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CHAPTER - 5
CIVIC AMENITIES ANDHEALTH HAZARDS
(A) URBAN BORN INSECTS :
Insects and related arthropods of importance in the urban
environment are broadly covered under the auspices of urban
entomology. Most arthropods in human environments go unno-
ticed. However, some species post significant problems because
they directly affect the health of humans or their domesticated
animals, attack human structures, foods, goods, materials, or plants
that adorn urban settings.
A relatively small number of insect species have been
intentionally introduced into the urban environment. Examples
include the gupsy moth, Lymantria dispar that was intentionally
introduced into Massachustts in 1868. It is highly probable also
that the Asian Lady Beetle, Harmonia axyridis, was intentionally
introduced in 1980s. Many pest species have been accidentally
introduced with human commerce and travel. Some invasive
species have adapted themselves to disturbed human habitats and
have rapidly spread world wide via commerce and human travel.
The German cockroach Blattella germanica, is an excellent
example of such a species. It is rarely found outdoors, preferring
heated and controlled environments typically associated with
human food preparation. Probably native to Eastern Asia, it spread
143
throughout the Eastern Mediterranean Region by Greek or
Phoenician Vessels. It remained in Southern Russia until after the
Thirty years war (1618-1648) spreading into Europe and finally
becoming established in restaurants and other food handling
establishments in the rapid modernization of China.
With the increasing rate of urbanization in NCT Delhi,
problems associated with arthropod pests in urban centers will
continue to grow. In 1951, about 14.37 lac people (82.4%) lived
in urban areas. At the turn of the twenty-first century, this had
increased to greater than 129 lac people (93.18%) in Delhi. By
the year 2021, it is estimated that there will be greater than 230
lac people living in urban areas. The most dramatic increases in
urbanization and challenges in Delhi will occur in development;
the complex of urban invasive species will likely spread to these
urban centers, or attain the problem status now associated with
more developed countries. Many of these countries and develop-
ing urban centres exist in areas endemic to arthropod vector
borne diseases such as malaria, dengue, encephalitis, yellow fe-
ver, and plague the importance of urban and medical entomology
in tropical urban centers will increase in the future.
The urban environment in NCT Delhi is a complex of
habitats developed by human from natural sites. Houses, villages,
towns, cities, buildings, roads and other features that characterize
the urban environment in Delhi have gradually and irrecoverably
changed the landscape of natural and agricultural areas. As a part
144
of this change, some habitats and their associated plants and
animal communities were eliminated, while others were expanded
and new ones were created. Many of the new habitats were
intentional - parks, waterways, street trees, turf grass, food stores
but some were consequential- standing water in road side ditches,
garbage and landfill sites near residential neighbourhoods, the
underground sewer and storm drain network in urban and
suburban areas of Delhi. They all provided habitats for a select
group of insects and other arthropods, some of which attained
pest status.
Local conditions, climate, and available resources deter-
mine the distribution of some arthropods in the urban environ-
ment of Delhi, and for some species their abundance is limited.
Other species are broadly adapted to the resources and harbor-
ages in and around buildings, and these are cosmopolitan in their
distribution and pest status. Stable habitats with resources and
conditions suitable for long-term survival support reservoir popu-
lations of pest species, and from these habitats individuals or
groups move or are transported to establish infestations in
unstable or temporary habitats.
PERIDOMESTIC AND DOMESTIC HABITATS :
Within and around buildings, houses, and other urban struc-
tures are habitats that support individuals or populations of plants
and animals. Peridomestic habitats are outside, around the pe-
145
rimeter of structures. They include the external surfaces of
buildings, the ornamental trees, shrubs, and turf grass that
characterize the urban and suburban landscape. Domestic
habitats are indoors and include the plant and animal based
materials in this controlled, anthropogenic environment.
PERIDOMESTIC :
Harborage substrates, food resources, and environmental
conditions of urban landscapes of Delhi generally support a large
numbers. The soil-inhabiting and nesting arthropods in this envi-
ronment include ants that forage indoors and termites that damage
structural wood, ground nest bees and wasps, and occasional or
nuisance pests such as clover mites, millipedes, centipedes, and
springtails. Plant-feeding insects utilize the cultivated urban and
suburban trees and shrubs, and many are aesthetic pests. Blood
feeding mites (chiggers), ticks, mosquitoes and other biting flies
are associated with domestic and feral vertebrates. Species
utilizing building surfaces or perimeter substrates include the
umbrella wasp, hornets, yellow jackets, spiders and scorpions.
Underground sewer and storm drainage pipes provide some
cockroach and rodent species access to urban areas. The garbage
disposal network of collection, sorting, and landfill in Delhi
provide harborage and food for cockroaches, flies, rodents, and
pest birds.
Reservoir populations for many of the pest species estab-
lished in peridomestic habitats are in nearby natural or undis-
146
turbed areas. Woodland tracts and other small or large patches of
green space can support populations of biting flies, wasps and
hornets, ticks, and spiders in Delhi. Here are the populations that
provide the individuals or groups that establish or replenish
infestations in less stable habitats, or re-establish populations
lost to habitat destruction.
DOMESTIC :
Environmental conditions in NCT Delhi indoors are
generally stable and the harborages and food resources are some-
what limited. There may be few species, but those adapted to
specialized resources often occur in large numbers. Stored food,
including packaged whole food and vegetables, organic fabrics
and other materials are the most common harborates and food
resources in the domestic habitat. Directly or indirectly associ-
ated with these are dermestid beetles, flour beetles and moths,
flies and cockroaches. The distribution of domestic products and
similar storage environments has contributed to the cosmopolitan
pest status of many of these insects, in both residential and com-
mercial sites in Delhi. Blood and skin feeding species that breed
indoors are limited, but lice, fleas, bed bugs and mites are medi-
cally important pests for more than one socio-economic level of
society. Insects and other arthropods in the living space are
nuisance pest when they are few and their presence brief, but are
not tolerated when they pose a health treat or persist in large
numbers.
147
Natural habitats and populations for some domestic
species, especially those infesting sored food have been lost. Only
populations in the urban environment in NCT Delhi represent
many of these species or they survive only through their link to
humans (bed bugs, lice). Other indoor pests have reservoir popu-
lations in peridomestic and natural areas. Many of the common
species occur in the nests of bird and rodents and from there
have access to indoor habitats.
INSECT DISPERSAL AND DISTRIBUTION :
International transportation, economic exchange, and
globalization have brought a degree of uniformity to the urban
area around the world, and increased the movement and exchange
of arthropods. The majorities of household and store food pests,
including fruit flies, cockroaches, flour beetles, moths and mites,
have moved with infested commercial goods and now have
cosmopolitan distribution. Peridomestic mosquitoes, subterranean
termites and wood-infesting beetles share the same potential for
widespread distribution. Current distribution records for many
household and structural pests are subject to change with increased
movement of people and materials around the world.
Information on pest identification, biology and habits,
compiled on an international basis, is appropriate for the urban
environment. A global census indicates that nearly 2300 insects
and other arthropods have some level of pest status around the
148
world. Some are only occasional invaders of houses and other
buildings, some are closely associated with the foods, fabrics,
and other aspects of dwellings and others are linked to plants and
animals in domestic and peridomestic habitats. Many of these
species are capable of adapting to the soil conditions, climate
and building construction in other regions of the world, and
becoming established in pest populations. Regional conditions
may after some behaviors, but morphological features and the
basic life cycle will remain unchanged and control strategies are
usually transferable from region to region.
URBAN ECOSYSTEM :
Major ecosystems can be broadly classified as natural,
agricultural and urban. Urban ecosystems are primitive sites where
the interacting plant and animal communities have not been
altered by human activity. There are few, if these in the world
today, and a more practical definition of natural ecosystems might
be undisturbed habitats that have had limited human influence
and retain a portion of their original flora and fauna. An impor-
tant feature of these habitats is the populations of native plants
and animals. These are the reservoir populations of many
species that have adapted to agricultural and urban conditions.
Agricultural and urban ecosystems are defined by their use and
the degree to which their biotic and abiotic features have been
altered by human activity. These ecosystems contain few of the
features that characterize their natural origins; many of the
149
features were built or brought there, or designed by humans.
(B) URBAN SLUMS :
Delhi, capital of India, is home to about 3 million people
living in slums and it is estimated that 45% of its population lives
in unauthorized colonies, jhuggi jhompri (JJ) and urban villages.
As the UNHABITAT definition status a slum household is a group
of individuals living under the same roof in an urban area that
lack one of more of the following :
1. Durable housing of a permanent nature that protects against
extreme climate conditions.
2. Sufficient living space which means not more than three
people sharing the same roof.
3. Easy access to safe water in sufficient amounts at an
affordable price.
4. Access to adequate sanitation in the form of a private or
public toilet shared by a reasonable number of people.
5. Security of tenure that prevents forced evictions.
DEFINING THE ISSUE :
For the purpose of Census of India 2001, Slum areas broadly
constitute :
1. All specified areas notified as “slums” by state / local
government and UT administration under any act.
150
2. All areas recognized as “Slums” by State/local government
and UT administration, which may not have been formally
notified as slum under any act.
3. A compact area with a population of at least 300 or about
60-70 households of poorly built congested tenements, in
unhygienic environment usually with inadequate infrastruc-
ture and lacking in proper sanitation and drinking water
facilities.
The slum areas are those that are notified under the Slum
Improvement and Clearance Areas Act of 1956. Building and/or
areas that are considere to be unfit for human habitation may be
declared as the slum areas under section 3 of the act. As such,
they are considered to be legal structures and are eligible for
benefits under the act. The squatter or JJ cluster settlements on
the other hand are considered as encroachments on public and
private lands. They are, therefore, seen as illegal settlements.
According to the United Nations, the proportion of urban
dwellers living in slums decreased from 47 percent to 37 percent
in the developing world between 1990 and 2005. However, due
to rising population, the number of slum dwellers is rising. One
billion people worldwide live in slums and the figure will likely
to grow to 2 billion by 2030.
As India is urbanizing very fast and along with this, the
slum population is also increasing. India’s urban population is
151
increasing at a faster rate than its total population. With over 575
million people, India will have 41% of its population living in
cities and towns by 2030 from the present level of 286 million
and 28%. However, most of them do not have access to basic
facilities like drinking water and sanitation.
Because of the lack at affordable prices to different
categories of residents, various types of unplanned settlements
have come up in Delhi. According to an estimate, the population
residing in different types of settlements in 2006 was as shown in
Figure - 5.1.
Among the urban poor, the slum dwellers are the poorest.
The very definition of slums points at the acute drinking water
and sanitation crisis for the slum dwellers. A slum in India is
defined as “a cluster inside urban areas without having water and
sanitation access.”
The National Sample Survey Organization Survey conducted
in 2002 found that in 84% of the notified slums the main water
Figure - 5.1
152
source is through tap water supply. But these numbers mask
differences across the states of India. In Bihar none of the slums
get water via the tap.
In Chhattisgarh, Gujarat and Uttar Pradesh less than 35%
of slums get tap water. Nearly 44% of non-notified slums do not
have a drainage system of any type whereas only 15% of notified
slums do not have a drainage system.
A similar picture emerges in the case of latrines. Nearly
half of the non-notified slums do not have a latrine of any type. In
contrast only 17% of notified slums do not have a latrine. How-
ever, the past few years have seen significant improvements in
water and sanitation situation in slums. But, that is not a source of
solace as there is still a vast number of slum dweller to be
provided these basic facilities.
CHARACTERIZING LIFE IN SLUMS :
While studying and assessing the feasibility of any policy
it is imperative that there are certain parameters that would help
breakdown the objectives of the policies. Each of these schemes
must be compared with the current situation for slum dwellers
since from their perspective the next best option is starting a new
slum and living in the same conditions as before and thus, the
aforementioned conditions remain. Benchmarks and weightings
to these parameters must also be set before comparison of the
policy objectives so that the methodology is clear. To clearly
153
identify these parameters an understanding of the current situa-
tion and of life as slums dwellers is required. This situation can
be categorized into physical, legal, social, political and economic
characteristics of living in slums as shown in the Figure 5.2.
As can be seen, the physical characteristics of slum life
include shelter but lack a permanent residence, a house and most
of the times even space. The average population density in a shanty
town in Delhi is 3,00,000 people per square kilometer and an
average dwelling houses 6-8 people, yet measures only 6 ft. by 8
ft. Many slums have no latrine facilities, and those that do have
an average of 1 latrine serving 27 households. 1 water pump is
used by 1000 people on average and more often than not water
flows through these pumps only once a day. These low hygiene
and sanitation facilities lead to unhealthy living conditions in the
slums. This, along with illegally high rates for electricity makes
every basic need for slum dwellers is the close proximity of the
slums to most of the resident’s places of work, thus negating
transport costs or reducing it due to convenient transport stations
close by.
Moving onto the economic characteristics, we discuss prob-
ably the main reason for the existence of slums. As mentioned,
people migrate to Delhi from surrounding areas in an attempt to
find employment and improve their own and the lives of their
families. Many a time, these laborers come from their villages on
a contract but end up staying on in Delhi looking to find more
154
work here rather than in their village. Another common case is
that of those who open their own shop or work station in the slum
and operate out of there, such as the local “dhobi” (laundry man)
or tailor. Also because of lack of useable capital many of these
ventures are remain extremely small scale. From the legal aspect,
most of the slums in Delhi are unauthorized i.e. not recognized
and therefore still an illegal encroachment on state land. Because
of this, there is no security of tenure and hardly any dwellers
invest in their houses. Also, in the case that a slum is partially
recognized by the government, i.e. cases when residents before a
certain date are recognized as licensed owners of the land, there
are many hurdles to be faced by the slum dwellers before they
are finally established owners.
For social characteristics, the fact that there are many fairly
good and affordable schools is an important consideration along
with the scene of community and companionship within the slums.
And lastly, the slum dwellers, because of their large numbers,
are eyed by politicians as vote banks where they make many
promises but no one holds them to it.
POVERTY PROFILE OF DELHI :
The Planning Commission estimates the proportion and
number of poor based on the projection of minimum needs and
effective consumption. Such a projection is based on the norm of
2100 calorie per capita per day consumption for an urban area.
155
The calorie norms are invariably expressed in monetary terms
that change with respect to weighted commodity indices of the
consumer price index.
Figure 5.3 shows that the percentage of people below
poverty line (BPL) stood at 52.23% for Delhi in 1973-74. The
figure has been declining steadily to 27.89% in 1983; 16.03 in
1993-94. The percentage of people below poverty line declined
to 10.02% in 2001. Table 5.1 presents the zone wise BPL
population.
TABLE - 5.1
BELOW POVERTY LINE POPULATION
Year Rural BPL %age to Urban BPL %age topopulation Total population Total(in Lakh) (in Lakh)
1973 1.06 24.44 21.78 52.23 1983 0.44 7.66 17.95 27.89 1987 0.10 1.29 10.15 13.56 1993 0.19 1.19 15.32 16.03 2001 0.07 0.40 11.42 9.42
Source : Economic Survey Report, Govt. of Delhi, Delhi.
Figure 5.3
156
SOCIO-ECONOMIC PROFILE OF POOR :
The socio-economic profile of segment of population
categorized as poor is of strategic importance for both planning
purposes, and for managing the habitat and its environmental
up-gradation and improvement.
However, comprehensive data is not available for the whole
of Delhi, although generalization can be made on the following
parameters based on data available from the few available sur-
veys and studies. It is important to keep in perspective however
that inhabitants of LIG/ EWS areas are not homogenous segment.
(a) Income and Expenditure :
The average total monthly income, per household, ranges
from Rs. 1500-2500 among the poor. The expenditure of these
families is around 5-10% more than their incomes. The per capita
monthly income and expenditure is Rs. 245 & Rs. 423 respec-
tively. Poor households, therefore, are increasingly dependent upon
loans from the local moneylenders. The monthly income of around
25-30% households is above Rs. 1500 and around 45-50% house
holds is below Rs. 1000.
(b) Access to Housing :
Housing is a basic need of the poor. Most of the poor do
not have access to secure land tenure. 85% of the poor are squat-
ters, and are vulnerable to frequent eviction. 6% of the poor live
in rented accommodation and have to pay a substantial portion of
157
their income for rent. Most importantly, such rental quarters do
not have even basic infrastructure facilities. The quality of life
led by these people is extremely poor.
(c) Occupation Profile of Poor :
41% of these families work as casual laborers, as most of
them are unskilled. However, one-third of the poor also work in
the service sector and only 20-25% is self-employed. Therefore,
nearly 52% of the poor households do not have access to a
dependable occupation and secure incomes.
(d) Migration Status and Poor :
The employment opportunities (formal and informal) in
Delhi have attracted migrants from all over the country, particu-
larly from the backward state areas due to regional economic
imbalances. In 1961 the annual migration of low income house-
holds into Delhi were estimated to be around 70,000 and that
number has increased every year making it close to an approxi-
mate net addition of around 4 lakh settlers every year, migrating
from various parts of the country in search of livelihood. This
influx of population has resulted in an increased population of
city, pressure on civic amenities, crime, social imbalances, eco-
nomic exploitation, unplanned growth, deterioration of the city
beautification, culture etc.
(e) Access to Infrastructure :
The infrastructure facilities that have been covered are water
158
and sources of energy for the urban poor. A majority of the poor
families (47%) have access to water from community sources.
16% of the families do not have any definite source of water.
With respect to source of light, nearly 30% of the families depend
on kerosene lamps.
(f) Pavement Dwellers :
Around 1 lakh homeless people constitute another
component of the poor in Delhi. They are mostly found in the
Walled City or its surrounding areas and generally sleep on the
pavements. There are around 10 night shelters located at Azadpur,
Subzi Mandi, Paharganj, Jhandewalan, Red Fort, Old Delhi
Railway Station, Azad Market and Roshanara Road. The night
shelters operated by MCD provide accommodation to only male
dwellers.
SHELTER OPTIONS :
The poor typically inhabit unplanned or semi-planned
developments. In Delhi they are classified as :
(a) Notified slums in old walled city area;
(b) Resettlement colonies;
(c) Relocated JJ clusters or squatter settlements.
The section below describe the characteristics of these
areas.
THE OLD WALLED CITY AREA :
In Delhi, areas designated or notified as slums under the
159
act are generally located in the walled city and its adjoining
environs. There are 319 katras in the walled city area with about
3,000 buildings or properties. Out of these, 365 properties have
been identified as dangerous and therefore require resettlement
of inhabitants. In addition, there are 400 properties, which are
with the Evacuee Property Cell of Land and Building Department
of Delhi Government.
SQUATTER SETTLEMENTS/ JJ CLUSTERS :
The squatter settlements are encroachments on mainly
public land. As such these are illegal clusters (JCs) and are
devoid of any legal entitlements. However, efforts have been made
by the government to extend basic social and environmental
services to them.
LOCATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF JJ CLUSTERS :
JJ clusters are scattered all over the city. Generally they
are situated on the vacant land along railway lines, roads, drains
and river embankments and also vacant spaces near residential,
industrial and commercial complexes.
Figure 5.4
160
Figure 5.4 shows that around 55 percent of squatters are
near the residential areas and 40% along the road berms as also
shown in the complete picture in Table 5.2.
TABLE - 5.2
AREAWISE STATUS OF JJ CLUSTERS IN DELHI
Areas with Number of squatters %age to total encroachment Residential Areas 34100 55.86 Road Berms 24184 39.62 Park and open spaces 966 1.58 Schools 500 0.82 Market 1093 1.79 Railway Station 200 0.33 TOTAL 61043 100.00
Source : Sabir Ali, Environment Scenario of Delhi Slums, Centre for social Develop
ment Studies - 1998.
It is clear from Table 5.3 that around 70% of clusters have
less than 500 JJ’s. This percentage has remained constant from
1991-2001. The sharp decline in number of JJ clusters (1994-
2001) is attributed to large scale relocation of JJs since 1999.
TABLE - 5.3
SIZE WISE DISTRIBUTION OF JJ CLUSTERS
No. of JJ in 1991 1994 2001 clusters Upto 100 496 396 227 1119 101-500 311 446 295 1052 501-1000 59 121 110 290 1001-1500 30 54 37 121 1500 & above 33 63 59 155Source : (i) Slum Department, MCD Delhi; (ii) Status Report for Delhi-21, Delhi Urban
Environment and Infrastructure Improvement Project (DUEIIP), January 2001.
