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Teacher Development:An international journalof teachers' professionaldevelopmentPublication details, including instructions for authorsand subscription information:http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rtde20

Closely Observed Pendulums:reflections on teacherprofessionalismMaurice Holt a & William Juraschek aa University of Colorado at Denver , USAPublished online: 24 Feb 2007.

To cite this article: Maurice Holt & William Juraschek (1998) Closely ObservedPendulums: reflections on teacher professionalism, Teacher Development: Aninternational journal of teachers' professional development, 2:1, 17-26, DOI:10.1080/13664539800200043

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Closely Observed Pendulums: reflections on teacher professionalism

MAURICE HOLT & WILLIAM JURASCHEKUniversity of Colorado at Denver, USA

ABSTRACT The authors – one a specialist in mathematics teaching, the other incurriculum – offer reflections on school reform, teacher education and studentengagement after observing a mathematics lesson given by a middle-school teacherwho has recently completed an in-service master’s degree course and is currently acandidate for a national teaching award in the USA. They argue that teacherprofessionalism directed towards understanding and commitment cannot be based onpredetermined outcomes, nor on a separation between the elements of curriculum,instruction and assessment in pursuit of ‘best practice’. Continual reflection uponexperience through in-service professional studies, linking theory with the art of thepractical in a contextualised systems-based approach, is the vital element in schoolimprovement.

Current recommendations for the improvement of schooling appear to bebuilt around two strategies: on the one hand, the reformulation of initialteacher education, and on the other, a belief that by identifying and sharingexamples of ‘good practice’, schools can be rendered more effective. Thebelief that an initial 3 or 4 year course can profoundly determine a teacher’scapacities for the next 30 years or so, for better or worse, seems to take littleaccount of the extent to which good teaching depends upon practicaljudgement, which in turn derives from experience. Similarly, the belief thata school embracing ‘what works’, linked to some external agenda like theEnglish National Curriculum or the American ‘Goals 2000’, will provide thesame animating vigor as a consistent curriculum philosophy based on atheory of practice, fails to take account of the importance of classroomculture. In this article we attempt to illustrate that teacher development andan energised curriculum are intimately connected, but not necessarily in theway many reformers assert.

It all came about by chance. We were sharing a car, both on our way toa meeting to discuss a school-based master’s degree course. One of us – amathematics specialist – had first to call into a local (Denver, Colorado)middle school, to observe an eighth grade (year 8) teacher – a former student

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who had recently completed our master’s degree program and had now beennominated for a national teaching award.[1] The other – a curriculumspecialist – was delighted to be able to share the experience. So we both,independently, watched Jean Bradac teach a grade eight mathematics class.As we drove off afterwards to our meeting, we discovered that each of ushad found the lesson impressive; we began to replay it in our conversationand realized how similar were our reactions. We were encouraged to turnthem into a narrative that examines the way teacher development can takeshape.

We agreed at once that it was an excellent lesson, but what made it so?The more we talked, the more we realized it was the style, the routine of thelesson that made it so interesting. There were no pedagogic fireworks, no‘showbiz’ touches, yet the students were totally engaged by the teaching andlearning that filled every minute. As we exchanged ideas, we reflected onthe quiet professionalism that makes all the difference between a class thatpromotes understanding and commitment, and one focused on assessablerecall and measurable skills. What can we deduce about the link betweenprocess and content? What kind of personal professional history gives riseto mastery of this kind? How is it acquired, and what might it implyregarding school reform and the structure of initial teacher educationprograms? We shall attempt to throw light on these matters.

Making Swingers

We had tucked ourselves into separate corners of the classroom just asJean’s ‘math-art’ class [2] was ending and the students for the next90-minute class were drifting into their seats. The lesson would be about themotion of a pendulum, using ‘swingers’ – lengths of string with coinsclipped to one end – to investigate the relationships between period, lengthof string, and weight of bob. Jean continued to clean up after the previousclass, with a certain studied indifference to the arrival of the next. Some ofthem, addressing her as ‘Mrs Bradac’, handed her homework papers, whileothers stopped by her desk to staple the sheets before turning them in. Noinstructions were given, no bells sounded, yet in a minute or so everyonehad found a seat; and Jean, smiling warmly but saying little, had placed abundle of student work in the folder on her desk.All this was evidently understood, as part of the values and routines ofthe class – perhaps even of the school. As Peterson (1992)emphasizes, traditions and rituals matter, and so does order: the folderwas labelled and ready to receive the students’ work, with this week’sapparatus already to hand. Jean’s low profile sent a message: we bothknow what to do, how to comport ourselves so that our encounter canbe of mutual benefit.

