.) Code-switching ,.._ _____ • Psycholinguistics: Multi/Bilingual mind in the process of

"" CS (competence in selection of meaning and words from ,__ _____ __,

D • Meanings (purposes) • Realization of meaning (tasks)

one's language repertoire). • Structural linguistics: CS as a highly systematic and

structured linguistic phenomenon (matrix-embedded language; Tag CS; Intra-sentential CS; Inter-sentential CS, Government Constraint).

Frgure 1.2: 'Functrons ofCode-swrtchmg (CS) that can be studred Under Various Perspectrves of Linguistics

This study will only focus on the pragmatic aspect of code-switching, i.e., to gain

insight into what meanings (purposes) code-switching serves that can be inferred,

interpreted, and defined from the way such meanings are being realized by the language

task. Hence, in the process of interpreting the research data, my arguments on how

meanings are signaled through the alternation of language in response to the discourse

topics, participants and situations in the mathematics classroom may inevitably be

supported by the relevant theories of code-switching from the domains of sociolinguistics,

psycholinguistics and structural linguistics.

1.7 Significance of the Study

In the light of this functional perspective, this study focuses on documenting the·

following matters: a) types of linguistic variations in terms of choice of language codes; b)

the meanings negotiated through linguistic variations in terms of choice of language

codes; c) language as social action shaped by the social norms (rules, interpersonal

relationships between speakers and possible channel). Specifically, it will focus on

17

teacher-pupil interaction through code-switching in classroom conversation that helps to

facilitate mathematics learning as well as pupils' communicative competence

development. The nature of classroom setting and social activity are important in

shaping the language of curriculum, language of control, and language of interpersonal

identity of classroom discourse (Cazden, 2001). According to Yerschuren's (1987)

pragmatic viewpoint, communicative competence refers to the human capability to adapt

to the changing conditions for social conduct. By considering questions of functions and

meanings .. of code-switching, this functional approach helps to answer the basic questions

of when, how and why code-switching occurs (Appel & Muysken, 1987). To accomplish

this, a qualitative approach is most appropriate.

Code-switching is a interlinguistic phenomenon specific to bilinguals. This

bilingual phenomenon is in much need of explanation and understanding for those who

must deal with them in the instructional context or other contexts where this is an

important matter (Duran, 1994). This study is aimed at documenting when, why, how,

and what functions of code-switching practices are used in primary mathematics

classrooms in Malaysia. Indeed, teachers in Malaysia are inevitably involved in

bilingual/ multilingual instruction due to the Malaysian plural society background and as

a post-colonial state. It is imperative for teachers to gain a better understanding of code­

switching, which is an important aspect of the whole process of bilingual development.

As has been mentioned by Duran (1994, p. 69), "Developmental knowledge should aid

instructional knowledge, and instructional knowledge should aid development." To date,

not much research has been conducted on code-switching in the subject of mathematics

in Malaysia. Thus, it is hoped that the findings of this study can contribute to the

18

knowledge of code-switching in a particular content area in the major languages of

Malaysia. The understanding of the code-switching practices and processes during

mathematics instruction in the classroom will benefit linguists, bilingual specialists,

teachers, curriculum developers and future students.

Hymes (1972) pointed out that an adequate theory of the functioning of language

would systematically relate language and context within a single model. Therefore, any

model of the functions of language use is basically contextually sensitive. The functions

of language in the classroom are a special case of the general problem of the study of

language in its social context (Hymes, 1972). Hence, it is important for documenting the

functions of code-switching in mathematics classrooms in the Malaysian context where

its language site is unique.

1.8 Operational Definitions

[The definitions of code-switching, discourse, effect and function have been given in 1.6.]

Base language: The language which provides the morphosyntactic structure of an

utterance in which code-switching and code-mixing occur (Li, 2000).

Code borrowing: Word or short expression adapted phonologically and morphologically

to the language being spoken (Grosjean, 1982).

Code alternation: A general term for the communication strategy of alternate use of two

languages in the same utterance or conversation (Li, 2000).

Code mixing: A communication strategy used by bilinguals in which the speaker of

language X transfers elements or rules of language Y to X (the base language);

19

unlike borrowing, however, these elements are not usually integrated into the

linguistic system of X (Li, 2000).

Code-switching: The alternating use of two languages on word, phrase, clause, or

sentence level (Valdes-Fallis, 1978, p. 6). ln this study, terms such as "mixing

code of Ll and L2" and "alternation of code" are used interchangeably with

"code-switching".

Contextualization cues: Linguistic signals help to delineate the context, thereby

.~hanneling or guiding interpretation and so giving additional meaning to what is

said and done in a conversation. It can take any linguistic form-- a phonetic,

lexical, or syntactic choice. It has the function of 'message of message' (meta­

message) (Adendorff, 1996).

Embedded language: The language which provides lexical items which are inserted into

the utterance in which code-switching and code-mixing occur (Li, 2000)

Function: Effect achieved or work done by certain action or utensil actualized by one's

intention and usable resources.

Intersentential code switching: Code-switching between sentences/ utterances.

Intrasentential code switching: Code-switching within sentence/ utterance.

Language switching: An individual cognitive phenomenon where a person uses two

languages during solitary and/ or mental arithmetic computation. E.g., it can

refer to language used when a person is individually engaged in an arithmetic

computation rather than in a conversation (Qi, 1998).