161
Figure 5.5 shows the size-wise distribution of JJclusters
in NCT Delhi in 2001.
AREAS WITH CONCENTRATION OF JJ CLUSTERS :
The spread of JJ clusters ranges from a plot of 0.4 acres with 8
JJs to JJcs as large as 50 acres with 10,000 households & 45000
populations. The average number of JJ per acre comes to 200
with 193 being the lowest (Najafgarh area) and 206 the highest
(Gole Market and Kalkaji areas) (Refer to Map 5.1). The
average area of JJ is 20m2. Some of the major areas with such
concentrations are given below :
(i) HIGH CONCENTRATION :
(a) Minto Road/ Gole Market/ Matia Mahal (129 clusters, 43388
JJs, 215.08 Acres) - NDMC Area.
(b) Badarpur/ Tuglaqabad/ Saket (79 clusters, 64187 JJs, 79 Acres)-
MCD area.
Figure 5.5
162
(c) Moti Nagar/ Patel Nagar/ Rajendra Nagar (72 clusters, 35,427
JJs, 175.45 Acres) - MCD Area.
(d) Jahangirpuri/ Adarsh Nagar/ Model Town/ Wazirpur (117 clus-
ters, 71538 JJs, 356 Acres) - MCD Area.
(e) Badli/ Shahbad-Daulatpur (21 clusters, 27551 JJs, 137.70 Acres)-
MCD Area.
(ii) MEDIUM CONCENTRATION :
(a) Delhi Cantonment/ Janakpuri/ Tilak Marg (17 clusters, 18,982
JJs, 95.03 Acres) - MCD Area.
(b) Biswas Nagar/ Shahdara/ Babarpur (44 clusters, 18,915 JJs, 88.91
Acres) - MCD Area.
(c) Hauzkhas. R.K. Puram (52 clusters, 14,110 JJs, 70.22 acres) -
NDMC Area.
(iii) LOW CONCENTRATION :
(a) Nazafgarh/ Nasirpur/ Palam (11 clusters, 363 JJs, 1.83 Acres) -
MCD Area.
(b) Sarojini Nagar/ Kalkaji/ Malviya Nagar/ Ambedkar Nagar/
Kasturba Marg (45 clusters, 11,802 JJs, 68.42 Acres) - NDMC
Area.
GROWTH OF SQUATTER SETTLEMENTS :
The squatter settlements or Jhuggi jhopari clusters (JJC)
assume strategic importance as far as issues of unorganized settle-
163
ments are concerned. As mentioned in Table - 5.4 in 1951 Delhi
had 12,749 jhuggi jhoparis (JJS) scattered over 199 clusters. By
1973 the number of JJS had reached 98,483 spread over 1373
clusters. The resettlement scheme pursued in 1962-77, with a
concentrated effort in 1975-77 resulted in the resettlement of 2.4
lakh JJS in different parts of Delhi. In 1977 only 20,000 JJ house-
holds had gone upto 1.13 lakhs. In 2001 the JJ clusters had declined
to (729 from 1080 in 1994) due to relocation of around 300
clusters from Gautampuri, Kingsway Camp, Ashok Vihar, AIIMS
and Hauz Khas etc.
TABLE - 5(4)
YEARWISE STATUS OF JJ CLUSTERS IN DELHI
Year JJ Clusters Jhuggi Area in PopulationHHS HA
1951 199 12749 21.1 63745
1973 1373 98483 164.1 492415
1983 534 113000 188.3 565000
1990 929 259000 431.7 1295000
1997 1100 600000 902.1 3000000
2001 728 429662 650.2 2148310
Source : Slum Deptt., Municipal Corporation of Delhi, Delhi.
LAND OWNING AGENCIES AND JJ CLUSTERS :
The land owning agencies in whose area the JJ clusters are
situated are given in Table 5.5. Eighty three percent of DDA land
is squatted on by 600 JJ clusters.
164
TABLE - 5.5
LAND OWNING AGENCIES & JJ CLUSTERS
LO Agencies NO. of Jhuggies Population Area in Acres1990 1994 1994
DDA 280988 349705 1856683 1865.93
L&Do 21530 29415 132327 149.86
Railway 12161 17346 78929 84.34
MCD 8428 11052 52045 47.29
NDMC 3226 4487 20182 22.52
Gram Sabha 4132 4360 19619 21.31
Cantonment 1570 1700 7064 7.86 Board
Source : Status Report for Delhi- 21 Delhi Urban Environment
and infrastructure Improvement Project (DUEIIP), January 2001
ACCESS TO INFRASTRUCTURE IN SLUMS/ JJ CLUSTERS:
Water and sanitation facilities, in these unorganized
colonies, particularly JJ clusters, are poor. Only 21% of colonies
are covered with piped water supply and 10% are covered by
sanitation. Table 5.6 presents a satisfactory level of infrastruc-
ture availability in unplanned settlements, but these facilities are
non- functional in around 75-80% of the settlements. The average
population served by one PSP ranges from 250-300 against the
standard of 150. Moreover, average waiting at PSP is 20-30
minutes. Around 85-90% of JJ clusters did not have even
community toilets, forcing habitants to defecate in the open near
the water bodies or drainage channels.
165
TABLE - 5.6
WATER AND SANITATION STATUS IN THEUNPLANNED SETTLEMENTS (2004)
Service provision in Piped water supply Sewer facility unplanned settlement No. % of colonies No. % of colonies
Regularized 557 98.2 458 80.7 unauthorized colonies
Resettlement colonies 44 100.0 44 100.0
JJ Clusters 158 21.7 72 9.8
Source : Slum Department, Municipal Corporation of Delhi, Delhi.
RESETTLEMENT COLONIES :
Under the schemes for resettlement of JJ clusters 47
resettlement colonies were developed during 1961-77. Around
2.0 lakh plots were developed accommodating about 2.4 lakh
households. These resettlement colonies have degenerated due to
intense population pressure and unorganized development. There-
fore investment towards up-gradation of physical infrastructure
has to be made for improving civic life.
LOCATION OF RESETTLEMENT COLONIES :
The spatial distribution of these colonies indicates that they
are proliferating mainly in the South-East, North-East, North-West,
South-West and Central parts of the NCT of Delhi. These are five
colonies in South-East, eight in North-East, fifteen in North-West,
seven in South-West and twelve in Central Delhi.
166
RELOCATION SITES :
The Map 5.2 shows that there are around 12 relocation
sites as Bhalaswa, Holambi Kalan, Pappan Kalan, Rohini, Narela,
Bakanwar, Madanpur Khadar etc. The most recent relocation has
been made to three principal sites. These are Dwarka (known
also as Pappan Kalan), Rohini, Narela and Savda Ghevara. The
main pockets from where JJ clusters were relocated are Central,
South and East Delhi areas. Thus, during 1999-2000, 3741 squat-
ter households from the JJ clusters at CGO Complex, Chankyapuri,
Kotla Mubarakpur, Andrews Ganj, Sadiq Nagar, Mahaki Sarai,
Shahdara were moved to Narela and Rohini. 27.4 acres of land
has been allotted at Molar Band for shifting of the JJ clusters at
Gautam Nagar behind AIIMS as shown in Map 5.3. In 1997-98,
DDA allocated 32 acres of land in Tehkhand Village for reloca-
tion of squatter families.
These relocation resettlement sites offer no security of
tenure to habitants who begin a new life without security, basic
services, schools and other basic amenities.
SLUM DEVELOPMENT POLICIES IN PLACE :
While evaluating the policies affecting housing for slum
dwellers we take a top down approach by first giving a brief
overview of the National Housing Policy 2007, and laid out for
Delhi’s slums by various authorities.
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(i) NATIONAL URBAN HOUSING AND HABITAT POLICY 2007:
The National Urban Housing and Habitat Policy 2007 states
its goal as ‘affordable housing for all’ in the country. It promotes
various types of Public Private Partnerships and pays special
emphasis on the urban poor, intending to promote sustainable
development of housing in the country with a view to ensuring
equitable supply of land, shelter and services at affordable prices
to all sections of society. The policy focused on multiple stake-
holders the private sector, the cooperative sector, the industrial
sector for labor housing and the services and institutional sector
for employee housing. To attain the overarching goal of afforable
housing for all, emphasis is laid on urban planning, increasing
supply of land and use of spatial incentives like additional floor
area ratio (FAR), transferable development rights, and increased
flow of funds, effective solid waste management and use of
renewal sources of energy. Encouraging integrated townships and
special economic zones (SEZs), the policy calls for reservation
of 10-15 percent land in every new public and private housing
projects or 20-25 percent FAR whichever is greater to for EWS
and LIG housing through appropriate spatial incentives.
The private sector would be permitted assembling land
within the purview of master plans. The policy also sets action
plans for urban slum dwellers with a special package being
prepared for cooperative housing, labor housing and employees
housing. The primary choice would be to give provision of shelter
168
to urban poor at their present location or near their work place.
The role of housing and provision of basic services to the
urban poor has been integrated into the objectives of the Jawaharlal
Nehru Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM).
(ii) BASIC SERVICES TO THE URBAN POOR, JNNURM :
The Sub Mission II of the JNNURM involves Basic
Services to the Urban Poor (BSUP) including the integrated
housing and slum development programme. The objectives of the
mission are outlined as :
1. Focused attention to integrated development of Basic Services to
the urban poor in the cities covered under the mission.
2. Provision of Basic Services to Urban Poor including security of
tenure at affordable prices, improved housing, water supply,
sanitation and ensuring delivery through convergence of other
already existing universal services of the Government for Educa-
tion, health and social security care will be taken to see that the
urban poor are provided housing near their place of occupation.
3. Secure effective linkages between asset creation and asset man-
agement to that the Basic Services to the Urban Poor created in
the cities are not only maintained efficiently but also become self-
sustaining over time.
4. Ensure adequate investment of funds to fulfill deficiencies in the
Basic Services to the Urban Poor.
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5. Scale up delivery of civic amenities and provision of utilities
with emphasis on universal access to urban poor.
The Delhi Master Plan 2021 has laid emphasis on improve-
ment of the living conditions of the 45% of Delhities living in
slums and JJ clusters in the next ten years as part of the improve-
ment in the livability of the city for its inhabitants.
(iii) THREE PRONGED APPROACH IN DELHI :
Of the settlements considered as sub-standard slum and
squatter settlements rank among the worst and it is the urban poor
that live predominantly in such settlements. The program of
squatter clearance was discontinued at the end of sixth plan (from
1985). Accordingly no major settlement program was carried out
until 1992 when a Revised Resettlement Policy was formulated
by the DDA. This did not mean that there were no resettlement
works in progress. The general policy adopted by the govern-
ment since then it twofold. One is that no fresh encroachments
shall be permitted on public land and the second is that past
encroachments (those in existence till 30.01.1990) would not be
removed without providing alternatives.
Squatter settlements are to be found throughout the city but
especially on the vacant land along railway lines, roads, drains,
river embankments, and around resettlement colonies. The strat-
egy of the government towards slums/ squatter settlements has
been mainly of clearance.
170
In recent years, however, there have been some changes in
the attitude and strategies. Since 1991 three strategies have been
used in Delhi, which are as follows :
1. Improvement of the slum environment.
2. Relocation of the slums
3. In situ-up-gradation and rehabilitation.
(iv) IMPROVEMENT OF THE SLUM ENVIRONMENT :
Since 1987, in JJ clusters and notified slums which are not
being relocated or developed with the in situ approach, basic
urban services and amenities are being provided under ‘Envi-
ronmental improvement in urban slum scheme’. The facilities are
extended to all JJ clusters even those that developed after 1990.
The facilities being provided under the scheme are :
1. Pay and use Jan Suvidha Complexes containing toilets and bath-
rooms at the community level or the provision of mobile toilet,
vans in all those JJ clusters where the Jan Suvidha Complex can
not be provided.
2. Water supply either through water hydrants, hand pipes or water
tanker.
3. Street lighting.
4. Dusbins for collection of domestic waste.
5. Paved pathways and drains.
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(v) RELOCATION OF SLUMS :
Jhuggi Jhopri resettlement, relocation scheme was started
in the Union Territory of Delhi for the rehousing of squatters on
government and private lands in 1960. The scheme began with
the allotment of two room tenements to 3,560 JJ households.
Subsequently, partially developed plots of 80 square yards were
allotted under the scheme to the squatters on a nominal rent.
However, due to demand of land in Delhi and the fact that the
allotment procedure was misused, size of plots was reduced to
40 square meters and then 25 square meters. Under the present
situation, Relocation is carried out for only those JJ clusters and
slums that are required by the land owning agency for public
interest projects.
Since the inception of the scheme with effect from 1990-
1991, so far about 70,000 plots have been developed and about
60,000 families have been rehabilitated at Dwarka, Rohini, Narela,
Bawana, Holambi, Molar Band, Madanpur Khaddar & Sawda
Ghevre keeping in view the scarcity of land in Delhi and as per
the directions of the Delhi Government and Government of India.
The Delhi Government has formulated a new policy for the
resettlement of squatter families in Delhi. Under the new policy,
Delhi Government has proposed to provide built up flats instead
of plots to the slum dwellers, economically weaker sections
under the Rajiv Awas Yojna, JNNURM. Under this scheme, the
Delhi Government aims to provide 4 lakh flats by 2012.
172
(vi) IN SITU UP-GRADATION AND REHABILITATION :
There has been a general shift in the approach to slum and
JJ clusters in recent years. The emphasis is now on the improve-
ment of the environment of the JJ cluster and their in situ rehabili-
tation wherever possible. The in situ up gradation is undertaken
after the area has been notified as a slum area under the Slum
Area Act of 1956. The scheme involves replanning of JJ dwell-
ing units in modified layout by redistributing the encroached land
pockets amongst the squatter families. The JJ households are given
sites of 10 to 12.5 square meters for construction of their own
shelters. The housing plots are generally designed in a cluster
around open courtyards. The beneficiary constructs the shelter
under a self help approach with technical extension services
provided by the slum and JJ department of the MCD. So far 5,583
families have been rehabilitated at Prayog Vihar, Ekta Vihar, Shanti
Vihar and Shahbad Daulatpur Phase I. The implementation of the
in situ- up-gradation is very poor due to non availability of the
Notice of Consent from the concerned land owning agency. A
new policy of in situ slum up grading also suggests, as in the case
of relocation, the provision of developed flats on the same
location instead of plots for the slum dwellers.
The Delhi Development Authority (DDA) decided to take
up in situ development towards rehabilitation of slum dwelling
units of about 25 square meters will be about 47,500. These will
be taken up on public- private partnership model in which the
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land occupied by slum dwellers will be made available to de-
velopers, who will construct houses in accordance with the num-
bers identified by the DDA. These houses will be constructed in
same parts of the area while in the remaining areas the developer
will be allowed to carry out commercial exploitation of the land.
This would enable the developer to spill over some of the costs
from building the rehabilitation units to the commercial activity,
thereby reducing the burden on the slum dwellers as well. This
mixed development allows them to get the cross subsidy by way
of targeting two different segments of society.
This model is being applied at the kathputli colony where
residents will have access to 12 storeyed buildings in which the
ground floors will be devoted to promoting artistic and commer-
cial enterprise since most of the residents are puppeteers, crafts-
men or musicians. The constructions will house 2,800 dwelling
units meant for the colony’s residents. The site will also boast of
a separate 2.1 acre commercial space to be developed by private
developers and “high-category residential apartmentments” in 2.4
acres which will help boost the earning of artisans and crafts-
men, according to the DDA’s plans.
In the scheme, modeled on Mumbai’s slum rehabilitation
programme, private players will join hands with the government
and the work of clearing the slums would proceed in phases.
Since residents will be resettled, tents will be pitched to provide
174
temporary accommodation to the people till the project is
completed.
(vii) DRAFT NATIONAL SLUM POLICY 2001 :
Another more specific, policy the “draft” National Slum
Policy is yet to be ratified by the government. The draft National
Slum Policy envisages cities without slums. Towards fulfillment
of this vision, the policy adopts an approach of in situ up gradation
and improvement. It recommends clearance only in exceptional
circumstances. It, therefore, talks of urban growth with equity
and justice and makes plea for greater participation of communi-
ties and civil society in all areas of planning, capacity building
and development. Correspondingly it proposes a series of
interventions with regards to definitions, tenure, planning,
economic empowerment, governance and management, shelter up
gradation etc.
The governing principal of the Draft National Slum Policy
are as follows :
1. The endorsement of an upgrading and improvement approach in
all slums, and the acceptance of the necessity of slum clearance
in an extremely defined circumstances.
2. Recognition that households in all urban informal settlements
should have access to certain basic minimum services, irrespec-
tive of land tenure or occupancy status.
175
3. The goal that planning in all cities should have the objective of
creating cities without slums.
4. The objective of ensuring that urban growth takes place with
equity and distributive justice.
5. The intention that urban local bodies should work in collabora-
tion with all other stakeholders to enhance the impact of slum
development through building the capacities of the poor and
empowering them to improve their own living conditions.
6. The adoption of a more “enabling” approach to the delivery of
basic social services to the poor as a result of more effective
mobilization of community resources and skills to complement
public resource allocations.
7. A greater participation of communities and civil society in all
areas of planning, capacity building and development.
The draft policy is however silent over the ways in which
such goals could be realized. Also, the definition of all under
served serviced lands as slums will hinder and deny the most
needy and vulnerable from having access to resources for up-
gradation and improvement.
POLICY COMPARISON :
A comparative study of these policies and schemes can now
be undertaken, based on the parameters discussed earlier. The
National Urban Housing and Habitat Policy 2007 seems to be a
176
step in the right direction, with focus on affordable housing,
public private partnerships (PPP), sustainable development of
housing in the country, special package being prepared for
cooperative housing, labor housing and employees housing and
prioritizing houses for the urban poor at their present location or
near their work place using the in- situ slum rehabilitation
approach. Using the parameters as tools for analysis we see that
with PPPs and the in situ rehabilitation approach, affordable
housing for slum dwellers at their present location is an option.
This enables them to earn their livelihood just as they did before,
in the slums. The security of tenure objective is also achieved
through the policy. Only the characteristics of housing provided
remains questionable. The quality of houses, its cost and the
allocation can be a hindrance to the residents. Sometimes the
costs are too high for them and at other times the quality of the
houses is compromised. Under the JNNURM, the improved quality
of housing is specifically included and allocation is said to be on
the basis of need (determined through income). As is the case
with both the relocation and the in situ rehabilitation policy, any
worker whose source of livelihood is within the slums (dhobi,
tailor etc.) might be compromised unless there is specific
mention of a workstation being supplied. Thus this would be a
violation of the first parameter and the people affected by this
would prefer to stay in some other slum again. This vary case
would be an important characteristic of the third approach of
177
improvement of the slum environment or up- gradation. The
livelihoods of the residents are maintained even though the slum,
not lacking basic facilities but still an unplanned part of the city,
still exists. The draft national slum policy outlines its objectives
but has not clearly defined how these objectives will be met and
therefore no analysis on the basis of parameters and incentives
for residents can be undertaken. Thus, as is the case with most of
the policies in India, each of these policies, schemes and
approaches looks impeccable on paper but the ground realities
of these projects are often very different from what is claimed
and therefore it is necessary that a follow up mechanism be
incorporated into each of the policies to ensure their efficiency.
(C) URBAN GARBAGE GROUNDS :
Various human processes produce waste. Disposing waste
products is major global problem since last many decades.
Landfill is considered as the primitive way to organized waste
dumping in various parts of earth. It is a method of removing the
refuse on land without creating a hazard to public health or safety.
Landfills may consist of domestic waste dumping sites as well as
sites utilized by several manufacturers. This method is also
adopted for other waste management tasks for example the
momentary storage, consolidation and relocation, or meting out
of waste substance such as sorting, treatment, or recycling. The
landfill is supportive process of waste diminution and has a key
role in resource revival. A landfill also denotes the practice in
178
which ground has been packed in with soil and rocks as an alter-
native of garbage which solves many important purposes such as
for building construction.
Landfill is emerged as the most practicable ecological
substitute for the specific waste removal in various countries.