The lesson began almost imperceptibly. One moment the students werestill quietly chatting over the large flat tables Jean had persuaded the school

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district to provide, with her principal’s support; then their gaze turned to thefront, where Jean had picked up a piece of string with a paper clip at its freeend and begun to wave it at the class. This, she explained – as themurmuring ceased – was a swinger, and they would be getting into pairs tomake them and experiment with them. Pennies [3] could be placed in thepaper clip to make the string swing better. The idea was to investigate howthe length of the swinger affected its period (which she carefullydemonstrated as the time taken to complete one cycle of two complete arcs), by timing the periods of swingers of different lengths, tabulating the data,and using their graphing calculators to examine the relationship.

Students were accustomed to working in pairs; Jean mentioned thatone group of three would be needed today, and at this there was a slightmovement at the back, as if the pairing was about to begin. Quickly noticingthis – despite her low-key manner – Jean added that it would be better towait until she had explained things a bit more. This combination – of sharpobservation and unthreatening response – is worth noting. The unobservantor inexperienced teacher might have delayed for a moment, and soon halfthe class would be in motion. Then a sharp reprimand would have beenneeded, and at once the amiable character of this classroom would havebeen undermined. Of course, the effectiveness of Jean’s comment wascertainly enhanced by the general culture of mutual respect as well as thestudents’ expectation that this ‘swingers’ lab would be as engaging asprevious investigations.

Jean’s explanation proceeded, but not in the earnest blow-by-blowstyle favored by the physics teachers of our youth. In an informal sequenceshe mentioned the string, the paper clip, the penny piece in the clip, yetwithout the degree of precision one might think was imperative for a class ofdiverse 14 year-olds. And instead of specifying the exact length to be cut offthe ball of string, she told them it should be ‘at least 200 cm long.’ Thevagueness of that ‘at least’ was at first puzzling, until one realized what washappening here: the students were being treated as young adults capable ofthinking for themselves. There was a tacit understanding that this was agood way to handle things. Rather than treat her students as capable only offollowing explicit directions, Jean forced them to deal with ambiguity, likegenuine problem-solvers. The students had to think a bit harder, but thetrade-off was an engaging atmosphere and the rewarding feeling that MrsBradac considered them informed participants whose intelligence andingenuity could be trusted.

When Jean judged that enough of the technical details had beenimparted, she posed some leading questions. Which was the dependent, andwhich the independent variable? Some students offered observations, but theanswer, Jean explained, was something they would have to decide whenthey plotted the graph on their calculators, which would be made availablewhen needed. They would then discover, too, whether the relationship waslinear or quadratic. A boy declared, unbidden, that it would be linear, and agirl countered that it could be quadratic. Clearly, these questions had beenasked – and explored – in other contexts. When two girls asked, ‘Doesn’t it

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matter how high up you start the swinger?’ Jean said that this question wasanother for them to investigate, as would be the effect of putting severalpennies in the clip instead of one.

Jean posed the class another question: how would it be possible toestimate the period of a 10-metre swinger? No, she could not allow them towalk on the adjacent flat roof. They must use their results to predict andthen experiment. (We later discovered that the principal, encountering the10-metre group in the hallway, had cheerfully led them to the wings of theschool stage where a swinger could be hung from the light racks.) And now,as the students were invited to come up and collect their apparatus, theywere asked not to rush all at once, nor to toss the pennies but use them forthe task in hand.

The students were taking their assigned task seriously, yet their mannerbelied this, and so did Jean’s. She crossed the room to find the box ofpaper-clips, smiling at the occasional silly question (Can we hang a swingerfrom our noses?) as students began to relax into the assignment. The erraticcomputing skills of one student were jokingly referred to in passing, evokingquiet amusement.

So the lesson proceeded, and one might have thought all this had beenrehearsed: Jean moved about, engaging with groups here and there but in anunobtrusive way. While some students set up a table in the hallway outsideand stood on it to hang their swinger, another group found that a ruler couldbe fixed to a ledge with masking tape, and Jean interrupted the class to pointout this novel solution. All the while students were quietly talking together,discussing and occasionally arguing, their voices never rising above aconversational level. Notebooks appeared, accounts were begun andmeasurements recorded. Unbidden, the lesson entered a summative phaseand Jean brought the graphing calculators out of her storeroom ready foruse.