20

2.1 Introduction

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Code-switching IS a common phenomenon in the language contact among

bilinguals (Poplack et al., 1989). It is frequent for bilingual communities to use their two

languages in different domains and settings (Fishman, I 965; Valdes-Fallis, I 978). The

language·variation that emerges from such communication is an important field of study

in psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, structural linguistics and pragmatics (see Figure 1.2,

p. 17). However, it has only begun to attract serious attention from the scholars in the

last few decades (Pop lack, 200 l ). In the majority of bilingual classrooms, where

qualitative research has been carried out, code-switching has been found to be a normal

and spontaneous occurrence, and to be neither random nor meaningless, nor does it

reflect language deficiency (e.g. Adendorff, 1993; Camilleri, 1996; Martin, 1996, 2005;

Ong, 1989; Setati, 2005; Sert, 2007; Valdes-Falis, 1978; Zabrodskaja, 2007).

Bentahi1a and Davies (I 995) concluded a decade ago that, "studies of code­

switching over the past two decades have tended to concentrate on two parameters:

grammatical constraints governing switching and the rhetorical or discoursal functions

individual switches may fulfill" (p. 75). Poplack (2004) points out that researchers have

provided evidence that code-switching is a rule-governed phenomenon. On the structural

level, several studies have shown that code-switching is known to be grammatically

constrained (Bhatt, 1997; Belazi et al., 1994; di Siullo et al., 1986; Pfaff, 1979; Poplack,

I 980; MacSwan, 1997; Myer-Scotton, 1993; Santorini & Mahootian, 1995). On the

21

functional level, code-switching is used as a discourse strategy (Gumperz, 1982; Tay,

1989) and expresses several different communicational and social functions within the

conversation (Bautista, 2004; Gardner-Chloros et a!., 2000; Gumperz, 1972; Heller, 1988;

McClure, 1981; Nishimura, 1995; Pakir, 1989; Reyes, 2004; Yau, 1993).

The objective of this study is to examine the functions of code-switching m

mathematics classrooms. This study, therefore begins with the definition of code­

switching and its categorizations as discussed in the literature, and then focuses on the

discussion.ofthe functional perspective of code-switching in the classroom, as well as the

purposes and reasons behind the use of mother tongue in the classroom where L2 serves

as the medium of instruction.

2.2 Types of Code-switching

There is a range of terms related to the definitions regarding ...:oJt::-switching.

Among them are code borrowing, code mixing, code change, loan words and language

shifts. The following sections will deal with the definitions of code-switching and its

categorization, followed by a review of some related terms.

2.2.1 Definitions of code-switching

There are many different definitions of code-switching.

defined while others are more restricted in definition.

Some are broadly

Robert Di Pietro (1977, p. 3) gives a broad definition of this phenomenon:

"{C]ode-switching is the use of more than one language by communicants in the

execution of a speech act." Valdes-Faliis (1978) has a similar definition but introduces it

22

in the levels of language that are involved. She says: "Code-switching can be defined as

the alternating use of two languages on word, phrase, clause, or sentence level" (Valdes­

Fallis, 1978, p. 6). Gumperz (1982) has a similar notion of code-switching proposed by

Valdes (1978), but he uses 'grammatical systems or subsystems' of a speech rather than

stating the language's morphological and synthetic features. He defines code-switching

as "the juxtaposition within the same speech exchange of passages of speech belonging to

two different grammatical systems or sub-systems" (Gumperz, 1982, p. 59). Those

definitions stated above imply bilinguals have some degree of competence in the two

languages even if bilingual fluency is not yet stable or equally developed (Duran, 1994).

Pop lack (2004), however, has a more restrictive definition of code-switching. She

defines code-switching as "the utterance of internal juxtaposition, in an unintegrated form,

of overt linguistic elements from two or more languages, with no necessary change of

interlocutor or topic"(p. 589). Here, she conditions code-switching with the notions of

'unintegrated' form; 'overt' linguistic elements which may or may not have a change in

.'topic' and 'interlocutor'. She argues that there is little consensus in the literature over

which aspects should be subsumed under the label of code-switching. She gives an

inclusive summary from the literature review that, "code-switching is but one of a

number of the linguistic manifestations of language contact and mixing, which variously

includes borrowing on the lexical and syntactic levels, language transfer, linguistic

convergence, interference, language attrition, language death, pidginization and

creolization, among others" (Poplack, 2004, p. 589). Poplack's summary of code­

switching is very broad and includes many things. However, for this study, the broad

sense of code-switching is adopted but it will not discuss in detail Poplack's labels such

23

as 'borrowing', "language transfer', 'I inguistic convergence', 'interference', 'language

attrition', 'language death', 'pidgination' and 'creolization'.

2.2.2 Categorization of code-switching

In categorizing code-switching, Clyne ( 1987) considered psycholinguistically

conditioned rather than sociolinguistically conditioned mechanism. He developed the

notion of "triggering" (Clyne, 1967, 1972) to represent the psychologically- conditioned

mechanism. According to Clyne ( 1972), code-switching triggered by external factors is

called externally conditioned code-switching, whereas code-switching triggered by

personal factors is called internally conditioned code-switching. Several principal

switching patterns (English-Spanish) that occur in response to external and internal

factors have been listed by Valdes-Fallis (1978) and are shown in Table 2.1.

From the linguistic structure, Pop lack ( 1980) proposed a three-way division for

code-switching, namely, tag-switching, intra-sentential code-switching and inter­

sentential code-switching. Tag-switching refers to insertion of a tag or interjection in

language A into an utterance which is otherwise entirely in language B (e.g., 'you know',

'look', 'I mean' etc.). Intra-sentential code-switching involves all kinds of switching

within the clause or sentence boundary. Inter-sentential code-switching involves a switch

at a clause or sentence boundary, where each clause or sentence is in one language or

another. All three types of code-switching may be found within the same discourse.

Studies on how a language is used and mixed at the word, phrase, clause and

sentence level on a bilingual site is seen in Muysken 's (1995) research which advances

another three-way division for code-switching, namely, alternation, insertion and

24