Today government priority is to set up a waste policy by
applying the ideology in order to deal with environmental risks,
the economic and health dangers of resource degradation. These
strategies are basically planned to maintain landfill practices
which will stabilize the landfill sites in present generation. The
main intent of waste organization is to deal with the garbage
produced by existing generation and do not switch over waste
related harms to next generation. The Landfill Directive is
committed to raise standards and lessen harmful consequences
on the surroundings, groundwater, surface waters, soil, and
restrictions on the universal impact of waste dumping. For
commercial purpose, a landfill technique must meet definite
requirements, which are linked to many important factors. The
first factor is the location. Landfill must have easy access to
transportation via road. It must have stability such as fundamen-
tal geology, earthquake faults, water table. Another factor is
capacity. The existing annulled space must be planned by assess-
ment of the landform with a proposed re-establishment profile.
This computation of capacity is based on density of the wastes,
amount of intermediate and daily cover, and amount of settle-
179
ment. Landfill must have protection of soil and water through
installation of inside layer and collection systems. To handle speci-
fied harmless waste landfills such method must be applied through
which the trash are cramped to small area, compressed to decrease
their quantity, enclosed with layers of soil. Completely lined
landfills reinstate the previous one, unlined deposits that were
earlier used. In the operation of landfill, the garbage collection
trucks are weighed at entrance and their load is checked for wastes.
Then, these vehicles drop their load. After loads are dumped,
compactors or dozers spread and compressed the waste on the
operational field. This flattened waste is enclosed with soil
every day. Other waste wrap materials are sprayed on froth
products and transitory mantles. These mantles can be elevated
into place with tracked excavators and then detatched the next
day proceeding to waste placement. Chipped wood and chemi-
cally ‘fixed’ bio-solids are the substitute cover. Since the 20th
century, population is exploding speedily in developed areas; it
is a need of an hour to implement land reprocesses tractics for
completed landfills. The common usages are parks, golf courses.
Office buildings and industrial uses are made of a completed
landfill. Many steps are taken to disperse garbage produced
through communities, Industry and other establishments. At the
end of 20th century, different methods to waste removal to land-
fill and burning have started. The apparent substitutes to landfills
are waste reduction and recycling policies. Incineration is the
180
most effectual technique of plummeting volume and weight of
solid waste by burning in a well designed furnace.
Landfill reclamation is one of the control measures to check
spoilage of landscape. It is the burning of landfill garbage at high
temperature via the plasma-arc gasification procedure. Another
important way to deal with solid waste is composing by which
the organic components of solid waste are biologically decom-
posed under controlled aerobic conditions. In this method,
plastics, rubber and leather are separated from the solid waste
and the remaining organic matter is decomposed aerobically or
an aerobically to end product called compost. Anaerobic
digestion, mechanical biological treatment, pyrolysis and gasifi-
cation have all started to establish themselves in the marketplace.
Optional waste disposal technology is quite expensive than
landfill and mass burn incineration is the sole technology for mixed
waste. India is working to develop clean energy sources that can
yield considerable economic, environmental and health benefits
for people. Methane emissions from the solid waste sector in
India are projected to increase significantly over the next 15 years.
Reusing landfill methane gas for energy purposes has the poten-
tial to mitigate 5.5 million metric tons of carbon dioxide equiva-
lents, which is equal to the annual emissions from one million
vehicles. Currently, there are no operational landfill gas-to-
energy projects in India but several large sites in Delhi, Mumbai
and other cities could support the clean energy projects.
181
Basically, a landfill is a large area of land or an excavated
site that is a carefully designed structure built into or on top of the
ground. The rubbish collected at the landfill is isolated from the
surrounding environment with a bottom liner and a daily cover-
ing of soil. Though the modern landfill practices are technically
sound but still these proven techniques sometimes fail to meet
challenges. These practices require further precision to secure
public areas. Appropriate removal practices should be adopted
to control environmental contamination. These practices include-
All loads must be alienated when unloading in selected area.
Domestic refuse and small things should be kept in the dustbin.
Removal should be permitted exterior the landfill entrance and
video watch is carried out.
SOLID WASTE GENERATION IN NCT DELHI :
The problem of solid waste management in Delhi is as-
suming serious proportions due to increasing population, urban-
ization, changing lifestyles and consumption patterns. There are
24 existing landfill sites for waste management in NCT Delhi
from 16 are filled up, 4 are in operation and other 4 are newly
operated as shown in Map 5.4. The garbage from unauthorized
developments, slums, JJ settlements, etc. is not collected which
further adds to the environmental degradation. The projected
average garbage generation upto the year 2021 is @ 0.68 kg. per
capita per day and total quantum of solid waste is 15750 tonnes/
day as given in Table - 5.7.
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TABLE - 5.7
QUANTUM OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE(TONNES / DAY)
Local body area Existing Capacity Projected generation
2001 for 2021
MCD 5250 15100
NDMC 245 550
Cantonment 48 100
TOTAL 5543 15750
Management of solid waste involves waste generation,
segregation and storage; waste collection; waste transfer/ trans-
portation treatment, recycle reuse, recovery; and disposal. For
effective waste management, its segregation at the community and
neighbourhood level is imperative. The waste shall be segre-
gated and collected, in separate chambers at dalaos. For this,
involvement of rag pickers with RWAs, CBOs and NGOs is to be
encouraged.
The projected composition of municipal waste for the plan
period is estimated as given in table - 5.8 for biodegradable and
recyclable waste which is segregated at the source, decentral-
ized treatment at neighbourhood level may be adopted, while for
silt, centralized treatment may be followed.
The other type of specialized waste includes biomedical
waste; hazardous waste from industries; construction debris and
fly ash; meat processing centre etc. Disposal of bio-medical waste
183
is to be as per bio-medical waste rules and hazardous waste
requires special handling rules. Proper dumping, recycling and
reuse of construction debris and fly ash have to be linked. Meat
processing centre waste is to be recycled for chicken feed etc.
TABLE - 5.8
PROJECTED COMPOSITION OFTOTAL MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE FOR 2021
Constituents Quantum (in tons) Percentage to totalwaste
Bio- degradable 6000 38
Silt 6000 38
Recyclable 3750 24
TOTAL 15750 100
Notes :(i) Above figures are based on Report on Solid Waste Management in Delhi
conducted by NEERI, Nagpur through DDA;(ii) Figures of MCD are based on Feasibility study in Master Plan for optimal
waste Treatment & Disposal for the entire state of Delhi, June, 2004, by COWIConsultants appointed by MCD.
Considering the nature of solid waste and the economic
aspects of its disposal, major part of solid waste especially silt
has to be disposed off in sanitary landfills. But wherever recy-
cling is possible, it should be preferred than disposing off the
waste in sanitary landfill sites. More viable alternatives to land-
fills are vermiculture, fossilization, composting etc. Waste Mini-
mization Circles (WMCs) should be constituted and made effec-
tive. Implementation and monitoring & Bio-Medical Wastes (Han-
dling & Management) Rules, 1998, for hospitals, nursing homes,
184
and clinics should be taken up. The sites, which are filled up or
are in operation, given in Table - 5.9. The filled up sites may be
reuse for plantation or as recreational area. The proposed sites
for sanitary landfill and compost plants are to be finalized by
MCD. The Map 5.5 shows the area of existing and proposed
landfill sites.
Keeping in view the fact that finding new sanitary landfill
sites in Delhi is becoming extremely difficult there is no option,
as shown by the Map 5.5 & 5.6 but to resort to alternative and
decentralized methods of waste treatment, reduction, recycle and
use, which include vermiculture, fossilization and composting.
TABLE - 5.9
EXISTING LANDFILL SITES FORWASTE MANAGEMENT
S.N. Location Area (in ha.) Remarks
1. Kailash Nagar, East Delhi 1.8 Filled up
2. Tilak Nagar 16.0 Filled up
3. Subroto Park - Filled up
4. Purana Quila/ Bharion Road 2.7 Filled up
5. Timar Pur 16.0 Filled up
6. Sarai Kale Khan 24.0 Filled up
7. Gopal Pur 4.0 Filled up
8. Chhater Pur 1.7 Filled up
9. S.G.T. Nagar 14.4 Filled up
10. I.P. Depot 1.8 Filled up
11. Sunder Nagar 2.8 Filled up
12. Tuglakabad Ext. 2.4 Filled up
185
13. Haiderpur 1.6 Filled up
14. Mandawali Fazilpur 2.8 --
15. Rohini Phase III 4.8 --
16. Near Hastsal Village in West Delhi 9.6 Filled up
17. Site near Gazipur Dairy Farm 28.0 In Operation
18. Site near Jhangirpur/ Bhalswa 16.0 In Operation
19. Okhla Phase I 12.8 In Operation
20. Crossing on G.T. Karnal Road 3.2 In Operation
21. Jaitpur/ Tajpur 9.84 New
22. Near Puthkhurd 55.0 New
23. Bhawana to Narela Road 28.0 New
24. Sultanpur Dabas (Bawana) 16.0 New
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT :
The dumping of solid waste on land is the cause of follow-
ing problems :
(a) WATER POLLUTION :
Toxic liquid (leachate) that flows from the dumped waste
seeps into surface and groundwater and contaminates postable
water.
(b) SOIL POLLUTION :
Toxins seep into the soil and surrounding vegetation, and
move into the food chain through fruits and vegetables grown in
the area.
(c) DUM FIRES :
When waste decomposes, inflammable methane is released
186
which can result in explosion. The smoke released is also highly
toxic for inhalation and contributes to global warming.
(d) SOURCE OF DISEASE :
Dumpsites breed flies, rodents, and pests, which spread
diseases.
(e) OTHER IMPACTS :
Foul smell, visual ugliness, and bird menace which can be
a hazard to airplanes.
CONCLUSION :
The primary goal of any solid waste management system is
to safeguard the health of the citizens and protect the environ-
ment. This is achieved by ensuring proper collection, transporta-
tion, treatment and finally, safe disposal of waste. However, the
last step is missing in most solid waste management systems
implemented in the country.
REFERENCES :
* Gita Dewan Verma (2002): ‘Slumming India—A Chronicle of
Slums and Their Saviours’. Penguin Books, India.
* Voluntary Health Association of India (1993). ‘Delhi—A Tale of
Two Cities’. 40, Qutab Institutional Area, New Delhi.
* Sabir Ali (1991). ‘Slums Within Slums’. Vikas Publications, New
Delhi.
187
* Supriti, Barnhardt S. and Ramanathan R. 2002. Urban Poverty
Alleviation in India : A General Assessment and a Particular
Perspective; Bangalore : Ramanathan foundation.
* Subramaniam. 2003. Inequalities in health in India : The Method-
ological construction of indices and measures- Draft report,
Department of health and social behavior, Harvard School of
Public Health.
* Carmines EG, Zeller RA. 1991. Reliability and Validity assess-
ment. Newbury Park : Sage Publications.
* WHO and UNICEF, 2000 : Global Water Supply and Sanitation
Assessment 2000 Report. WHO and UNICEF.
* GNCT. 2006. Delhi Human Development Report 2006. New
Delhi: Oxford University Press.
* Banerji, Manjistha, Provision of Basic Services in the Slums and
Resettlement Colonies of Delhi, Ensuring public accountability
through community action 2005, Institute of Social Studies Trust,
New Delhi.
* Verma, G.D. (2002), Slumming India : A chronicle of slums and
their saviours, Penguin Books India, Delhi.
—:: O ::—
CHAPTER - 5
CIVIC AMENITIES ANDHEALTH HAZARDS
(A) URBAN BORN INSECTS :
Insects and related arthropods of importance in the urban
environment are broadly covered under the auspices of urban
entomology. Most arthropods in human environments go unno-
ticed. However, some species post significant problems because
they directly affect the health of humans or their domesticated
animals, attack human structures, foods, goods, materials, or plants
that adorn urban settings.
A relatively small number of insect species have been
intentionally introduced into the urban environment. Examples
include the gupsy moth, Lymantria dispar that was intentionally
introduced into Massachustts in 1868. It is highly probable also
that the Asian Lady Beetle, Harmonia axyridis, was intentionally
introduced in 1980s. Many pest species have been accidentally
introduced with human commerce and travel. Some invasive
species have adapted themselves to disturbed human habitats and
have rapidly spread world wide via commerce and human travel.
The German cockroach Blattella germanica, is an excellent
example of such a species. It is rarely found outdoors, preferring
heated and controlled environments typically associated with
human food preparation. Probably native to Eastern Asia, it spread
143
throughout the Eastern Mediterranean Region by Greek or
Phoenician Vessels. It remained in Southern Russia until after the
Thirty years war (1618-1648) spreading into Europe and finally
becoming established in restaurants and other food handling
establishments in the rapid modernization of China.
With the increasing rate of urbanization in NCT Delhi,
problems associated with arthropod pests in urban centers will
continue to grow. In 1951, about 14.37 lac people (82.4%) lived
in urban areas. At the turn of the twenty-first century, this had
increased to greater than 129 lac people (93.18%) in Delhi. By
the year 2021, it is estimated that there will be greater than 230
lac people living in urban areas. The most dramatic increases in
urbanization and challenges in Delhi will occur in development;
the complex of urban invasive species will likely spread to these
urban centers, or attain the problem status now associated with
more developed countries. Many of these countries and develop-
ing urban centres exist in areas endemic to arthropod vector
borne diseases such as malaria, dengue, encephalitis, yellow fe-
ver, and plague the importance of urban and medical entomology
in tropical urban centers will increase in the future.
The urban environment in NCT Delhi is a complex of
habitats developed by human from natural sites. Houses, villages,
towns, cities, buildings, roads and other features that characterize
the urban environment in Delhi have gradually and irrecoverably
changed the landscape of natural and agricultural areas. As a part
144
of this change, some habitats and their associated plants and
animal communities were eliminated, while others were expanded
and new ones were created. Many of the new habitats were
intentional - parks, waterways, street trees, turf grass, food stores
but some were consequential- standing water in road side ditches,
garbage and landfill sites near residential neighbourhoods, the
underground sewer and storm drain network in urban and
suburban areas of Delhi. They all provided habitats for a select
group of insects and other arthropods, some of which attained
pest status.
Local conditions, climate, and available resources deter-
mine the distribution of some arthropods in the urban environ-
ment of Delhi, and for some species their abundance is limited.
Other species are broadly adapted to the resources and harbor-
ages in and around buildings, and these are cosmopolitan in their
distribution and pest status. Stable habitats with resources and
conditions suitable for long-term survival support reservoir popu-
lations of pest species, and from these habitats individuals or
groups move or are transported to establish infestations in
unstable or temporary habitats.
PERIDOMESTIC AND DOMESTIC HABITATS :
Within and around buildings, houses, and other urban struc-
tures are habitats that support individuals or populations of plants
and animals. Peridomestic habitats are outside, around the pe-
145
rimeter of structures. They include the external surfaces of
buildings, the ornamental trees, shrubs, and turf grass that
characterize the urban and suburban landscape. Domestic
habitats are indoors and include the plant and animal based
materials in this controlled, anthropogenic environment.
PERIDOMESTIC :
Harborage substrates, food resources, and environmental
conditions of urban landscapes of Delhi generally support a large
numbers. The soil-inhabiting and nesting arthropods in this envi-
ronment include ants that forage indoors and termites that damage
structural wood, ground nest bees and wasps, and occasional or
nuisance pests such as clover mites, millipedes, centipedes, and
springtails. Plant-feeding insects utilize the cultivated urban and
suburban trees and shrubs, and many are aesthetic pests. Blood
feeding mites (chiggers), ticks, mosquitoes and other biting flies
are associated with domestic and feral vertebrates. Species
utilizing building surfaces or perimeter substrates include the
umbrella wasp, hornets, yellow jackets, spiders and scorpions.
Underground sewer and storm drainage pipes provide some
cockroach and rodent species access to urban areas. The garbage
disposal network of collection, sorting, and landfill in Delhi
provide harborage and food for cockroaches, flies, rodents, and
pest birds.
Reservoir populations for many of the pest species estab-
lished in peridomestic habitats are in nearby natural or undis-
146
turbed areas. Woodland tracts and other small or large patches of
green space can support populations of biting flies, wasps and
hornets, ticks, and spiders in Delhi. Here are the populations that
provide the individuals or groups that establish or replenish
infestations in less stable habitats, or re-establish populations
lost to habitat destruction.
DOMESTIC :
Environmental conditions in NCT Delhi indoors are
generally stable and the harborages and food resources are some-
what limited. There may be few species, but those adapted to
specialized resources often occur in large numbers. Stored food,
including packaged whole food and vegetables, organic fabrics
and other materials are the most common harborates and food
resources in the domestic habitat. Directly or indirectly associ-
ated with these are dermestid beetles, flour beetles and moths,
flies and cockroaches. The distribution of domestic products and
similar storage environments has contributed to the cosmopolitan
pest status of many of these insects, in both residential and com-
mercial sites in Delhi. Blood and skin feeding species that breed
indoors are limited, but lice, fleas, bed bugs and mites are medi-
cally important pests for more than one socio-economic level of
society. Insects and other arthropods in the living space are
nuisance pest when they are few and their presence brief, but are
not tolerated when they pose a health treat or persist in large
numbers.
147
Natural habitats and populations for some domestic
species, especially those infesting sored food have been lost. Only
populations in the urban environment in NCT Delhi represent
many of these species or they survive only through their link to
humans (bed bugs, lice). Other indoor pests have reservoir popu-
lations in peridomestic and natural areas. Many of the common
species occur in the nests of bird and rodents and from there
have access to indoor habitats.
INSECT DISPERSAL AND DISTRIBUTION :
International transportation, economic exchange, and
globalization have brought a degree of uniformity to the urban
area around the world, and increased the movement and exchange
of arthropods. The majorities of household and store food pests,
including fruit flies, cockroaches, flour beetles, moths and mites,
have moved with infested commercial goods and now have
cosmopolitan distribution. Peridomestic mosquitoes, subterranean
termites and wood-infesting beetles share the same potential for
widespread distribution. Current distribution records for many
household and structural pests are subject to change with increased
movement of people and materials around the world.
Information on pest identification, biology and habits,
compiled on an international basis, is appropriate for the urban
environment. A global census indicates that nearly 2300 insects
and other arthropods have some level of pest status around the
148
world. Some are only occasional invaders of houses and other
buildings, some are closely associated with the foods, fabrics,
and other aspects of dwellings and others are linked to plants and
animals in domestic and peridomestic habitats. Many of these
species are capable of adapting to the soil conditions, climate
and building construction in other regions of the world, and
becoming established in pest populations. Regional conditions
may after some behaviors, but morphological features and the
basic life cycle will remain unchanged and control strategies are
usually transferable from region to region.
URBAN ECOSYSTEM :
Major ecosystems can be broadly classified as natural,
agricultural and urban. Urban ecosystems are primitive sites where
the interacting plant and animal communities have not been
altered by human activity. There are few, if these in the world
today, and a more practical definition of natural ecosystems might
be undisturbed habitats that have had limited human influence
and retain a portion of their original flora and fauna. An impor-
tant feature of these habitats is the populations of native plants
and animals. These are the reservoir populations of many
species that have adapted to agricultural and urban conditions.
Agricultural and urban ecosystems are defined by their use and
the degree to which their biotic and abiotic features have been
altered by human activity. These ecosystems contain few of the
features that characterize their natural origins; many of the
149
features were built or brought there, or designed by humans.
(B) URBAN SLUMS :
Delhi, capital of India, is home to about 3 million people
living in slums and it is estimated that 45% of its population lives
in unauthorized colonies, jhuggi jhompri (JJ) and urban villages.
As the UNHABITAT definition status a slum household is a group
of individuals living under the same roof in an urban area that
lack one of more of the following :
1. Durable housing of a permanent nature that protects against
extreme climate conditions.
2. Sufficient living space which means not more than three
people sharing the same roof.
3. Easy access to safe water in sufficient amounts at an
affordable price.
4. Access to adequate sanitation in the form of a private or
public toilet shared by a reasonable number of people.
5. Security of tenure that prevents forced evictions.
DEFINING THE ISSUE :
For the purpose of Census of India 2001, Slum areas broadly
constitute :
1. All specified areas notified as “slums” by state / local
government and UT administration under any act.
150
2. All areas recognized as “Slums” by State/local government
and UT administration, which may not have been formally
notified as slum under any act.
3. A compact area with a population of at least 300 or about
60-70 households of poorly built congested tenements, in
unhygienic environment usually with inadequate infrastruc-
ture and lacking in proper sanitation and drinking water
facilities.