Character and Context

Watching a lesson that seems to unfold so modestly and yet so rewardingly,one might miss the underlying factors that make the whole business look sosimple. Here was a scene of sustained inquiry, achieved with no excesseffort or gesture – a kind of minimalist art with its strengths concealed. Tothe casual observer, it had all the inevitability of a team of experiencedworkers changing the tyres on a car. But then you realise how much couldgo wrong: it’s fun to flick a swinger in someone’s face, or stick maskingtape to a shirt, or contrive an argument with your partner that ends with anexpletive loud enough to embarrass the teacher. Once you begin to thinkabout the potential for disorder, you begin to marvel at the ease with whichorder has been achieved. What looks so natural, so effortless, suddenlybecomes a triumph of assured professionalism.

Behind the ordered exterior there is an unpredictable sequence ofclassroom occurrences, and the experiment itself is not happening inlock-step. After 10 minutes or so, some pairs are moving ahead and others

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are falling behind. Yet no one seems bothered to make comparisons, todetermine winners and losers. Taking it student by student, one sees thedisarray of unrelated events, yet for the class as a whole, a pattern ofcommonality emerges. As in chaos theory, there is an attracting force atwork that establishes the character of the engagement, that both ordains andconstrains an apparent disorder – an innate, implicit element that gives thelesson its distinctive appeal.

An alternative scenario for this lesson – and one that would find favorwith politicians on both sides of the Atlantic – would begin with a clearstatement of outcomes – the assessed performances that make it clear whatevery student knows and can do. Working back from this, Jean would haveprepared a worksheet, with written instructions, a table with spaces for themeasurements, and some prepared questions with spaces for answers.

With axes for the final graphs pre-drawn, the whole lesson wouldproceed with clockwork uniformity and all the requirements of astandards-based program (in the eyes of many reformers) would have beenmet.

Such a lesson ought to be every bit as orderly as the one we watched,but because the outcomes have been allowed to dictate the curriculum, itwould have much less to commend it. In Jean’s lesson, there are certainlywhat Dewey termed ‘ends in view’, but they are expressed as matters forinvestigation rather than, in Schwab’s phrase, “a rhetoric of conclusions”(Schwab, 1978). The students take part not in a procedure but in an inquiry,and therefore construct their own understanding of events rather than adoptan agenda prepared at another place and another time. Signs of boredom canturn into restlessness when the teacher’s control depends on the mechanicaldevice of the worksheet.

Jean’s control had a quite different origin – her innate understanding ofthis practical encounter: of the institutional norms that defined theclassroom context, of the curriculum events that would unfold in differentways for different pupils, and of a range of strategies for promoting teachingand learning. Thus, she was able to bring all the students into the experiencewhile allowing each of them to determine the course of events. The result isa closer engagement, a deeper understanding, and an educational experiencethat cannot be reduced to predictable outcomes. Watching the kind ofoblique discourse through which Jean sustains the class, one is reminded ofOakeshott’s metaphor of conversation: “an endless unrehearsed intellectualadventure in which, in imagination, we enter into a variety of ways ofunderstanding the world and ourselves and are not disconcerted by theinconclusiveness of it all” (Oakeshott, 1965).

This is a conversation, though, of a particular kind, since it needs to beorchestrated by the teacher, deftly and as far as possible unintrusively. Theart of it – the “idiom of the activity”, to quote Oakeshott again – is embodiedin the judgements Jean makes all the time, and these decisions andinterventions are effective because of a classroom culture that respects thestudents and lets them do their work. They see the pendulum swinging inspace, make a measurement error and correct it after a leading question from

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Jean, and suddenly, out of two columns of figures, a mathematical modeltakes the place of idle speculation. Soon, they experience a frisson ofamazement when they find their three-penny swinger behaves just like theone-penny swinger. It’s an astonishing discovery, one that echoes down thecenturies. How much better not to tell them what is in store, but to trust inthe motivational power of directed inquiry to promote genuineunderstanding.

The swingers class gives the lie to various fashionable assumptions.The engagement is driven by input, not output: there are expectations, butthey do not specify in advance a set of procedures for their realisation. Themotive force arises from the arts of the practical, embodying Jean Bradac’stheories about curriculum process and her command of its subject matter.Without command of content – the experiment and the body of knowledge itsubsumes – there is no lesson. But without command of the means by whichthe activity can be prefigured, explored, and realised, the content will havelittle impact. A how without a what is meaningless, and so is a what withoutan adequate how. But once the two are linked, so that the means and the endinteract, the encounter becomes rich and fruitful.