The slum areas are those that are notified under the Slum
Improvement and Clearance Areas Act of 1956. Building and/or
areas that are considere to be unfit for human habitation may be
declared as the slum areas under section 3 of the act. As such,
they are considered to be legal structures and are eligible for
benefits under the act. The squatter or JJ cluster settlements on
the other hand are considered as encroachments on public and
private lands. They are, therefore, seen as illegal settlements.
According to the United Nations, the proportion of urban
dwellers living in slums decreased from 47 percent to 37 percent
in the developing world between 1990 and 2005. However, due
to rising population, the number of slum dwellers is rising. One
billion people worldwide live in slums and the figure will likely
to grow to 2 billion by 2030.
As India is urbanizing very fast and along with this, the
slum population is also increasing. India’s urban population is
151
increasing at a faster rate than its total population. With over 575
million people, India will have 41% of its population living in
cities and towns by 2030 from the present level of 286 million
and 28%. However, most of them do not have access to basic
facilities like drinking water and sanitation.
Because of the lack at affordable prices to different
categories of residents, various types of unplanned settlements
have come up in Delhi. According to an estimate, the population
residing in different types of settlements in 2006 was as shown in
Figure - 5.1.
Among the urban poor, the slum dwellers are the poorest.
The very definition of slums points at the acute drinking water
and sanitation crisis for the slum dwellers. A slum in India is
defined as “a cluster inside urban areas without having water and
sanitation access.”
The National Sample Survey Organization Survey conducted
in 2002 found that in 84% of the notified slums the main water
Figure - 5.1
152
source is through tap water supply. But these numbers mask
differences across the states of India. In Bihar none of the slums
get water via the tap.
In Chhattisgarh, Gujarat and Uttar Pradesh less than 35%
of slums get tap water. Nearly 44% of non-notified slums do not
have a drainage system of any type whereas only 15% of notified
slums do not have a drainage system.
A similar picture emerges in the case of latrines. Nearly
half of the non-notified slums do not have a latrine of any type. In
contrast only 17% of notified slums do not have a latrine. How-
ever, the past few years have seen significant improvements in
water and sanitation situation in slums. But, that is not a source of
solace as there is still a vast number of slum dweller to be
provided these basic facilities.
CHARACTERIZING LIFE IN SLUMS :
While studying and assessing the feasibility of any policy
it is imperative that there are certain parameters that would help
breakdown the objectives of the policies. Each of these schemes
must be compared with the current situation for slum dwellers
since from their perspective the next best option is starting a new
slum and living in the same conditions as before and thus, the
aforementioned conditions remain. Benchmarks and weightings
to these parameters must also be set before comparison of the
policy objectives so that the methodology is clear. To clearly
153
identify these parameters an understanding of the current situa-
tion and of life as slums dwellers is required. This situation can
be categorized into physical, legal, social, political and economic
characteristics of living in slums as shown in the Figure 5.2.
As can be seen, the physical characteristics of slum life
include shelter but lack a permanent residence, a house and most
of the times even space. The average population density in a shanty
town in Delhi is 3,00,000 people per square kilometer and an
average dwelling houses 6-8 people, yet measures only 6 ft. by 8
ft. Many slums have no latrine facilities, and those that do have
an average of 1 latrine serving 27 households. 1 water pump is
used by 1000 people on average and more often than not water
flows through these pumps only once a day. These low hygiene
and sanitation facilities lead to unhealthy living conditions in the
slums. This, along with illegally high rates for electricity makes
every basic need for slum dwellers is the close proximity of the
slums to most of the resident’s places of work, thus negating
transport costs or reducing it due to convenient transport stations
close by.
Moving onto the economic characteristics, we discuss prob-
ably the main reason for the existence of slums. As mentioned,
people migrate to Delhi from surrounding areas in an attempt to
find employment and improve their own and the lives of their
families. Many a time, these laborers come from their villages on
a contract but end up staying on in Delhi looking to find more
154
work here rather than in their village. Another common case is
that of those who open their own shop or work station in the slum
and operate out of there, such as the local “dhobi” (laundry man)
or tailor. Also because of lack of useable capital many of these
ventures are remain extremely small scale. From the legal aspect,
most of the slums in Delhi are unauthorized i.e. not recognized
and therefore still an illegal encroachment on state land. Because
of this, there is no security of tenure and hardly any dwellers
invest in their houses. Also, in the case that a slum is partially
recognized by the government, i.e. cases when residents before a
certain date are recognized as licensed owners of the land, there
are many hurdles to be faced by the slum dwellers before they
are finally established owners.
For social characteristics, the fact that there are many fairly
good and affordable schools is an important consideration along
with the scene of community and companionship within the slums.
And lastly, the slum dwellers, because of their large numbers,
are eyed by politicians as vote banks where they make many
promises but no one holds them to it.
POVERTY PROFILE OF DELHI :
The Planning Commission estimates the proportion and
number of poor based on the projection of minimum needs and
effective consumption. Such a projection is based on the norm of
2100 calorie per capita per day consumption for an urban area.
155
The calorie norms are invariably expressed in monetary terms
that change with respect to weighted commodity indices of the
consumer price index.
Figure 5.3 shows that the percentage of people below
poverty line (BPL) stood at 52.23% for Delhi in 1973-74. The
figure has been declining steadily to 27.89% in 1983; 16.03 in
1993-94. The percentage of people below poverty line declined
to 10.02% in 2001. Table 5.1 presents the zone wise BPL
population.
TABLE - 5.1
BELOW POVERTY LINE POPULATION
Year Rural BPL %age to Urban BPL %age topopulation Total population Total(in Lakh) (in Lakh)
1973 1.06 24.44 21.78 52.23 1983 0.44 7.66 17.95 27.89 1987 0.10 1.29 10.15 13.56 1993 0.19 1.19 15.32 16.03 2001 0.07 0.40 11.42 9.42
Source : Economic Survey Report, Govt. of Delhi, Delhi.
Figure 5.3
156
SOCIO-ECONOMIC PROFILE OF POOR :
The socio-economic profile of segment of population
categorized as poor is of strategic importance for both planning
purposes, and for managing the habitat and its environmental
up-gradation and improvement.
However, comprehensive data is not available for the whole
of Delhi, although generalization can be made on the following
parameters based on data available from the few available sur-
veys and studies. It is important to keep in perspective however
that inhabitants of LIG/ EWS areas are not homogenous segment.
(a) Income and Expenditure :
The average total monthly income, per household, ranges
from Rs. 1500-2500 among the poor. The expenditure of these
families is around 5-10% more than their incomes. The per capita
monthly income and expenditure is Rs. 245 & Rs. 423 respec-
tively. Poor households, therefore, are increasingly dependent upon
loans from the local moneylenders. The monthly income of around
25-30% households is above Rs. 1500 and around 45-50% house
holds is below Rs. 1000.
(b) Access to Housing :
Housing is a basic need of the poor. Most of the poor do
not have access to secure land tenure. 85% of the poor are squat-
ters, and are vulnerable to frequent eviction. 6% of the poor live
in rented accommodation and have to pay a substantial portion of
157
their income for rent. Most importantly, such rental quarters do
not have even basic infrastructure facilities. The quality of life
led by these people is extremely poor.
(c) Occupation Profile of Poor :
41% of these families work as casual laborers, as most of
them are unskilled. However, one-third of the poor also work in
the service sector and only 20-25% is self-employed. Therefore,
nearly 52% of the poor households do not have access to a
dependable occupation and secure incomes.
(d) Migration Status and Poor :
The employment opportunities (formal and informal) in
Delhi have attracted migrants from all over the country, particu-
larly from the backward state areas due to regional economic
imbalances. In 1961 the annual migration of low income house-
holds into Delhi were estimated to be around 70,000 and that
number has increased every year making it close to an approxi-
mate net addition of around 4 lakh settlers every year, migrating
from various parts of the country in search of livelihood. This
influx of population has resulted in an increased population of
city, pressure on civic amenities, crime, social imbalances, eco-
nomic exploitation, unplanned growth, deterioration of the city
beautification, culture etc.
(e) Access to Infrastructure :
The infrastructure facilities that have been covered are water
158
and sources of energy for the urban poor. A majority of the poor
families (47%) have access to water from community sources.
16% of the families do not have any definite source of water.
With respect to source of light, nearly 30% of the families depend
on kerosene lamps.
(f) Pavement Dwellers :
Around 1 lakh homeless people constitute another
component of the poor in Delhi. They are mostly found in the
Walled City or its surrounding areas and generally sleep on the
pavements. There are around 10 night shelters located at Azadpur,
Subzi Mandi, Paharganj, Jhandewalan, Red Fort, Old Delhi
Railway Station, Azad Market and Roshanara Road. The night
shelters operated by MCD provide accommodation to only male
dwellers.
SHELTER OPTIONS :
The poor typically inhabit unplanned or semi-planned
developments. In Delhi they are classified as :
(a) Notified slums in old walled city area;
(b) Resettlement colonies;
(c) Relocated JJ clusters or squatter settlements.
The section below describe the characteristics of these
areas.
THE OLD WALLED CITY AREA :
In Delhi, areas designated or notified as slums under the
159
act are generally located in the walled city and its adjoining
environs. There are 319 katras in the walled city area with about
3,000 buildings or properties. Out of these, 365 properties have
been identified as dangerous and therefore require resettlement
of inhabitants. In addition, there are 400 properties, which are
with the Evacuee Property Cell of Land and Building Department
of Delhi Government.
SQUATTER SETTLEMENTS/ JJ CLUSTERS :
The squatter settlements are encroachments on mainly
public land. As such these are illegal clusters (JCs) and are
devoid of any legal entitlements. However, efforts have been made
by the government to extend basic social and environmental
services to them.
LOCATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF JJ CLUSTERS :
JJ clusters are scattered all over the city. Generally they
are situated on the vacant land along railway lines, roads, drains
and river embankments and also vacant spaces near residential,
industrial and commercial complexes.
Figure 5.4
160
Figure 5.4 shows that around 55 percent of squatters are
near the residential areas and 40% along the road berms as also
shown in the complete picture in Table 5.2.
TABLE - 5.2
AREAWISE STATUS OF JJ CLUSTERS IN DELHI
Areas with Number of squatters %age to total encroachment Residential Areas 34100 55.86 Road Berms 24184 39.62 Park and open spaces 966 1.58 Schools 500 0.82 Market 1093 1.79 Railway Station 200 0.33 TOTAL 61043 100.00
Source : Sabir Ali, Environment Scenario of Delhi Slums, Centre for social Develop
ment Studies - 1998.
It is clear from Table 5.3 that around 70% of clusters have
less than 500 JJ’s. This percentage has remained constant from
1991-2001. The sharp decline in number of JJ clusters (1994-
2001) is attributed to large scale relocation of JJs since 1999.
TABLE - 5.3
SIZE WISE DISTRIBUTION OF JJ CLUSTERS
No. of JJ in 1991 1994 2001 clusters Upto 100 496 396 227 1119 101-500 311 446 295 1052 501-1000 59 121 110 290 1001-1500 30 54 37 121 1500 & above 33 63 59 155Source : (i) Slum Department, MCD Delhi; (ii) Status Report for Delhi-21, Delhi Urban
Environment and Infrastructure Improvement Project (DUEIIP), January 2001.
161
Figure 5.5 shows the size-wise distribution of JJclusters
in NCT Delhi in 2001.
AREAS WITH CONCENTRATION OF JJ CLUSTERS :
The spread of JJ clusters ranges from a plot of 0.4 acres with 8
JJs to JJcs as large as 50 acres with 10,000 households & 45000
populations. The average number of JJ per acre comes to 200
with 193 being the lowest (Najafgarh area) and 206 the highest
(Gole Market and Kalkaji areas) (Refer to Map 5.1). The
average area of JJ is 20m2. Some of the major areas with such
concentrations are given below :
(i) HIGH CONCENTRATION :
(a) Minto Road/ Gole Market/ Matia Mahal (129 clusters, 43388
JJs, 215.08 Acres) - NDMC Area.
(b) Badarpur/ Tuglaqabad/ Saket (79 clusters, 64187 JJs, 79 Acres)-
MCD area.
Figure 5.5
162
(c) Moti Nagar/ Patel Nagar/ Rajendra Nagar (72 clusters, 35,427
JJs, 175.45 Acres) - MCD Area.
(d) Jahangirpuri/ Adarsh Nagar/ Model Town/ Wazirpur (117 clus-
ters, 71538 JJs, 356 Acres) - MCD Area.
(e) Badli/ Shahbad-Daulatpur (21 clusters, 27551 JJs, 137.70 Acres)-
MCD Area.
(ii) MEDIUM CONCENTRATION :
(a) Delhi Cantonment/ Janakpuri/ Tilak Marg (17 clusters, 18,982
JJs, 95.03 Acres) - MCD Area.
(b) Biswas Nagar/ Shahdara/ Babarpur (44 clusters, 18,915 JJs, 88.91
Acres) - MCD Area.
(c) Hauzkhas. R.K. Puram (52 clusters, 14,110 JJs, 70.22 acres) -
NDMC Area.
(iii) LOW CONCENTRATION :
(a) Nazafgarh/ Nasirpur/ Palam (11 clusters, 363 JJs, 1.83 Acres) -
MCD Area.
(b) Sarojini Nagar/ Kalkaji/ Malviya Nagar/ Ambedkar Nagar/
Kasturba Marg (45 clusters, 11,802 JJs, 68.42 Acres) - NDMC
Area.
GROWTH OF SQUATTER SETTLEMENTS :
The squatter settlements or Jhuggi jhopari clusters (JJC)
assume strategic importance as far as issues of unorganized settle-
163
ments are concerned. As mentioned in Table - 5.4 in 1951 Delhi
had 12,749 jhuggi jhoparis (JJS) scattered over 199 clusters. By
1973 the number of JJS had reached 98,483 spread over 1373
clusters. The resettlement scheme pursued in 1962-77, with a
concentrated effort in 1975-77 resulted in the resettlement of 2.4
lakh JJS in different parts of Delhi. In 1977 only 20,000 JJ house-
holds had gone upto 1.13 lakhs. In 2001 the JJ clusters had declined
to (729 from 1080 in 1994) due to relocation of around 300
clusters from Gautampuri, Kingsway Camp, Ashok Vihar, AIIMS
and Hauz Khas etc.
TABLE - 5(4)
YEARWISE STATUS OF JJ CLUSTERS IN DELHI
Year JJ Clusters Jhuggi Area in PopulationHHS HA
1951 199 12749 21.1 63745
1973 1373 98483 164.1 492415
1983 534 113000 188.3 565000
1990 929 259000 431.7 1295000
1997 1100 600000 902.1 3000000
2001 728 429662 650.2 2148310
Source : Slum Deptt., Municipal Corporation of Delhi, Delhi.
LAND OWNING AGENCIES AND JJ CLUSTERS :
The land owning agencies in whose area the JJ clusters are
situated are given in Table 5.5. Eighty three percent of DDA land
is squatted on by 600 JJ clusters.
164
TABLE - 5.5
LAND OWNING AGENCIES & JJ CLUSTERS
LO Agencies NO. of Jhuggies Population Area in Acres1990 1994 1994
DDA 280988 349705 1856683 1865.93
L&Do 21530 29415 132327 149.86
Railway 12161 17346 78929 84.34
MCD 8428 11052 52045 47.29
NDMC 3226 4487 20182 22.52
Gram Sabha 4132 4360 19619 21.31
Cantonment 1570 1700 7064 7.86 Board
Source : Status Report for Delhi- 21 Delhi Urban Environment
and infrastructure Improvement Project (DUEIIP), January 2001
ACCESS TO INFRASTRUCTURE IN SLUMS/ JJ CLUSTERS:
Water and sanitation facilities, in these unorganized
colonies, particularly JJ clusters, are poor. Only 21% of colonies
are covered with piped water supply and 10% are covered by
sanitation. Table 5.6 presents a satisfactory level of infrastruc-
ture availability in unplanned settlements, but these facilities are
non- functional in around 75-80% of the settlements. The average
population served by one PSP ranges from 250-300 against the
standard of 150. Moreover, average waiting at PSP is 20-30
minutes. Around 85-90% of JJ clusters did not have even
community toilets, forcing habitants to defecate in the open near
the water bodies or drainage channels.
165
TABLE - 5.6
WATER AND SANITATION STATUS IN THEUNPLANNED SETTLEMENTS (2004)
Service provision in Piped water supply Sewer facility unplanned settlement No. % of colonies No. % of colonies
Regularized 557 98.2 458 80.7 unauthorized colonies
Resettlement colonies 44 100.0 44 100.0
JJ Clusters 158 21.7 72 9.8
Source : Slum Department, Municipal Corporation of Delhi, Delhi.
RESETTLEMENT COLONIES :
Under the schemes for resettlement of JJ clusters 47
resettlement colonies were developed during 1961-77. Around
2.0 lakh plots were developed accommodating about 2.4 lakh
households. These resettlement colonies have degenerated due to
intense population pressure and unorganized development. There-
fore investment towards up-gradation of physical infrastructure
has to be made for improving civic life.
LOCATION OF RESETTLEMENT COLONIES :
The spatial distribution of these colonies indicates that they
are proliferating mainly in the South-East, North-East, North-West,
South-West and Central parts of the NCT of Delhi. These are five
colonies in South-East, eight in North-East, fifteen in North-West,
seven in South-West and twelve in Central Delhi.
166
RELOCATION SITES :
The Map 5.2 shows that there are around 12 relocation
sites as Bhalaswa, Holambi Kalan, Pappan Kalan, Rohini, Narela,
Bakanwar, Madanpur Khadar etc. The most recent relocation has
been made to three principal sites. These are Dwarka (known
also as Pappan Kalan), Rohini, Narela and Savda Ghevara. The
main pockets from where JJ clusters were relocated are Central,
South and East Delhi areas. Thus, during 1999-2000, 3741 squat-
ter households from the JJ clusters at CGO Complex, Chankyapuri,
Kotla Mubarakpur, Andrews Ganj, Sadiq Nagar, Mahaki Sarai,
Shahdara were moved to Narela and Rohini. 27.4 acres of land
has been allotted at Molar Band for shifting of the JJ clusters at
Gautam Nagar behind AIIMS as shown in Map 5.3. In 1997-98,
DDA allocated 32 acres of land in Tehkhand Village for reloca-
tion of squatter families.
These relocation resettlement sites offer no security of
tenure to habitants who begin a new life without security, basic
services, schools and other basic amenities.
SLUM DEVELOPMENT POLICIES IN PLACE :
While evaluating the policies affecting housing for slum
dwellers we take a top down approach by first giving a brief
overview of the National Housing Policy 2007, and laid out for
Delhi’s slums by various authorities.
167
(i) NATIONAL URBAN HOUSING AND HABITAT POLICY 2007:
The National Urban Housing and Habitat Policy 2007 states
its goal as ‘affordable housing for all’ in the country. It promotes
various types of Public Private Partnerships and pays special
emphasis on the urban poor, intending to promote sustainable
development of housing in the country with a view to ensuring
equitable supply of land, shelter and services at affordable prices
to all sections of society. The policy focused on multiple stake-
holders the private sector, the cooperative sector, the industrial
sector for labor housing and the services and institutional sector
for employee housing. To attain the overarching goal of afforable
housing for all, emphasis is laid on urban planning, increasing
supply of land and use of spatial incentives like additional floor
area ratio (FAR), transferable development rights, and increased
flow of funds, effective solid waste management and use of
renewal sources of energy. Encouraging integrated townships and
special economic zones (SEZs), the policy calls for reservation
of 10-15 percent land in every new public and private housing
projects or 20-25 percent FAR whichever is greater to for EWS
and LIG housing through appropriate spatial incentives.
The private sector would be permitted assembling land
within the purview of master plans. The policy also sets action
plans for urban slum dwellers with a special package being
prepared for cooperative housing, labor housing and employees
housing. The primary choice would be to give provision of shelter
168
to urban poor at their present location or near their work place.
The role of housing and provision of basic services to the
urban poor has been integrated into the objectives of the Jawaharlal
Nehru Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM).
(ii) BASIC SERVICES TO THE URBAN POOR, JNNURM :
The Sub Mission II of the JNNURM involves Basic
Services to the Urban Poor (BSUP) including the integrated
housing and slum development programme. The objectives of the
mission are outlined as :
1. Focused attention to integrated development of Basic Services to
the urban poor in the cities covered under the mission.
2. Provision of Basic Services to Urban Poor including security of
tenure at affordable prices, improved housing, water supply,
sanitation and ensuring delivery through convergence of other
already existing universal services of the Government for Educa-
tion, health and social security care will be taken to see that the
urban poor are provided housing near their place of occupation.
3. Secure effective linkages between asset creation and asset man-
agement to that the Basic Services to the Urban Poor created in
the cities are not only maintained efficiently but also become self-
sustaining over time.
4. Ensure adequate investment of funds to fulfill deficiencies in the
Basic Services to the Urban Poor.
169
5. Scale up delivery of civic amenities and provision of utilities
with emphasis on universal access to urban poor.
The Delhi Master Plan 2021 has laid emphasis on improve-
ment of the living conditions of the 45% of Delhities living in
slums and JJ clusters in the next ten years as part of the improve-
ment in the livability of the city for its inhabitants.
(iii) THREE PRONGED APPROACH IN DELHI :
Of the settlements considered as sub-standard slum and
squatter settlements rank among the worst and it is the urban poor
that live predominantly in such settlements. The program of
squatter clearance was discontinued at the end of sixth plan (from
1985). Accordingly no major settlement program was carried out
until 1992 when a Revised Resettlement Policy was formulated
by the DDA. This did not mean that there were no resettlement
works in progress. The general policy adopted by the govern-
ment since then it twofold. One is that no fresh encroachments
shall be permitted on public land and the second is that past
encroachments (those in existence till 30.01.1990) would not be
removed without providing alternatives.
Squatter settlements are to be found throughout the city but
especially on the vacant land along railway lines, roads, drains,
river embankments, and around resettlement colonies. The strat-
egy of the government towards slums/ squatter settlements has
been mainly of clearance.
170
In recent years, however, there have been some changes in
the attitude and strategies. Since 1991 three strategies have been
used in Delhi, which are as follows :
1. Improvement of the slum environment.
2. Relocation of the slums
3. In situ-up-gradation and rehabilitation.
(iv) IMPROVEMENT OF THE SLUM ENVIRONMENT :
Since 1987, in JJ clusters and notified slums which are not
being relocated or developed with the in situ approach, basic
urban services and amenities are being provided under ‘Envi-
ronmental improvement in urban slum scheme’. The facilities are
extended to all JJ clusters even those that developed after 1990.
The facilities being provided under the scheme are :
1. Pay and use Jan Suvidha Complexes containing toilets and bath-
rooms at the community level or the provision of mobile toilet,
vans in all those JJ clusters where the Jan Suvidha Complex can
not be provided.
2. Water supply either through water hydrants, hand pipes or water
tanker.
3. Street lighting.
4. Dusbins for collection of domestic waste.
5. Paved pathways and drains.
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(v) RELOCATION OF SLUMS :
Jhuggi Jhopri resettlement, relocation scheme was started
in the Union Territory of Delhi for the rehousing of squatters on
government and private lands in 1960. The scheme began with
the allotment of two room tenements to 3,560 JJ households.
Subsequently, partially developed plots of 80 square yards were
allotted under the scheme to the squatters on a nominal rent.
However, due to demand of land in Delhi and the fact that the
allotment procedure was misused, size of plots was reduced to
40 square meters and then 25 square meters. Under the present
situation, Relocation is carried out for only those JJ clusters and
slums that are required by the land owning agency for public
interest projects.
Since the inception of the scheme with effect from 1990-
1991, so far about 70,000 plots have been developed and about
60,000 families have been rehabilitated at Dwarka, Rohini, Narela,
Bawana, Holambi, Molar Band, Madanpur Khaddar & Sawda
Ghevre keeping in view the scarcity of land in Delhi and as per
the directions of the Delhi Government and Government of India.
The Delhi Government has formulated a new policy for the
resettlement of squatter families in Delhi. Under the new policy,
Delhi Government has proposed to provide built up flats instead
of plots to the slum dwellers, economically weaker sections
under the Rajiv Awas Yojna, JNNURM. Under this scheme, the
Delhi Government aims to provide 4 lakh flats by 2012.
172
(vi) IN SITU UP-GRADATION AND REHABILITATION :
There has been a general shift in the approach to slum and
JJ clusters in recent years. The emphasis is now on the improve-
ment of the environment of the JJ cluster and their in situ rehabili-
tation wherever possible. The in situ up gradation is undertaken
after the area has been notified as a slum area under the Slum
Area Act of 1956. The scheme involves replanning of JJ dwell-
ing units in modified layout by redistributing the encroached land
pockets amongst the squatter families. The JJ households are given
sites of 10 to 12.5 square meters for construction of their own
shelters. The housing plots are generally designed in a cluster
around open courtyards. The beneficiary constructs the shelter
under a self help approach with technical extension services
provided by the slum and JJ department of the MCD. So far 5,583
families have been rehabilitated at Prayog Vihar, Ekta Vihar, Shanti
Vihar and Shahbad Daulatpur Phase I. The implementation of the
in situ- up-gradation is very poor due to non availability of the
Notice of Consent from the concerned land owning agency. A
new policy of in situ slum up grading also suggests, as in the case
of relocation, the provision of developed flats on the same
location instead of plots for the slum dwellers.
The Delhi Development Authority (DDA) decided to take
up in situ development towards rehabilitation of slum dwelling
units of about 25 square meters will be about 47,500. These will
be taken up on public- private partnership model in which the
173
land occupied by slum dwellers will be made available to de-
velopers, who will construct houses in accordance with the num-
bers identified by the DDA. These houses will be constructed in
same parts of the area while in the remaining areas the developer
will be allowed to carry out commercial exploitation of the land.
This would enable the developer to spill over some of the costs
from building the rehabilitation units to the commercial activity,
thereby reducing the burden on the slum dwellers as well. This
mixed development allows them to get the cross subsidy by way
of targeting two different segments of society.
This model is being applied at the kathputli colony where
residents will have access to 12 storeyed buildings in which the
ground floors will be devoted to promoting artistic and commer-
cial enterprise since most of the residents are puppeteers, crafts-
men or musicians. The constructions will house 2,800 dwelling
units meant for the colony’s residents. The site will also boast of
a separate 2.1 acre commercial space to be developed by private
developers and “high-category residential apartmentments” in 2.4
acres which will help boost the earning of artisans and crafts-
men, according to the DDA’s plans.
In the scheme, modeled on Mumbai’s slum rehabilitation
programme, private players will join hands with the government
and the work of clearing the slums would proceed in phases.
Since residents will be resettled, tents will be pitched to provide
174
temporary accommodation to the people till the project is
completed.
(vii) DRAFT NATIONAL SLUM POLICY 2001 :
Another more specific, policy the “draft” National Slum
Policy is yet to be ratified by the government. The draft National
Slum Policy envisages cities without slums. Towards fulfillment
of this vision, the policy adopts an approach of in situ up gradation
and improvement. It recommends clearance only in exceptional
circumstances. It, therefore, talks of urban growth with equity
and justice and makes plea for greater participation of communi-
ties and civil society in all areas of planning, capacity building
and development. Correspondingly it proposes a series of
interventions with regards to definitions, tenure, planning,
economic empowerment, governance and management, shelter up
gradation etc.
The governing principal of the Draft National Slum Policy
are as follows :
1. The endorsement of an upgrading and improvement approach in
all slums, and the acceptance of the necessity of slum clearance
in an extremely defined circumstances.
2. Recognition that households in all urban informal settlements
should have access to certain basic minimum services, irrespec-
tive of land tenure or occupancy status.
175
3. The goal that planning in all cities should have the objective of
creating cities without slums.
4. The objective of ensuring that urban growth takes place with
equity and distributive justice.
5. The intention that urban local bodies should work in collabora-
tion with all other stakeholders to enhance the impact of slum
development through building the capacities of the poor and
empowering them to improve their own living conditions.
6. The adoption of a more “enabling” approach to the delivery of
basic social services to the poor as a result of more effective
mobilization of community resources and skills to complement
public resource allocations.
7. A greater participation of communities and civil society in all
areas of planning, capacity building and development.
The draft policy is however silent over the ways in which
such goals could be realized. Also, the definition of all under
served serviced lands as slums will hinder and deny the most
needy and vulnerable from having access to resources for up-
gradation and improvement.
POLICY COMPARISON :
A comparative study of these policies and schemes can now
be undertaken, based on the parameters discussed earlier. The
National Urban Housing and Habitat Policy 2007 seems to be a
176
step in the right direction, with focus on affordable housing,
public private partnerships (PPP), sustainable development of
housing in the country, special package being prepared for
cooperative housing, labor housing and employees housing and
prioritizing houses for the urban poor at their present location or
near their work place using the in- situ slum rehabilitation
approach. Using the parameters as tools for analysis we see that
with PPPs and the in situ rehabilitation approach, affordable
housing for slum dwellers at their present location is an option.
This enables them to earn their livelihood just as they did before,
in the slums. The security of tenure objective is also achieved
through the policy. Only the characteristics of housing provided
remains questionable. The quality of houses, its cost and the
allocation can be a hindrance to the residents. Sometimes the
costs are too high for them and at other times the quality of the
houses is compromised. Under the JNNURM, the improved quality
of housing is specifically included and allocation is said to be on
the basis of need (determined through income). As is the case
with both the relocation and the in situ rehabilitation policy, any
worker whose source of livelihood is within the slums (dhobi,
tailor etc.) might be compromised unless there is specific
mention of a workstation being supplied. Thus this would be a
violation of the first parameter and the people affected by this
would prefer to stay in some other slum again. This vary case
would be an important characteristic of the third approach of
177
improvement of the slum environment or up- gradation. The
livelihoods of the residents are maintained even though the slum,
not lacking basic facilities but still an unplanned part of the city,
still exists. The draft national slum policy outlines its objectives
but has not clearly defined how these objectives will be met and
therefore no analysis on the basis of parameters and incentives
for residents can be undertaken. Thus, as is the case with most of
the policies in India, each of these policies, schemes and
approaches looks impeccable on paper but the ground realities
of these projects are often very different from what is claimed
and therefore it is necessary that a follow up mechanism be
incorporated into each of the policies to ensure their efficiency.
(C) URBAN GARBAGE GROUNDS :
Various human processes produce waste. Disposing waste
products is major global problem since last many decades.
Landfill is considered as the primitive way to organized waste
dumping in various parts of earth. It is a method of removing the
refuse on land without creating a hazard to public health or safety.
Landfills may consist of domestic waste dumping sites as well as
sites utilized by several manufacturers. This method is also
adopted for other waste management tasks for example the
momentary storage, consolidation and relocation, or meting out
of waste substance such as sorting, treatment, or recycling. The
landfill is supportive process of waste diminution and has a key
role in resource revival. A landfill also denotes the practice in
178
which ground has been packed in with soil and rocks as an alter-
native of garbage which solves many important purposes such as
for building construction.
Landfill is emerged as the most practicable ecological
substitute for the specific waste removal in various countries.
Today government priority is to set up a waste policy by
applying the ideology in order to deal with environmental risks,
the economic and health dangers of resource degradation. These
strategies are basically planned to maintain landfill practices
which will stabilize the landfill sites in present generation. The
main intent of waste organization is to deal with the garbage
produced by existing generation and do not switch over waste
related harms to next generation. The Landfill Directive is
committed to raise standards and lessen harmful consequences
on the surroundings, groundwater, surface waters, soil, and
restrictions on the universal impact of waste dumping. For
commercial purpose, a landfill technique must meet definite
requirements, which are linked to many important factors. The
first factor is the location. Landfill must have easy access to
transportation via road. It must have stability such as fundamen-
tal geology, earthquake faults, water table. Another factor is
capacity. The existing annulled space must be planned by assess-
ment of the landform with a proposed re-establishment profile.
This computation of capacity is based on density of the wastes,
amount of intermediate and daily cover, and amount of settle-
179
ment. Landfill must have protection of soil and water through
installation of inside layer and collection systems. To handle speci-
fied harmless waste landfills such method must be applied through
which the trash are cramped to small area, compressed to decrease
their quantity, enclosed with layers of soil. Completely lined
landfills reinstate the previous one, unlined deposits that were
earlier used. In the operation of landfill, the garbage collection
trucks are weighed at entrance and their load is checked for wastes.
Then, these vehicles drop their load. After loads are dumped,
compactors or dozers spread and compressed the waste on the
operational field. This flattened waste is enclosed with soil
every day. Other waste wrap materials are sprayed on froth
products and transitory mantles. These mantles can be elevated
into place with tracked excavators and then detatched the next
day proceeding to waste placement. Chipped wood and chemi-
cally ‘fixed’ bio-solids are the substitute cover. Since the 20th
century, population is exploding speedily in developed areas; it
is a need of an hour to implement land reprocesses tractics for
completed landfills. The common usages are parks, golf courses.
Office buildings and industrial uses are made of a completed
landfill. Many steps are taken to disperse garbage produced
through communities, Industry and other establishments. At the
end of 20th century, different methods to waste removal to land-
fill and burning have started. The apparent substitutes to landfills
are waste reduction and recycling policies. Incineration is the
180
most effectual technique of plummeting volume and weight of
solid waste by burning in a well designed furnace.
Landfill reclamation is one of the control measures to check
spoilage of landscape. It is the burning of landfill garbage at high
temperature via the plasma-arc gasification procedure. Another
important way to deal with solid waste is composing by which
the organic components of solid waste are biologically decom-
posed under controlled aerobic conditions. In this method,
plastics, rubber and leather are separated from the solid waste
and the remaining organic matter is decomposed aerobically or
an aerobically to end product called compost. Anaerobic
digestion, mechanical biological treatment, pyrolysis and gasifi-
cation have all started to establish themselves in the marketplace.
Optional waste disposal technology is quite expensive than
landfill and mass burn incineration is the sole technology for mixed
waste. India is working to develop clean energy sources that can
yield considerable economic, environmental and health benefits
for people. Methane emissions from the solid waste sector in
India are projected to increase significantly over the next 15 years.
Reusing landfill methane gas for energy purposes has the poten-
tial to mitigate 5.5 million metric tons of carbon dioxide equiva-
lents, which is equal to the annual emissions from one million
vehicles. Currently, there are no operational landfill gas-to-
energy projects in India but several large sites in Delhi, Mumbai
and other cities could support the clean energy projects.
181
Basically, a landfill is a large area of land or an excavated
site that is a carefully designed structure built into or on top of the
ground. The rubbish collected at the landfill is isolated from the
surrounding environment with a bottom liner and a daily cover-
ing of soil. Though the modern landfill practices are technically
sound but still these proven techniques sometimes fail to meet
challenges. These practices require further precision to secure
public areas. Appropriate removal practices should be adopted
to control environmental contamination. These practices include-
All loads must be alienated when unloading in selected area.
Domestic refuse and small things should be kept in the dustbin.
Removal should be permitted exterior the landfill entrance and
video watch is carried out.
SOLID WASTE GENERATION IN NCT DELHI :
The problem of solid waste management in Delhi is as-
suming serious proportions due to increasing population, urban-
ization, changing lifestyles and consumption patterns. There are
24 existing landfill sites for waste management in NCT Delhi
from 16 are filled up, 4 are in operation and other 4 are newly
operated as shown in Map 5.4. The garbage from unauthorized
developments, slums, JJ settlements, etc. is not collected which
further adds to the environmental degradation. The projected
average garbage generation upto the year 2021 is @ 0.68 kg. per
capita per day and total quantum of solid waste is 15750 tonnes/
day as given in Table - 5.7.
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TABLE - 5.7
QUANTUM OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE(TONNES / DAY)
Local body area Existing Capacity Projected generation
2001 for 2021
MCD 5250 15100
NDMC 245 550
Cantonment 48 100
TOTAL 5543 15750
Management of solid waste involves waste generation,
segregation and storage; waste collection; waste transfer/ trans-
portation treatment, recycle reuse, recovery; and disposal. For
effective waste management, its segregation at the community and
neighbourhood level is imperative. The waste shall be segre-
gated and collected, in separate chambers at dalaos. For this,
involvement of rag pickers with RWAs, CBOs and NGOs is to be
encouraged.
The projected composition of municipal waste for the plan
period is estimated as given in table - 5.8 for biodegradable and
recyclable waste which is segregated at the source, decentral-
ized treatment at neighbourhood level may be adopted, while for
silt, centralized treatment may be followed.
The other type of specialized waste includes biomedical
waste; hazardous waste from industries; construction debris and
fly ash; meat processing centre etc. Disposal of bio-medical waste
183
is to be as per bio-medical waste rules and hazardous waste
requires special handling rules. Proper dumping, recycling and
reuse of construction debris and fly ash have to be linked. Meat
processing centre waste is to be recycled for chicken feed etc.
TABLE - 5.8
PROJECTED COMPOSITION OFTOTAL MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE FOR 2021
Constituents Quantum (in tons) Percentage to totalwaste
Bio- degradable 6000 38
Silt 6000 38
Recyclable 3750 24
TOTAL 15750 100
Notes :(i) Above figures are based on Report on Solid Waste Management in Delhi
conducted by NEERI, Nagpur through DDA;(ii) Figures of MCD are based on Feasibility study in Master Plan for optimal
waste Treatment & Disposal for the entire state of Delhi, June, 2004, by COWIConsultants appointed by MCD.
Considering the nature of solid waste and the economic
aspects of its disposal, major part of solid waste especially silt
has to be disposed off in sanitary landfills. But wherever recy-
cling is possible, it should be preferred than disposing off the
waste in sanitary landfill sites. More viable alternatives to land-
fills are vermiculture, fossilization, composting etc. Waste Mini-
mization Circles (WMCs) should be constituted and made effec-
tive. Implementation and monitoring & Bio-Medical Wastes (Han-
dling & Management) Rules, 1998, for hospitals, nursing homes,
184
and clinics should be taken up. The sites, which are filled up or
are in operation, given in Table - 5.9. The filled up sites may be
reuse for plantation or as recreational area. The proposed sites
for sanitary landfill and compost plants are to be finalized by
MCD. The Map 5.5 shows the area of existing and proposed
landfill sites.
Keeping in view the fact that finding new sanitary landfill
sites in Delhi is becoming extremely difficult there is no option,
as shown by the Map 5.5 & 5.6 but to resort to alternative and
decentralized methods of waste treatment, reduction, recycle and
use, which include vermiculture, fossilization and composting.
TABLE - 5.9
EXISTING LANDFILL SITES FORWASTE MANAGEMENT
S.N. Location Area (in ha.) Remarks
1. Kailash Nagar, East Delhi 1.8 Filled up
2. Tilak Nagar 16.0 Filled up
3. Subroto Park - Filled up
4. Purana Quila/ Bharion Road 2.7 Filled up
5. Timar Pur 16.0 Filled up
6. Sarai Kale Khan 24.0 Filled up
7. Gopal Pur 4.0 Filled up
8. Chhater Pur 1.7 Filled up
9. S.G.T. Nagar 14.4 Filled up
10. I.P. Depot 1.8 Filled up
11. Sunder Nagar 2.8 Filled up
12. Tuglakabad Ext. 2.4 Filled up
185
13. Haiderpur 1.6 Filled up
14. Mandawali Fazilpur 2.8 --
15. Rohini Phase III 4.8 --
16. Near Hastsal Village in West Delhi 9.6 Filled up
17. Site near Gazipur Dairy Farm 28.0 In Operation
18. Site near Jhangirpur/ Bhalswa 16.0 In Operation
19. Okhla Phase I 12.8 In Operation
20. Crossing on G.T. Karnal Road 3.2 In Operation
21. Jaitpur/ Tajpur 9.84 New
22. Near Puthkhurd 55.0 New
23. Bhawana to Narela Road 28.0 New
24. Sultanpur Dabas (Bawana) 16.0 New
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT :
The dumping of solid waste on land is the cause of follow-
ing problems :
(a) WATER POLLUTION :
Toxic liquid (leachate) that flows from the dumped waste
seeps into surface and groundwater and contaminates postable
water.
(b) SOIL POLLUTION :
Toxins seep into the soil and surrounding vegetation, and
move into the food chain through fruits and vegetables grown in
the area.
(c) DUM FIRES :
When waste decomposes, inflammable methane is released
186
which can result in explosion. The smoke released is also highly
toxic for inhalation and contributes to global warming.