We note at this point how misleadingly deficient is the separationbetween curriculum, instruction, and assessment which underpins so muchcurrent talk of ‘content standards’, ‘implementation’, and ‘performancestandards’. The subtext seems to be that curriculum is merely content, thatinstruction (or, even worse, ‘delivery’) is the method by which it isimplemented, and assessment is a separate stage of evaluation which, insome remarkable scenarios, is supposed to drive the entire learningexperience. But in the swingers class all three proceed together. What youlearn is a function of how you learn, and in the process, assessment becomesintrinsic. Understanding embodies an assessment of what has happened, andhow it has happened: the learning encounter instantiates all three elements.

We note, too, that this pedagogic style assumes as a matter of coursethat individual pupil responses will differ, and takes advantage of schoolculture as pupils spread from the classroom to the building. What is learnt isthe result not of a standard procedure in a closed classroom, but ofinteractions between engaged participants. Pupil, teacher, class and schoolshare a sense of common purpose that facilitates individual involvement;more generally, they are all elements in a system that extends beyond theschool to its stakeholders (Holt, 1995). Without a sense of sharedcommitment within the system, support for innovative teaching weakens andschool reform falters.

Professional Development

The swingers class illustrates how teaching is a practical activity of aparticular and complex kind. Supposing that it is a procedural activity drivenby pre-specified objectives and ‘best practices’ has superficial appeal,particularly to reformers who view teaching as a technical skill dedicated tonumerical measures of achievement. For them, master’s degree courses for

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practising teachers are not so much a luxury as an irrelevance. In England,successive Conservative administrations have sought, indeed, to reduce thetheoretical content even of pre-service courses, shifting the emphasis toschool experience on the premise that theory is unnecessary when training inskills is all that is needed.

In the USA, reform of teacher education has taken a different butequally bizarre path, the result of a curious alliance between academicreformers and a national certification body. The ‘Holmes Group’ reformers– drawn from a handful of well-funded universities – have argued that thepre-service course should be a 5 year affair leading to a master’s degree, byanalogy with the lengthy pre-medical training of physicians. But asFenstermacher (1990) and others have pointed out, the activity of teaching isquite different from the activity of medicine: “there is the reciprocalrelationship of the teacher and the learner; it is not for the learner to swallowa pill in order to be educated, but rather to join in a shared process andexpend effort”. Moreover, doctors can turn to computers and other “expertsystems” for both diagnosis and treatment; teachers are dependent upon thearts of practical reasoning, combining theory and practical knowledge in adeliberative process that makes classroom life a continuous intellectualexperiment.[4]

To suppose that a teacher can attain mastery without a period ofseveral years’ experience is scarcely credible. The vital element insuccessful teaching is the judgement-in-action Jean Bradac demonstrated inthe swingers lesson, and it arises from a disposition to apprehend all therelevant factors and choose a justifiable course of action as each fresh eventpresents itself. It is nourished by a readiness to look beneath the surface andgenerate theory as well as using it.

Jean points out that she did not always teach with such confidence andforesight:

During my first few years I was pretty much into ‘telling’. But after someworkshops on activities for students I began loosening my grip andletting students do more. I could feel myself getting better a little biteach year.

Hers is clear testimony to the gradualness of improvement, the need forexperience upon which to build the theories that make sense of the practical.It is also clear that the benefits Jean Bradac gained from her master’s degreewere dependent on examining her previous teaching experience anddiscovering how to improve upon it. In her words:

I think the experience I came in with, especially working with studentteachers, helped me see something relevant in every class. I knew whatto look for.

Proposals for master’s degrees that stipulate no prior sustained classroomexperience miss this vital point. A practical activity cannot be improvedwithout practical knowledge.

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Conclusion

Judging schools by what students ‘know and can do’ has become afashionable litany; so how does the swingers class measure up? At the endof the exercise, when the data are fed into the graphing calculators and thequadratic function connecting period and length is revealed on the miniaturescreen, one could say that the students know this relationship, know thatswinger weight is immaterial, know that the amplitude of swing seems not tomatter much. But far more important is that they have some understandingof how these results come about. They have personalised, perhaps withmodest struggles, their acquisition of knowledge. And what, for that matter,are they able to do? On the face of it, nothing more than plot a graph from asimple experiment. But who can say that this is the limit of what they havelearned, of the capacity they may have acquired? For some, the swingersclass may simply help them adjust the timekeeping of an old family clock.For others, insights will have been gained into the arts of collaborating anddiscussing, or into the notion of a mathematical model, perhaps to be drawnupon years hence.