(d) SOURCE OF DISEASE :
Dumpsites breed flies, rodents, and pests, which spread
diseases.
(e) OTHER IMPACTS :
Foul smell, visual ugliness, and bird menace which can be
a hazard to airplanes.
CONCLUSION :
The primary goal of any solid waste management system is
to safeguard the health of the citizens and protect the environ-
ment. This is achieved by ensuring proper collection, transporta-
tion, treatment and finally, safe disposal of waste. However, the
last step is missing in most solid waste management systems
implemented in the country.
REFERENCES :
* Gita Dewan Verma (2002): ‘Slumming India—A Chronicle of
Slums and Their Saviours’. Penguin Books, India.
* Voluntary Health Association of India (1993). ‘Delhi—A Tale of
Two Cities’. 40, Qutab Institutional Area, New Delhi.
* Sabir Ali (1991). ‘Slums Within Slums’. Vikas Publications, New
Delhi.
187
* Supriti, Barnhardt S. and Ramanathan R. 2002. Urban Poverty
Alleviation in India : A General Assessment and a Particular
Perspective; Bangalore : Ramanathan foundation.
* Subramaniam. 2003. Inequalities in health in India : The Method-
ological construction of indices and measures- Draft report,
Department of health and social behavior, Harvard School of
Public Health.
* Carmines EG, Zeller RA. 1991. Reliability and Validity assess-
ment. Newbury Park : Sage Publications.
* WHO and UNICEF, 2000 : Global Water Supply and Sanitation
Assessment 2000 Report. WHO and UNICEF.
* GNCT. 2006. Delhi Human Development Report 2006. New
Delhi: Oxford University Press.
* Banerji, Manjistha, Provision of Basic Services in the Slums and
Resettlement Colonies of Delhi, Ensuring public accountability
through community action 2005, Institute of Social Studies Trust,
New Delhi.
* Verma, G.D. (2002), Slumming India : A chronicle of slums and
their saviours, Penguin Books India, Delhi.
—:: O ::—
CHAPTER - 5
CIVIC AMENITIES ANDHEALTH HAZARDS
(A) URBAN BORN INSECTS :
Insects and related arthropods of importance in the urban
environment are broadly covered under the auspices of urban
entomology. Most arthropods in human environments go unno-
ticed. However, some species post significant problems because
they directly affect the health of humans or their domesticated
animals, attack human structures, foods, goods, materials, or plants
that adorn urban settings.
A relatively small number of insect species have been
intentionally introduced into the urban environment. Examples
include the gupsy moth, Lymantria dispar that was intentionally
introduced into Massachustts in 1868. It is highly probable also
that the Asian Lady Beetle, Harmonia axyridis, was intentionally
introduced in 1980s. Many pest species have been accidentally
introduced with human commerce and travel. Some invasive
species have adapted themselves to disturbed human habitats and
have rapidly spread world wide via commerce and human travel.
The German cockroach Blattella germanica, is an excellent
example of such a species. It is rarely found outdoors, preferring
heated and controlled environments typically associated with
human food preparation. Probably native to Eastern Asia, it spread
143
throughout the Eastern Mediterranean Region by Greek or
Phoenician Vessels. It remained in Southern Russia until after the
Thirty years war (1618-1648) spreading into Europe and finally
becoming established in restaurants and other food handling
establishments in the rapid modernization of China.
With the increasing rate of urbanization in NCT Delhi,
problems associated with arthropod pests in urban centers will
continue to grow. In 1951, about 14.37 lac people (82.4%) lived
in urban areas. At the turn of the twenty-first century, this had
increased to greater than 129 lac people (93.18%) in Delhi. By
the year 2021, it is estimated that there will be greater than 230
lac people living in urban areas. The most dramatic increases in
urbanization and challenges in Delhi will occur in development;
the complex of urban invasive species will likely spread to these
urban centers, or attain the problem status now associated with
more developed countries. Many of these countries and develop-
ing urban centres exist in areas endemic to arthropod vector
borne diseases such as malaria, dengue, encephalitis, yellow fe-
ver, and plague the importance of urban and medical entomology
in tropical urban centers will increase in the future.
The urban environment in NCT Delhi is a complex of
habitats developed by human from natural sites. Houses, villages,
towns, cities, buildings, roads and other features that characterize
the urban environment in Delhi have gradually and irrecoverably
changed the landscape of natural and agricultural areas. As a part
144
of this change, some habitats and their associated plants and
animal communities were eliminated, while others were expanded
and new ones were created. Many of the new habitats were
intentional - parks, waterways, street trees, turf grass, food stores
but some were consequential- standing water in road side ditches,
garbage and landfill sites near residential neighbourhoods, the
underground sewer and storm drain network in urban and
suburban areas of Delhi. They all provided habitats for a select
group of insects and other arthropods, some of which attained
pest status.
Local conditions, climate, and available resources deter-
mine the distribution of some arthropods in the urban environ-
ment of Delhi, and for some species their abundance is limited.
Other species are broadly adapted to the resources and harbor-
ages in and around buildings, and these are cosmopolitan in their
distribution and pest status. Stable habitats with resources and
conditions suitable for long-term survival support reservoir popu-
lations of pest species, and from these habitats individuals or
groups move or are transported to establish infestations in
unstable or temporary habitats.
PERIDOMESTIC AND DOMESTIC HABITATS :
Within and around buildings, houses, and other urban struc-
tures are habitats that support individuals or populations of plants
and animals. Peridomestic habitats are outside, around the pe-
145
rimeter of structures. They include the external surfaces of
buildings, the ornamental trees, shrubs, and turf grass that
characterize the urban and suburban landscape. Domestic
habitats are indoors and include the plant and animal based
materials in this controlled, anthropogenic environment.
PERIDOMESTIC :
Harborage substrates, food resources, and environmental
conditions of urban landscapes of Delhi generally support a large
numbers. The soil-inhabiting and nesting arthropods in this envi-
ronment include ants that forage indoors and termites that damage
structural wood, ground nest bees and wasps, and occasional or
nuisance pests such as clover mites, millipedes, centipedes, and
springtails. Plant-feeding insects utilize the cultivated urban and
suburban trees and shrubs, and many are aesthetic pests. Blood
feeding mites (chiggers), ticks, mosquitoes and other biting flies
are associated with domestic and feral vertebrates. Species
utilizing building surfaces or perimeter substrates include the
umbrella wasp, hornets, yellow jackets, spiders and scorpions.
Underground sewer and storm drainage pipes provide some
cockroach and rodent species access to urban areas. The garbage
disposal network of collection, sorting, and landfill in Delhi
provide harborage and food for cockroaches, flies, rodents, and
pest birds.
Reservoir populations for many of the pest species estab-
lished in peridomestic habitats are in nearby natural or undis-
146
turbed areas. Woodland tracts and other small or large patches of
green space can support populations of biting flies, wasps and
hornets, ticks, and spiders in Delhi. Here are the populations that
provide the individuals or groups that establish or replenish
infestations in less stable habitats, or re-establish populations
lost to habitat destruction.
DOMESTIC :
Environmental conditions in NCT Delhi indoors are
generally stable and the harborages and food resources are some-
what limited. There may be few species, but those adapted to
specialized resources often occur in large numbers. Stored food,
including packaged whole food and vegetables, organic fabrics
and other materials are the most common harborates and food
resources in the domestic habitat. Directly or indirectly associ-
ated with these are dermestid beetles, flour beetles and moths,
flies and cockroaches. The distribution of domestic products and
similar storage environments has contributed to the cosmopolitan
pest status of many of these insects, in both residential and com-
mercial sites in Delhi. Blood and skin feeding species that breed
indoors are limited, but lice, fleas, bed bugs and mites are medi-
cally important pests for more than one socio-economic level of
society. Insects and other arthropods in the living space are
nuisance pest when they are few and their presence brief, but are
not tolerated when they pose a health treat or persist in large
numbers.
147
Natural habitats and populations for some domestic
species, especially those infesting sored food have been lost. Only
populations in the urban environment in NCT Delhi represent
many of these species or they survive only through their link to
humans (bed bugs, lice). Other indoor pests have reservoir popu-
lations in peridomestic and natural areas. Many of the common
species occur in the nests of bird and rodents and from there
have access to indoor habitats.
INSECT DISPERSAL AND DISTRIBUTION :
International transportation, economic exchange, and
globalization have brought a degree of uniformity to the urban
area around the world, and increased the movement and exchange
of arthropods. The majorities of household and store food pests,
including fruit flies, cockroaches, flour beetles, moths and mites,
have moved with infested commercial goods and now have
cosmopolitan distribution. Peridomestic mosquitoes, subterranean
termites and wood-infesting beetles share the same potential for
widespread distribution. Current distribution records for many
household and structural pests are subject to change with increased
movement of people and materials around the world.
Information on pest identification, biology and habits,
compiled on an international basis, is appropriate for the urban
environment. A global census indicates that nearly 2300 insects
and other arthropods have some level of pest status around the
148
world. Some are only occasional invaders of houses and other
buildings, some are closely associated with the foods, fabrics,
and other aspects of dwellings and others are linked to plants and
animals in domestic and peridomestic habitats. Many of these
species are capable of adapting to the soil conditions, climate
and building construction in other regions of the world, and
becoming established in pest populations. Regional conditions
may after some behaviors, but morphological features and the
basic life cycle will remain unchanged and control strategies are
usually transferable from region to region.
URBAN ECOSYSTEM :
Major ecosystems can be broadly classified as natural,
agricultural and urban. Urban ecosystems are primitive sites where
the interacting plant and animal communities have not been
altered by human activity. There are few, if these in the world
today, and a more practical definition of natural ecosystems might
be undisturbed habitats that have had limited human influence
and retain a portion of their original flora and fauna. An impor-
tant feature of these habitats is the populations of native plants
and animals. These are the reservoir populations of many
species that have adapted to agricultural and urban conditions.
Agricultural and urban ecosystems are defined by their use and
the degree to which their biotic and abiotic features have been
altered by human activity. These ecosystems contain few of the
features that characterize their natural origins; many of the
149
features were built or brought there, or designed by humans.
(B) URBAN SLUMS :
Delhi, capital of India, is home to about 3 million people
living in slums and it is estimated that 45% of its population lives
in unauthorized colonies, jhuggi jhompri (JJ) and urban villages.
As the UNHABITAT definition status a slum household is a group
of individuals living under the same roof in an urban area that
lack one of more of the following :
1. Durable housing of a permanent nature that protects against
extreme climate conditions.
2. Sufficient living space which means not more than three
people sharing the same roof.
3. Easy access to safe water in sufficient amounts at an
affordable price.
4. Access to adequate sanitation in the form of a private or
public toilet shared by a reasonable number of people.
5. Security of tenure that prevents forced evictions.
DEFINING THE ISSUE :
For the purpose of Census of India 2001, Slum areas broadly
constitute :
1. All specified areas notified as “slums” by state / local
government and UT administration under any act.
150
2. All areas recognized as “Slums” by State/local government
and UT administration, which may not have been formally
notified as slum under any act.
3. A compact area with a population of at least 300 or about
60-70 households of poorly built congested tenements, in
unhygienic environment usually with inadequate infrastruc-
ture and lacking in proper sanitation and drinking water
facilities.
The slum areas are those that are notified under the Slum
Improvement and Clearance Areas Act of 1956. Building and/or
areas that are considere to be unfit for human habitation may be
declared as the slum areas under section 3 of the act. As such,
they are considered to be legal structures and are eligible for
benefits under the act. The squatter or JJ cluster settlements on
the other hand are considered as encroachments on public and
private lands. They are, therefore, seen as illegal settlements.
According to the United Nations, the proportion of urban
dwellers living in slums decreased from 47 percent to 37 percent
in the developing world between 1990 and 2005. However, due
to rising population, the number of slum dwellers is rising. One
billion people worldwide live in slums and the figure will likely
to grow to 2 billion by 2030.
As India is urbanizing very fast and along with this, the
slum population is also increasing. India’s urban population is
151
increasing at a faster rate than its total population. With over 575
million people, India will have 41% of its population living in
cities and towns by 2030 from the present level of 286 million
and 28%. However, most of them do not have access to basic
facilities like drinking water and sanitation.
Because of the lack at affordable prices to different
categories of residents, various types of unplanned settlements
have come up in Delhi. According to an estimate, the population
residing in different types of settlements in 2006 was as shown in
Figure - 5.1.
Among the urban poor, the slum dwellers are the poorest.
The very definition of slums points at the acute drinking water
and sanitation crisis for the slum dwellers. A slum in India is
defined as “a cluster inside urban areas without having water and
sanitation access.”
The National Sample Survey Organization Survey conducted
in 2002 found that in 84% of the notified slums the main water
Figure - 5.1
152
source is through tap water supply. But these numbers mask
differences across the states of India. In Bihar none of the slums
get water via the tap.
In Chhattisgarh, Gujarat and Uttar Pradesh less than 35%
of slums get tap water. Nearly 44% of non-notified slums do not
have a drainage system of any type whereas only 15% of notified
slums do not have a drainage system.
A similar picture emerges in the case of latrines. Nearly
half of the non-notified slums do not have a latrine of any type. In
contrast only 17% of notified slums do not have a latrine. How-
ever, the past few years have seen significant improvements in
water and sanitation situation in slums. But, that is not a source of
solace as there is still a vast number of slum dweller to be
provided these basic facilities.
CHARACTERIZING LIFE IN SLUMS :
While studying and assessing the feasibility of any policy
it is imperative that there are certain parameters that would help
breakdown the objectives of the policies. Each of these schemes
must be compared with the current situation for slum dwellers
since from their perspective the next best option is starting a new
slum and living in the same conditions as before and thus, the
aforementioned conditions remain. Benchmarks and weightings
to these parameters must also be set before comparison of the
policy objectives so that the methodology is clear. To clearly
153
identify these parameters an understanding of the current situa-
tion and of life as slums dwellers is required. This situation can
be categorized into physical, legal, social, political and economic
characteristics of living in slums as shown in the Figure 5.2.
As can be seen, the physical characteristics of slum life
include shelter but lack a permanent residence, a house and most
of the times even space. The average population density in a shanty
town in Delhi is 3,00,000 people per square kilometer and an
average dwelling houses 6-8 people, yet measures only 6 ft. by 8
ft. Many slums have no latrine facilities, and those that do have
an average of 1 latrine serving 27 households. 1 water pump is
used by 1000 people on average and more often than not water
flows through these pumps only once a day. These low hygiene
and sanitation facilities lead to unhealthy living conditions in the
slums. This, along with illegally high rates for electricity makes
every basic need for slum dwellers is the close proximity of the
slums to most of the resident’s places of work, thus negating
transport costs or reducing it due to convenient transport stations
close by.
Moving onto the economic characteristics, we discuss prob-
ably the main reason for the existence of slums. As mentioned,
people migrate to Delhi from surrounding areas in an attempt to
find employment and improve their own and the lives of their
families. Many a time, these laborers come from their villages on
a contract but end up staying on in Delhi looking to find more
154
work here rather than in their village. Another common case is
that of those who open their own shop or work station in the slum
and operate out of there, such as the local “dhobi” (laundry man)
or tailor. Also because of lack of useable capital many of these
ventures are remain extremely small scale. From the legal aspect,
most of the slums in Delhi are unauthorized i.e. not recognized
and therefore still an illegal encroachment on state land. Because
of this, there is no security of tenure and hardly any dwellers
invest in their houses. Also, in the case that a slum is partially
recognized by the government, i.e. cases when residents before a
certain date are recognized as licensed owners of the land, there
are many hurdles to be faced by the slum dwellers before they
are finally established owners.
For social characteristics, the fact that there are many fairly
good and affordable schools is an important consideration along
with the scene of community and companionship within the slums.
And lastly, the slum dwellers, because of their large numbers,
are eyed by politicians as vote banks where they make many
promises but no one holds them to it.
POVERTY PROFILE OF DELHI :
The Planning Commission estimates the proportion and
number of poor based on the projection of minimum needs and
effective consumption. Such a projection is based on the norm of
2100 calorie per capita per day consumption for an urban area.
155
The calorie norms are invariably expressed in monetary terms
that change with respect to weighted commodity indices of the
consumer price index.
Figure 5.3 shows that the percentage of people below
poverty line (BPL) stood at 52.23% for Delhi in 1973-74. The
figure has been declining steadily to 27.89% in 1983; 16.03 in
1993-94. The percentage of people below poverty line declined
to 10.02% in 2001. Table 5.1 presents the zone wise BPL
population.
TABLE - 5.1
BELOW POVERTY LINE POPULATION
Year Rural BPL %age to Urban BPL %age topopulation Total population Total(in Lakh) (in Lakh)
1973 1.06 24.44 21.78 52.23 1983 0.44 7.66 17.95 27.89 1987 0.10 1.29 10.15 13.56 1993 0.19 1.19 15.32 16.03 2001 0.07 0.40 11.42 9.42
Source : Economic Survey Report, Govt. of Delhi, Delhi.
Figure 5.3
156
SOCIO-ECONOMIC PROFILE OF POOR :
The socio-economic profile of segment of population
categorized as poor is of strategic importance for both planning
purposes, and for managing the habitat and its environmental
up-gradation and improvement.
However, comprehensive data is not available for the whole
of Delhi, although generalization can be made on the following
parameters based on data available from the few available sur-
veys and studies. It is important to keep in perspective however
that inhabitants of LIG/ EWS areas are not homogenous segment.
(a) Income and Expenditure :
The average total monthly income, per household, ranges
from Rs. 1500-2500 among the poor. The expenditure of these
families is around 5-10% more than their incomes. The per capita
monthly income and expenditure is Rs. 245 & Rs. 423 respec-
tively. Poor households, therefore, are increasingly dependent upon
loans from the local moneylenders. The monthly income of around
25-30% households is above Rs. 1500 and around 45-50% house
holds is below Rs. 1000.
(b) Access to Housing :
Housing is a basic need of the poor. Most of the poor do
not have access to secure land tenure. 85% of the poor are squat-
ters, and are vulnerable to frequent eviction. 6% of the poor live
in rented accommodation and have to pay a substantial portion of
157
their income for rent. Most importantly, such rental quarters do
not have even basic infrastructure facilities. The quality of life
led by these people is extremely poor.
(c) Occupation Profile of Poor :
41% of these families work as casual laborers, as most of
them are unskilled. However, one-third of the poor also work in
the service sector and only 20-25% is self-employed. Therefore,
nearly 52% of the poor households do not have access to a
dependable occupation and secure incomes.
(d) Migration Status and Poor :
The employment opportunities (formal and informal) in
Delhi have attracted migrants from all over the country, particu-
larly from the backward state areas due to regional economic
imbalances. In 1961 the annual migration of low income house-
holds into Delhi were estimated to be around 70,000 and that
number has increased every year making it close to an approxi-
mate net addition of around 4 lakh settlers every year, migrating
from various parts of the country in search of livelihood. This
influx of population has resulted in an increased population of
city, pressure on civic amenities, crime, social imbalances, eco-
nomic exploitation, unplanned growth, deterioration of the city
beautification, culture etc.
(e) Access to Infrastructure :
The infrastructure facilities that have been covered are water
158
and sources of energy for the urban poor. A majority of the poor
families (47%) have access to water from community sources.
16% of the families do not have any definite source of water.
With respect to source of light, nearly 30% of the families depend
on kerosene lamps.
(f) Pavement Dwellers :
Around 1 lakh homeless people constitute another
component of the poor in Delhi. They are mostly found in the
Walled City or its surrounding areas and generally sleep on the
pavements. There are around 10 night shelters located at Azadpur,
Subzi Mandi, Paharganj, Jhandewalan, Red Fort, Old Delhi
Railway Station, Azad Market and Roshanara Road. The night
shelters operated by MCD provide accommodation to only male
dwellers.
SHELTER OPTIONS :
The poor typically inhabit unplanned or semi-planned
developments. In Delhi they are classified as :
(a) Notified slums in old walled city area;
(b) Resettlement colonies;
(c) Relocated JJ clusters or squatter settlements.
The section below describe the characteristics of these
areas.
THE OLD WALLED CITY AREA :
In Delhi, areas designated or notified as slums under the
159
act are generally located in the walled city and its adjoining
environs. There are 319 katras in the walled city area with about
3,000 buildings or properties. Out of these, 365 properties have
been identified as dangerous and therefore require resettlement
of inhabitants. In addition, there are 400 properties, which are
with the Evacuee Property Cell of Land and Building Department
of Delhi Government.
SQUATTER SETTLEMENTS/ JJ CLUSTERS :
The squatter settlements are encroachments on mainly
public land. As such these are illegal clusters (JCs) and are
devoid of any legal entitlements. However, efforts have been made
by the government to extend basic social and environmental
services to them.
LOCATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF JJ CLUSTERS :
JJ clusters are scattered all over the city. Generally they
are situated on the vacant land along railway lines, roads, drains
and river embankments and also vacant spaces near residential,
industrial and commercial complexes.
Figure 5.4
160
Figure 5.4 shows that around 55 percent of squatters are
near the residential areas and 40% along the road berms as also
shown in the complete picture in Table 5.2.
TABLE - 5.2
AREAWISE STATUS OF JJ CLUSTERS IN DELHI
Areas with Number of squatters %age to total encroachment Residential Areas 34100 55.86 Road Berms 24184 39.62 Park and open spaces 966 1.58 Schools 500 0.82 Market 1093 1.79 Railway Station 200 0.33 TOTAL 61043 100.00
Source : Sabir Ali, Environment Scenario of Delhi Slums, Centre for social Develop
ment Studies - 1998.
It is clear from Table 5.3 that around 70% of clusters have
less than 500 JJ’s. This percentage has remained constant from
1991-2001. The sharp decline in number of JJ clusters (1994-
2001) is attributed to large scale relocation of JJs since 1999.
TABLE - 5.3
SIZE WISE DISTRIBUTION OF JJ CLUSTERS
No. of JJ in 1991 1994 2001 clusters Upto 100 496 396 227 1119 101-500 311 446 295 1052 501-1000 59 121 110 290 1001-1500 30 54 37 121 1500 & above 33 63 59 155Source : (i) Slum Department, MCD Delhi; (ii) Status Report for Delhi-21, Delhi Urban
Environment and Infrastructure Improvement Project (DUEIIP), January 2001.
161
Figure 5.5 shows the size-wise distribution of JJclusters
in NCT Delhi in 2001.
AREAS WITH CONCENTRATION OF JJ CLUSTERS :
The spread of JJ clusters ranges from a plot of 0.4 acres with 8
JJs to JJcs as large as 50 acres with 10,000 households & 45000
populations. The average number of JJ per acre comes to 200
with 193 being the lowest (Najafgarh area) and 206 the highest
(Gole Market and Kalkaji areas) (Refer to Map 5.1). The
average area of JJ is 20m2. Some of the major areas with such
concentrations are given below :
(i) HIGH CONCENTRATION :
(a) Minto Road/ Gole Market/ Matia Mahal (129 clusters, 43388
JJs, 215.08 Acres) - NDMC Area.
(b) Badarpur/ Tuglaqabad/ Saket (79 clusters, 64187 JJs, 79 Acres)-
MCD area.
Figure 5.5
162
(c) Moti Nagar/ Patel Nagar/ Rajendra Nagar (72 clusters, 35,427
JJs, 175.45 Acres) - MCD Area.
(d) Jahangirpuri/ Adarsh Nagar/ Model Town/ Wazirpur (117 clus-
ters, 71538 JJs, 356 Acres) - MCD Area.
(e) Badli/ Shahbad-Daulatpur (21 clusters, 27551 JJs, 137.70 Acres)-
MCD Area.
(ii) MEDIUM CONCENTRATION :
(a) Delhi Cantonment/ Janakpuri/ Tilak Marg (17 clusters, 18,982
JJs, 95.03 Acres) - MCD Area.
(b) Biswas Nagar/ Shahdara/ Babarpur (44 clusters, 18,915 JJs, 88.91
Acres) - MCD Area.
(c) Hauzkhas. R.K. Puram (52 clusters, 14,110 JJs, 70.22 acres) -
NDMC Area.
(iii) LOW CONCENTRATION :
(a) Nazafgarh/ Nasirpur/ Palam (11 clusters, 363 JJs, 1.83 Acres) -
MCD Area.
(b) Sarojini Nagar/ Kalkaji/ Malviya Nagar/ Ambedkar Nagar/
Kasturba Marg (45 clusters, 11,802 JJs, 68.42 Acres) - NDMC
Area.
GROWTH OF SQUATTER SETTLEMENTS :
The squatter settlements or Jhuggi jhopari clusters (JJC)
assume strategic importance as far as issues of unorganized settle-
163
ments are concerned. As mentioned in Table - 5.4 in 1951 Delhi
had 12,749 jhuggi jhoparis (JJS) scattered over 199 clusters. By
1973 the number of JJS had reached 98,483 spread over 1373
clusters. The resettlement scheme pursued in 1962-77, with a
concentrated effort in 1975-77 resulted in the resettlement of 2.4
lakh JJS in different parts of Delhi. In 1977 only 20,000 JJ house-
holds had gone upto 1.13 lakhs. In 2001 the JJ clusters had declined
to (729 from 1080 in 1994) due to relocation of around 300
clusters from Gautampuri, Kingsway Camp, Ashok Vihar, AIIMS
and Hauz Khas etc.
TABLE - 5(4)
YEARWISE STATUS OF JJ CLUSTERS IN DELHI
Year JJ Clusters Jhuggi Area in PopulationHHS HA
1951 199 12749 21.1 63745
1973 1373 98483 164.1 492415
1983 534 113000 188.3 565000
1990 929 259000 431.7 1295000
1997 1100 600000 902.1 3000000
2001 728 429662 650.2 2148310
Source : Slum Deptt., Municipal Corporation of Delhi, Delhi.
LAND OWNING AGENCIES AND JJ CLUSTERS :
The land owning agencies in whose area the JJ clusters are
situated are given in Table 5.5. Eighty three percent of DDA land
is squatted on by 600 JJ clusters.
164
TABLE - 5.5
LAND OWNING AGENCIES & JJ CLUSTERS
LO Agencies NO. of Jhuggies Population Area in Acres1990 1994 1994
DDA 280988 349705 1856683 1865.93
L&Do 21530 29415 132327 149.86
Railway 12161 17346 78929 84.34
MCD 8428 11052 52045 47.29
NDMC 3226 4487 20182 22.52
Gram Sabha 4132 4360 19619 21.31
Cantonment 1570 1700 7064 7.86 Board
Source : Status Report for Delhi- 21 Delhi Urban Environment
and infrastructure Improvement Project (DUEIIP), January 2001
ACCESS TO INFRASTRUCTURE IN SLUMS/ JJ CLUSTERS:
Water and sanitation facilities, in these unorganized
colonies, particularly JJ clusters, are poor. Only 21% of colonies
are covered with piped water supply and 10% are covered by
sanitation. Table 5.6 presents a satisfactory level of infrastruc-
ture availability in unplanned settlements, but these facilities are
non- functional in around 75-80% of the settlements. The average
population served by one PSP ranges from 250-300 against the
standard of 150. Moreover, average waiting at PSP is 20-30
minutes. Around 85-90% of JJ clusters did not have even
community toilets, forcing habitants to defecate in the open near
the water bodies or drainage channels.
165
TABLE - 5.6
WATER AND SANITATION STATUS IN THEUNPLANNED SETTLEMENTS (2004)
Service provision in Piped water supply Sewer facility unplanned settlement No. % of colonies No. % of colonies
Regularized 557 98.2 458 80.7 unauthorized colonies
Resettlement colonies 44 100.0 44 100.0
JJ Clusters 158 21.7 72 9.8
Source : Slum Department, Municipal Corporation of Delhi, Delhi.
RESETTLEMENT COLONIES :
Under the schemes for resettlement of JJ clusters 47
resettlement colonies were developed during 1961-77. Around
2.0 lakh plots were developed accommodating about 2.4 lakh
households. These resettlement colonies have degenerated due to
intense population pressure and unorganized development. There-
fore investment towards up-gradation of physical infrastructure
has to be made for improving civic life.
LOCATION OF RESETTLEMENT COLONIES :
The spatial distribution of these colonies indicates that they
are proliferating mainly in the South-East, North-East, North-West,
South-West and Central parts of the NCT of Delhi. These are five
colonies in South-East, eight in North-East, fifteen in North-West,
seven in South-West and twelve in Central Delhi.
166
RELOCATION SITES :
The Map 5.2 shows that there are around 12 relocation
sites as Bhalaswa, Holambi Kalan, Pappan Kalan, Rohini, Narela,
Bakanwar, Madanpur Khadar etc. The most recent relocation has
been made to three principal sites. These are Dwarka (known
also as Pappan Kalan), Rohini, Narela and Savda Ghevara. The
main pockets from where JJ clusters were relocated are Central,
South and East Delhi areas. Thus, during 1999-2000, 3741 squat-
ter households from the JJ clusters at CGO Complex, Chankyapuri,
Kotla Mubarakpur, Andrews Ganj, Sadiq Nagar, Mahaki Sarai,
Shahdara were moved to Narela and Rohini. 27.4 acres of land
has been allotted at Molar Band for shifting of the JJ clusters at
Gautam Nagar behind AIIMS as shown in Map 5.3. In 1997-98,
DDA allocated 32 acres of land in Tehkhand Village for reloca-
tion of squatter families.
These relocation resettlement sites offer no security of
tenure to habitants who begin a new life without security, basic
services, schools and other basic amenities.
SLUM DEVELOPMENT POLICIES IN PLACE :
While evaluating the policies affecting housing for slum
dwellers we take a top down approach by first giving a brief
overview of the National Housing Policy 2007, and laid out for
Delhi’s slums by various authorities.
167
(i) NATIONAL URBAN HOUSING AND HABITAT POLICY 2007:
The National Urban Housing and Habitat Policy 2007 states
its goal as ‘affordable housing for all’ in the country. It promotes
various types of Public Private Partnerships and pays special
emphasis on the urban poor, intending to promote sustainable
development of housing in the country with a view to ensuring
equitable supply of land, shelter and services at affordable prices
to all sections of society. The policy focused on multiple stake-
holders the private sector, the cooperative sector, the industrial
sector for labor housing and the services and institutional sector
for employee housing. To attain the overarching goal of afforable
housing for all, emphasis is laid on urban planning, increasing
supply of land and use of spatial incentives like additional floor
area ratio (FAR), transferable development rights, and increased
flow of funds, effective solid waste management and use of
renewal sources of energy. Encouraging integrated townships and
special economic zones (SEZs), the policy calls for reservation
of 10-15 percent land in every new public and private housing
projects or 20-25 percent FAR whichever is greater to for EWS
and LIG housing through appropriate spatial incentives.
The private sector would be permitted assembling land
within the purview of master plans. The policy also sets action
plans for urban slum dwellers with a special package being
prepared for cooperative housing, labor housing and employees
housing. The primary choice would be to give provision of shelter
168
to urban poor at their present location or near their work place.
The role of housing and provision of basic services to the
urban poor has been integrated into the objectives of the Jawaharlal
Nehru Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM).
(ii) BASIC SERVICES TO THE URBAN POOR, JNNURM :
The Sub Mission II of the JNNURM involves Basic
Services to the Urban Poor (BSUP) including the integrated
housing and slum development programme. The objectives of the
mission are outlined as :
1. Focused attention to integrated development of Basic Services to
the urban poor in the cities covered under the mission.
2. Provision of Basic Services to Urban Poor including security of
tenure at affordable prices, improved housing, water supply,
sanitation and ensuring delivery through convergence of other
already existing universal services of the Government for Educa-
tion, health and social security care will be taken to see that the
urban poor are provided housing near their place of occupation.
3. Secure effective linkages between asset creation and asset man-
agement to that the Basic Services to the Urban Poor created in
the cities are not only maintained efficiently but also become self-
sustaining over time.
4. Ensure adequate investment of funds to fulfill deficiencies in the
Basic Services to the Urban Poor.
169
5. Scale up delivery of civic amenities and provision of utilities
with emphasis on universal access to urban poor.
The Delhi Master Plan 2021 has laid emphasis on improve-
ment of the living conditions of the 45% of Delhities living in
slums and JJ clusters in the next ten years as part of the improve-
ment in the livability of the city for its inhabitants.
(iii) THREE PRONGED APPROACH IN DELHI :
Of the settlements considered as sub-standard slum and
squatter settlements rank among the worst and it is the urban poor
that live predominantly in such settlements. The program of
squatter clearance was discontinued at the end of sixth plan (from
1985). Accordingly no major settlement program was carried out
until 1992 when a Revised Resettlement Policy was formulated
by the DDA. This did not mean that there were no resettlement
works in progress. The general policy adopted by the govern-
ment since then it twofold. One is that no fresh encroachments
shall be permitted on public land and the second is that past
encroachments (those in existence till 30.01.1990) would not be
removed without providing alternatives.
Squatter settlements are to be found throughout the city but
especially on the vacant land along railway lines, roads, drains,
river embankments, and around resettlement colonies. The strat-
egy of the government towards slums/ squatter settlements has
been mainly of clearance.
170
In recent years, however, there have been some changes in
the attitude and strategies. Since 1991 three strategies have been
used in Delhi, which are as follows :
1. Improvement of the slum environment.
2. Relocation of the slums
3. In situ-up-gradation and rehabilitation.
(iv) IMPROVEMENT OF THE SLUM ENVIRONMENT :
Since 1987, in JJ clusters and notified slums which are not
being relocated or developed with the in situ approach, basic
urban services and amenities are being provided under ‘Envi-
ronmental improvement in urban slum scheme’. The facilities are
extended to all JJ clusters even those that developed after 1990.
The facilities being provided under the scheme are :
1. Pay and use Jan Suvidha Complexes containing toilets and bath-
rooms at the community level or the provision of mobile toilet,
vans in all those JJ clusters where the Jan Suvidha Complex can
not be provided.
2. Water supply either through water hydrants, hand pipes or water
tanker.
3. Street lighting.
4. Dusbins for collection of domestic waste.
5. Paved pathways and drains.
171
(v) RELOCATION OF SLUMS :
Jhuggi Jhopri resettlement, relocation scheme was started
in the Union Territory of Delhi for the rehousing of squatters on
government and private lands in 1960. The scheme began with
the allotment of two room tenements to 3,560 JJ households.
Subsequently, partially developed plots of 80 square yards were
allotted under the scheme to the squatters on a nominal rent.
However, due to demand of land in Delhi and the fact that the
allotment procedure was misused, size of plots was reduced to
40 square meters and then 25 square meters. Under the present
situation, Relocation is carried out for only those JJ clusters and
slums that are required by the land owning agency for public
interest projects.
Since the inception of the scheme with effect from 1990-
1991, so far about 70,000 plots have been developed and about
60,000 families have been rehabilitated at Dwarka, Rohini, Narela,
Bawana, Holambi, Molar Band, Madanpur Khaddar & Sawda
Ghevre keeping in view the scarcity of land in Delhi and as per
the directions of the Delhi Government and Government of India.
The Delhi Government has formulated a new policy for the
resettlement of squatter families in Delhi. Under the new policy,
Delhi Government has proposed to provide built up flats instead
of plots to the slum dwellers, economically weaker sections
under the Rajiv Awas Yojna, JNNURM. Under this scheme, the
Delhi Government aims to provide 4 lakh flats by 2012.
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(vi) IN SITU UP-GRADATION AND REHABILITATION :
There has been a general shift in the approach to slum and
JJ clusters in recent years. The emphasis is now on the improve-
ment of the environment of the JJ cluster and their in situ rehabili-
tation wherever possible. The in situ up gradation is undertaken
after the area has been notified as a slum area under the Slum
Area Act of 1956. The scheme involves replanning of JJ dwell-
ing units in modified layout by redistributing the encroached land
pockets amongst the squatter families. The JJ households are given
sites of 10 to 12.5 square meters for construction of their own
shelters. The housing plots are generally designed in a cluster
around open courtyards. The beneficiary constructs the shelter
under a self help approach with technical extension services
provided by the slum and JJ department of the MCD. So far 5,583
families have been rehabilitated at Prayog Vihar, Ekta Vihar, Shanti
Vihar and Shahbad Daulatpur Phase I. The implementation of the
in situ- up-gradation is very poor due to non availability of the
Notice of Consent from the concerned land owning agency. A
new policy of in situ slum up grading also suggests, as in the case
of relocation, the provision of developed flats on the same
location instead of plots for the slum dwellers.
The Delhi Development Authority (DDA) decided to take
up in situ development towards rehabilitation of slum dwelling
units of about 25 square meters will be about 47,500. These will
be taken up on public- private partnership model in which the
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land occupied by slum dwellers will be made available to de-
velopers, who will construct houses in accordance with the num-
bers identified by the DDA. These houses will be constructed in
same parts of the area while in the remaining areas the developer
will be allowed to carry out commercial exploitation of the land.
This would enable the developer to spill over some of the costs
from building the rehabilitation units to the commercial activity,
thereby reducing the burden on the slum dwellers as well. This
mixed development allows them to get the cross subsidy by way
of targeting two different segments of society.
This model is being applied at the kathputli colony where
residents will have access to 12 storeyed buildings in which the
ground floors will be devoted to promoting artistic and commer-
cial enterprise since most of the residents are puppeteers, crafts-
men or musicians. The constructions will house 2,800 dwelling
units meant for the colony’s residents. The site will also boast of
a separate 2.1 acre commercial space to be developed by private
developers and “high-category residential apartmentments” in 2.4
acres which will help boost the earning of artisans and crafts-
men, according to the DDA’s plans.
In the scheme, modeled on Mumbai’s slum rehabilitation
programme, private players will join hands with the government
and the work of clearing the slums would proceed in phases.
Since residents will be resettled, tents will be pitched to provide
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temporary accommodation to the people till the project is
completed.
(vii) DRAFT NATIONAL SLUM POLICY 2001 :
Another more specific, policy the “draft” National Slum
Policy is yet to be ratified by the government. The draft National
Slum Policy envisages cities without slums. Towards fulfillment
of this vision, the policy adopts an approach of in situ up gradation
and improvement. It recommends clearance only in exceptional
circumstances. It, therefore, talks of urban growth with equity
and justice and makes plea for greater participation of communi-
ties and civil society in all areas of planning, capacity building
and development. Correspondingly it proposes a series of
interventions with regards to definitions, tenure, planning,
economic empowerment, governance and management, shelter up
gradation etc.
The governing principal of the Draft National Slum Policy
are as follows :
1. The endorsement of an upgrading and improvement approach in
all slums, and the acceptance of the necessity of slum clearance
in an extremely defined circumstances.
2. Recognition that households in all urban informal settlements
should have access to certain basic minimum services, irrespec-
tive of land tenure or occupancy status.
175
3. The goal that planning in all cities should have the objective of
creating cities without slums.
4. The objective of ensuring that urban growth takes place with
equity and distributive justice.
5. The intention that urban local bodies should work in collabora-
tion with all other stakeholders to enhance the impact of slum
development through building the capacities of the poor and
empowering them to improve their own living conditions.
6. The adoption of a more “enabling” approach to the delivery of
basic social services to the poor as a result of more effective
mobilization of community resources and skills to complement
public resource allocations.
7. A greater participation of communities and civil society in all
areas of planning, capacity building and development.
The draft policy is however silent over the ways in which
such goals could be realized. Also, the definition of all under
served serviced lands as slums will hinder and deny the most
needy and vulnerable from having access to resources for up-
gradation and improvement.
POLICY COMPARISON :
A comparative study of these policies and schemes can now
be undertaken, based on the parameters discussed earlier. The
National Urban Housing and Habitat Policy 2007 seems to be a
176
step in the right direction, with focus on affordable housing,
public private partnerships (PPP), sustainable development of
housing in the country, special package being prepared for
cooperative housing, labor housing and employees housing and
prioritizing houses for the urban poor at their present location or
near their work place using the in- situ slum rehabilitation
approach. Using the parameters as tools for analysis we see that
with PPPs and the in situ rehabilitation approach, affordable
housing for slum dwellers at their present location is an option.