To suppose, on the other hand, that education should be organisedbackwards – by defining the results we seek, and framing the lessonaccordingly – could have led in this case to a quite different scenario. Whybother to do an experiment, when you can tell the students that the periodvaries as the square root of the length? This is a piece of knowledge that canreadily be tested, and the results will enhance the school’s place in the localleague table. But it can be forgotten as quickly as it has been learnt, and willleave no trace on the mind. Mind traces come about by association with anemotionally charged event – such as the sudden death of a celebrity – butalso by acquisition of habits. Discovery does indeed favor the preparedmind.

The swingers lesson owed something to Jean Bradac’s initiation intoteaching, and assuredly to her past teaching experience, but was cruciallythe result of her further professional studies. She learned of the swingersactivity and how to evaluate it in her master’s degree course for practisingteachers – a course that fostered a climate she was able to transfer to herclassroom. Our analysis supports the view that continual teacher in-servicedevelopment emphasising reflection upon experience is the vital element inschool improvement. This is a relatively unglamorous activity, and forpoliticians it lacks the quick-fix aspect of pre-service teacher education.There is a danger that too much attention and resources paid to the latterwill be at the expense of the former.

We have remarked on the rituals and routines Jean had established inher classroom. The students showed respect for each others’ opinions;gratuitous disputes were significantly absent. A democratic culture cannotbe taken for granted: Benjamin Barber (1992) sees democracy as “anextraordinary and rare contrivance of cultivated imagination”, and toconstruct a civic community of this kind takes time and dedication. It is a

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world where the numinous is as important as the tangible, where studentsaddress quiet questions and teachers realise that less can be more.

Viewing Jean’s classroom as an institution, one could assert that thesuccess of the swingers class was due in part to the institutional culturewithin which it took place. An institution, as Reid (1992) points out, is “asocially embedded idea defined by well-known structures”. To suppose that‘what works’ can be the basis for school improvement is to neglect thisinstitutional dimension. Practices are not context-free, and neither are theteachers who make them work. A decontextualised view of schoolingappeals to the technocratically minded, but it has little relation to the reallife of schools.

For us, then, the mathematics class did more than make swingers andobserve pendulums; it reminded us that context is important, that goodteaching cannot be reduced to prescriptions, and that significant experienceis essential to professional development. More generally, we came to seethat a systems perspective is desirable; that further emphasis should beplaced on teacher development strategies; and that the arts of the practicalare the key to teachers’ professional accomplishment.

Correspondence

Maurice Holt, School of Education, University of Colorado at Denver,Campus Box 106, Denver, CO 80217-3364, USA.

Notes

[1] While editing the final version of this paper, we learnt that Jean Bradac had indeed beenchosen to receive a Presidential Award for Excellence in Mathematics Teaching.

[2] The ‘math-art’ class indicates that this is a mathematics class with a practical orientation,experimenting in shapes and patterns as a way of discovering relationships and makinguse of technology to experiment with mathematical models.

[3] Americans frequently refer to the one-cent piece as a penny, and it is in fact scarcelydistinguishable in size and weight from the ‘new’ English penny. One or two suchpennies can easily be held in a standard paper clip, and swing easily from a piece ofstrong thread.

[4] This is not to overlook the ethical decisions that confront medical practitioners whenevaluating complex symptoms or striking a balance between appropriate treatment andavailable resources. It is simply to stress that in teaching, the ‘knowledge base’ iselusive and teachers cannot turn to an established taxonomy of remedies in response toeveryday problems. The uncertainties of the classroom are quite different from thedecorous protocols of the doctor’s office.

References

Barber, B. (1992) An Aristocracy of Everyone. New York: Oxford University Press.

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Fenstermacher, G. (1990) Some moral considerations on teaching as a profession, in J.Goodlad, R. Suder & K. Sirotnik (Eds) The Moral Dimension of Teaching, p. 136. SanFrancisco: Jossey-Bass.

Holt, M. (1995) Deming, Schwab, and school improvement, Education and Culture, summer,pp. 1-12.

Oakeshott, M. (1965) Learning and teaching, in T. Fuller (Ed.) (1989) Michael Oakeshott onEducation, p. 59. New Haven: Yale University Press.

Peterson, R. (1992) Life in a Crowded Place. Portsmouth: Heinemann.

Policy Statement (1996) National Education Summit, Education Week, April 3.

Reid, W.A. (1992) The Pursuit of Curriculum, p. 29. Norwood: Ablex PublishingCorporation.

Schwab, J.J. (1978) The practical: translation into curriculum, in I. Westbury, & N. Wilkof(Eds) Science, Curriculum, and Liberal Education, p. 371. Chicago: University ofChicago Press.

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