This enables them to earn their livelihood just as they did before,
in the slums. The security of tenure objective is also achieved
through the policy. Only the characteristics of housing provided
remains questionable. The quality of houses, its cost and the
allocation can be a hindrance to the residents. Sometimes the
costs are too high for them and at other times the quality of the
houses is compromised. Under the JNNURM, the improved quality
of housing is specifically included and allocation is said to be on
the basis of need (determined through income). As is the case
with both the relocation and the in situ rehabilitation policy, any
worker whose source of livelihood is within the slums (dhobi,
tailor etc.) might be compromised unless there is specific
mention of a workstation being supplied. Thus this would be a
violation of the first parameter and the people affected by this
would prefer to stay in some other slum again. This vary case
would be an important characteristic of the third approach of
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improvement of the slum environment or up- gradation. The
livelihoods of the residents are maintained even though the slum,
not lacking basic facilities but still an unplanned part of the city,
still exists. The draft national slum policy outlines its objectives
but has not clearly defined how these objectives will be met and
therefore no analysis on the basis of parameters and incentives
for residents can be undertaken. Thus, as is the case with most of
the policies in India, each of these policies, schemes and
approaches looks impeccable on paper but the ground realities
of these projects are often very different from what is claimed
and therefore it is necessary that a follow up mechanism be
incorporated into each of the policies to ensure their efficiency.
(C) URBAN GARBAGE GROUNDS :
Various human processes produce waste. Disposing waste
products is major global problem since last many decades.
Landfill is considered as the primitive way to organized waste
dumping in various parts of earth. It is a method of removing the
refuse on land without creating a hazard to public health or safety.
Landfills may consist of domestic waste dumping sites as well as
sites utilized by several manufacturers. This method is also
adopted for other waste management tasks for example the
momentary storage, consolidation and relocation, or meting out
of waste substance such as sorting, treatment, or recycling. The
landfill is supportive process of waste diminution and has a key
role in resource revival. A landfill also denotes the practice in
178
which ground has been packed in with soil and rocks as an alter-
native of garbage which solves many important purposes such as
for building construction.
Landfill is emerged as the most practicable ecological
substitute for the specific waste removal in various countries.
Today government priority is to set up a waste policy by
applying the ideology in order to deal with environmental risks,
the economic and health dangers of resource degradation. These
strategies are basically planned to maintain landfill practices
which will stabilize the landfill sites in present generation. The
main intent of waste organization is to deal with the garbage
produced by existing generation and do not switch over waste
related harms to next generation. The Landfill Directive is
committed to raise standards and lessen harmful consequences
on the surroundings, groundwater, surface waters, soil, and
restrictions on the universal impact of waste dumping. For
commercial purpose, a landfill technique must meet definite
requirements, which are linked to many important factors. The
first factor is the location. Landfill must have easy access to
transportation via road. It must have stability such as fundamen-
tal geology, earthquake faults, water table. Another factor is
capacity. The existing annulled space must be planned by assess-
ment of the landform with a proposed re-establishment profile.
This computation of capacity is based on density of the wastes,
amount of intermediate and daily cover, and amount of settle-
179
ment. Landfill must have protection of soil and water through
installation of inside layer and collection systems. To handle speci-
fied harmless waste landfills such method must be applied through
which the trash are cramped to small area, compressed to decrease
their quantity, enclosed with layers of soil. Completely lined
landfills reinstate the previous one, unlined deposits that were
earlier used. In the operation of landfill, the garbage collection
trucks are weighed at entrance and their load is checked for wastes.
Then, these vehicles drop their load. After loads are dumped,
compactors or dozers spread and compressed the waste on the
operational field. This flattened waste is enclosed with soil
every day. Other waste wrap materials are sprayed on froth
products and transitory mantles. These mantles can be elevated
into place with tracked excavators and then detatched the next
day proceeding to waste placement. Chipped wood and chemi-
cally ‘fixed’ bio-solids are the substitute cover. Since the 20th
century, population is exploding speedily in developed areas; it
is a need of an hour to implement land reprocesses tractics for
completed landfills. The common usages are parks, golf courses.
Office buildings and industrial uses are made of a completed
landfill. Many steps are taken to disperse garbage produced
through communities, Industry and other establishments. At the
end of 20th century, different methods to waste removal to land-
fill and burning have started. The apparent substitutes to landfills
are waste reduction and recycling policies. Incineration is the
180
most effectual technique of plummeting volume and weight of
solid waste by burning in a well designed furnace.
Landfill reclamation is one of the control measures to check
spoilage of landscape. It is the burning of landfill garbage at high
temperature via the plasma-arc gasification procedure. Another
important way to deal with solid waste is composing by which
the organic components of solid waste are biologically decom-
posed under controlled aerobic conditions. In this method,
plastics, rubber and leather are separated from the solid waste
and the remaining organic matter is decomposed aerobically or
an aerobically to end product called compost. Anaerobic
digestion, mechanical biological treatment, pyrolysis and gasifi-
cation have all started to establish themselves in the marketplace.
Optional waste disposal technology is quite expensive than
landfill and mass burn incineration is the sole technology for mixed
waste. India is working to develop clean energy sources that can
yield considerable economic, environmental and health benefits
for people. Methane emissions from the solid waste sector in
India are projected to increase significantly over the next 15 years.
Reusing landfill methane gas for energy purposes has the poten-
tial to mitigate 5.5 million metric tons of carbon dioxide equiva-
lents, which is equal to the annual emissions from one million
vehicles. Currently, there are no operational landfill gas-to-
energy projects in India but several large sites in Delhi, Mumbai
and other cities could support the clean energy projects.
181
Basically, a landfill is a large area of land or an excavated
site that is a carefully designed structure built into or on top of the
ground. The rubbish collected at the landfill is isolated from the
surrounding environment with a bottom liner and a daily cover-
ing of soil. Though the modern landfill practices are technically
sound but still these proven techniques sometimes fail to meet
challenges. These practices require further precision to secure
public areas. Appropriate removal practices should be adopted
to control environmental contamination. These practices include-
All loads must be alienated when unloading in selected area.
Domestic refuse and small things should be kept in the dustbin.
Removal should be permitted exterior the landfill entrance and
video watch is carried out.
SOLID WASTE GENERATION IN NCT DELHI :
The problem of solid waste management in Delhi is as-
suming serious proportions due to increasing population, urban-
ization, changing lifestyles and consumption patterns. There are
24 existing landfill sites for waste management in NCT Delhi
from 16 are filled up, 4 are in operation and other 4 are newly
operated as shown in Map 5.4. The garbage from unauthorized
developments, slums, JJ settlements, etc. is not collected which
further adds to the environmental degradation. The projected
average garbage generation upto the year 2021 is @ 0.68 kg. per
capita per day and total quantum of solid waste is 15750 tonnes/
day as given in Table - 5.7.
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TABLE - 5.7
QUANTUM OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE(TONNES / DAY)
Local body area Existing Capacity Projected generation
2001 for 2021
MCD 5250 15100
NDMC 245 550
Cantonment 48 100
TOTAL 5543 15750
Management of solid waste involves waste generation,
segregation and storage; waste collection; waste transfer/ trans-
portation treatment, recycle reuse, recovery; and disposal. For
effective waste management, its segregation at the community and
neighbourhood level is imperative. The waste shall be segre-
gated and collected, in separate chambers at dalaos. For this,
involvement of rag pickers with RWAs, CBOs and NGOs is to be
encouraged.
The projected composition of municipal waste for the plan
period is estimated as given in table - 5.8 for biodegradable and
recyclable waste which is segregated at the source, decentral-
ized treatment at neighbourhood level may be adopted, while for
silt, centralized treatment may be followed.
The other type of specialized waste includes biomedical
waste; hazardous waste from industries; construction debris and
fly ash; meat processing centre etc. Disposal of bio-medical waste
183
is to be as per bio-medical waste rules and hazardous waste
requires special handling rules. Proper dumping, recycling and
reuse of construction debris and fly ash have to be linked. Meat
processing centre waste is to be recycled for chicken feed etc.
TABLE - 5.8
PROJECTED COMPOSITION OFTOTAL MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE FOR 2021
Constituents Quantum (in tons) Percentage to totalwaste
Bio- degradable 6000 38
Silt 6000 38
Recyclable 3750 24
TOTAL 15750 100
Notes :(i) Above figures are based on Report on Solid Waste Management in Delhi
conducted by NEERI, Nagpur through DDA;(ii) Figures of MCD are based on Feasibility study in Master Plan for optimal
waste Treatment & Disposal for the entire state of Delhi, June, 2004, by COWIConsultants appointed by MCD.
Considering the nature of solid waste and the economic
aspects of its disposal, major part of solid waste especially silt
has to be disposed off in sanitary landfills. But wherever recy-
cling is possible, it should be preferred than disposing off the
waste in sanitary landfill sites. More viable alternatives to land-
fills are vermiculture, fossilization, composting etc. Waste Mini-
mization Circles (WMCs) should be constituted and made effec-
tive. Implementation and monitoring & Bio-Medical Wastes (Han-
dling & Management) Rules, 1998, for hospitals, nursing homes,
184
and clinics should be taken up. The sites, which are filled up or
are in operation, given in Table - 5.9. The filled up sites may be
reuse for plantation or as recreational area. The proposed sites
for sanitary landfill and compost plants are to be finalized by
MCD. The Map 5.5 shows the area of existing and proposed
landfill sites.
Keeping in view the fact that finding new sanitary landfill
sites in Delhi is becoming extremely difficult there is no option,
as shown by the Map 5.5 & 5.6 but to resort to alternative and
decentralized methods of waste treatment, reduction, recycle and
use, which include vermiculture, fossilization and composting.
TABLE - 5.9
EXISTING LANDFILL SITES FORWASTE MANAGEMENT
S.N. Location Area (in ha.) Remarks
1. Kailash Nagar, East Delhi 1.8 Filled up
2. Tilak Nagar 16.0 Filled up
3. Subroto Park - Filled up
4. Purana Quila/ Bharion Road 2.7 Filled up
5. Timar Pur 16.0 Filled up
6. Sarai Kale Khan 24.0 Filled up
7. Gopal Pur 4.0 Filled up
8. Chhater Pur 1.7 Filled up
9. S.G.T. Nagar 14.4 Filled up
10. I.P. Depot 1.8 Filled up
11. Sunder Nagar 2.8 Filled up
12. Tuglakabad Ext. 2.4 Filled up
185
13. Haiderpur 1.6 Filled up
14. Mandawali Fazilpur 2.8 --
15. Rohini Phase III 4.8 --
16. Near Hastsal Village in West Delhi 9.6 Filled up
17. Site near Gazipur Dairy Farm 28.0 In Operation
18. Site near Jhangirpur/ Bhalswa 16.0 In Operation
19. Okhla Phase I 12.8 In Operation
20. Crossing on G.T. Karnal Road 3.2 In Operation
21. Jaitpur/ Tajpur 9.84 New
22. Near Puthkhurd 55.0 New
23. Bhawana to Narela Road 28.0 New
24. Sultanpur Dabas (Bawana) 16.0 New
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT :
The dumping of solid waste on land is the cause of follow-
ing problems :
(a) WATER POLLUTION :
Toxic liquid (leachate) that flows from the dumped waste
seeps into surface and groundwater and contaminates postable
water.
(b) SOIL POLLUTION :
Toxins seep into the soil and surrounding vegetation, and
move into the food chain through fruits and vegetables grown in
the area.
(c) DUM FIRES :
When waste decomposes, inflammable methane is released
186
which can result in explosion. The smoke released is also highly
toxic for inhalation and contributes to global warming.
(d) SOURCE OF DISEASE :
Dumpsites breed flies, rodents, and pests, which spread
diseases.
(e) OTHER IMPACTS :
Foul smell, visual ugliness, and bird menace which can be
a hazard to airplanes.
CONCLUSION :
The primary goal of any solid waste management system is
to safeguard the health of the citizens and protect the environ-
ment. This is achieved by ensuring proper collection, transporta-
tion, treatment and finally, safe disposal of waste. However, the
last step is missing in most solid waste management systems
implemented in the country.
REFERENCES :
* Gita Dewan Verma (2002): ‘Slumming India—A Chronicle of
Slums and Their Saviours’. Penguin Books, India.
* Voluntary Health Association of India (1993). ‘Delhi—A Tale of
Two Cities’. 40, Qutab Institutional Area, New Delhi.
* Sabir Ali (1991). ‘Slums Within Slums’. Vikas Publications, New
Delhi.
187
* Supriti, Barnhardt S. and Ramanathan R. 2002. Urban Poverty
Alleviation in India : A General Assessment and a Particular
Perspective; Bangalore : Ramanathan foundation.
* Subramaniam. 2003. Inequalities in health in India : The Method-
ological construction of indices and measures- Draft report,
Department of health and social behavior, Harvard School of
Public Health.
* Carmines EG, Zeller RA. 1991. Reliability and Validity assess-
ment. Newbury Park : Sage Publications.
* WHO and UNICEF, 2000 : Global Water Supply and Sanitation
Assessment 2000 Report. WHO and UNICEF.
* GNCT. 2006. Delhi Human Development Report 2006. New
Delhi: Oxford University Press.
* Banerji, Manjistha, Provision of Basic Services in the Slums and
Resettlement Colonies of Delhi, Ensuring public accountability
through community action 2005, Institute of Social Studies Trust,
New Delhi.
* Verma, G.D. (2002), Slumming India : A chronicle of slums and
their saviours, Penguin Books India, Delhi.
—:: O ::—
CHAPTER - 5
CIVIC AMENITIES ANDHEALTH HAZARDS
(A) URBAN BORN INSECTS :
Insects and related arthropods of importance in the urban
environment are broadly covered under the auspices of urban
entomology. Most arthropods in human environments go unno-
ticed. However, some species post significant problems because
they directly affect the health of humans or their domesticated
animals, attack human structures, foods, goods, materials, or plants
that adorn urban settings.
A relatively small number of insect species have been
intentionally introduced into the urban environment. Examples
include the gupsy moth, Lymantria dispar that was intentionally
introduced into Massachustts in 1868. It is highly probable also
that the Asian Lady Beetle, Harmonia axyridis, was intentionally
introduced in 1980s. Many pest species have been accidentally
introduced with human commerce and travel. Some invasive
species have adapted themselves to disturbed human habitats and
have rapidly spread world wide via commerce and human travel.
The German cockroach Blattella germanica, is an excellent
example of such a species. It is rarely found outdoors, preferring
heated and controlled environments typically associated with
human food preparation. Probably native to Eastern Asia, it spread
143
throughout the Eastern Mediterranean Region by Greek or
Phoenician Vessels. It remained in Southern Russia until after the
Thirty years war (1618-1648) spreading into Europe and finally
becoming established in restaurants and other food handling
establishments in the rapid modernization of China.
With the increasing rate of urbanization in NCT Delhi,
problems associated with arthropod pests in urban centers will
continue to grow. In 1951, about 14.37 lac people (82.4%) lived
in urban areas. At the turn of the twenty-first century, this had
increased to greater than 129 lac people (93.18%) in Delhi. By
the year 2021, it is estimated that there will be greater than 230
lac people living in urban areas. The most dramatic increases in
urbanization and challenges in Delhi will occur in development;
the complex of urban invasive species will likely spread to these
urban centers, or attain the problem status now associated with
more developed countries. Many of these countries and develop-
ing urban centres exist in areas endemic to arthropod vector
borne diseases such as malaria, dengue, encephalitis, yellow fe-
ver, and plague the importance of urban and medical entomology
in tropical urban centers will increase in the future.
The urban environment in NCT Delhi is a complex of
habitats developed by human from natural sites. Houses, villages,
towns, cities, buildings, roads and other features that characterize
the urban environment in Delhi have gradually and irrecoverably
changed the landscape of natural and agricultural areas. As a part
144
of this change, some habitats and their associated plants and
animal communities were eliminated, while others were expanded
and new ones were created. Many of the new habitats were
intentional - parks, waterways, street trees, turf grass, food stores
but some were consequential- standing water in road side ditches,
garbage and landfill sites near residential neighbourhoods, the
underground sewer and storm drain network in urban and
suburban areas of Delhi. They all provided habitats for a select
group of insects and other arthropods, some of which attained
pest status.
Local conditions, climate, and available resources deter-
mine the distribution of some arthropods in the urban environ-
ment of Delhi, and for some species their abundance is limited.
Other species are broadly adapted to the resources and harbor-
ages in and around buildings, and these are cosmopolitan in their
distribution and pest status. Stable habitats with resources and
conditions suitable for long-term survival support reservoir popu-
lations of pest species, and from these habitats individuals or
groups move or are transported to establish infestations in
unstable or temporary habitats.
PERIDOMESTIC AND DOMESTIC HABITATS :
Within and around buildings, houses, and other urban struc-
tures are habitats that support individuals or populations of plants
and animals. Peridomestic habitats are outside, around the pe-
145
rimeter of structures. They include the external surfaces of
buildings, the ornamental trees, shrubs, and turf grass that
characterize the urban and suburban landscape. Domestic
habitats are indoors and include the plant and animal based
materials in this controlled, anthropogenic environment.
PERIDOMESTIC :
Harborage substrates, food resources, and environmental
conditions of urban landscapes of Delhi generally support a large
numbers. The soil-inhabiting and nesting arthropods in this envi-
ronment include ants that forage indoors and termites that damage
structural wood, ground nest bees and wasps, and occasional or
nuisance pests such as clover mites, millipedes, centipedes, and
springtails. Plant-feeding insects utilize the cultivated urban and
suburban trees and shrubs, and many are aesthetic pests. Blood
feeding mites (chiggers), ticks, mosquitoes and other biting flies
are associated with domestic and feral vertebrates. Species
utilizing building surfaces or perimeter substrates include the
umbrella wasp, hornets, yellow jackets, spiders and scorpions.
Underground sewer and storm drainage pipes provide some
cockroach and rodent species access to urban areas. The garbage
disposal network of collection, sorting, and landfill in Delhi
provide harborage and food for cockroaches, flies, rodents, and
pest birds.
Reservoir populations for many of the pest species estab-
lished in peridomestic habitats are in nearby natural or undis-
146
turbed areas. Woodland tracts and other small or large patches of
green space can support populations of biting flies, wasps and
hornets, ticks, and spiders in Delhi. Here are the populations that
provide the individuals or groups that establish or replenish
infestations in less stable habitats, or re-establish populations
lost to habitat destruction.
DOMESTIC :
Environmental conditions in NCT Delhi indoors are
generally stable and the harborages and food resources are some-
what limited. There may be few species, but those adapted to
specialized resources often occur in large numbers. Stored food,
including packaged whole food and vegetables, organic fabrics
and other materials are the most common harborates and food
resources in the domestic habitat. Directly or indirectly associ-
ated with these are dermestid beetles, flour beetles and moths,
flies and cockroaches. The distribution of domestic products and
similar storage environments has contributed to the cosmopolitan
pest status of many of these insects, in both residential and com-
mercial sites in Delhi. Blood and skin feeding species that breed
indoors are limited, but lice, fleas, bed bugs and mites are medi-
cally important pests for more than one socio-economic level of
society. Insects and other arthropods in the living space are
nuisance pest when they are few and their presence brief, but are
not tolerated when they pose a health treat or persist in large
numbers.
147
Natural habitats and populations for some domestic
species, especially those infesting sored food have been lost. Only
populations in the urban environment in NCT Delhi represent
many of these species or they survive only through their link to
humans (bed bugs, lice). Other indoor pests have reservoir popu-
lations in peridomestic and natural areas. Many of the common
species occur in the nests of bird and rodents and from there
have access to indoor habitats.
INSECT DISPERSAL AND DISTRIBUTION :
International transportation, economic exchange, and
globalization have brought a degree of uniformity to the urban
area around the world, and increased the movement and exchange
of arthropods. The majorities of household and store food pests,
including fruit flies, cockroaches, flour beetles, moths and mites,
have moved with infested commercial goods and now have
cosmopolitan distribution. Peridomestic mosquitoes, subterranean
termites and wood-infesting beetles share the same potential for
widespread distribution. Current distribution records for many
household and structural pests are subject to change with increased
movement of people and materials around the world.
Information on pest identification, biology and habits,
compiled on an international basis, is appropriate for the urban
environment. A global census indicates that nearly 2300 insects
and other arthropods have some level of pest status around the
148
world. Some are only occasional invaders of houses and other
buildings, some are closely associated with the foods, fabrics,
and other aspects of dwellings and others are linked to plants and
animals in domestic and peridomestic habitats. Many of these
species are capable of adapting to the soil conditions, climate
and building construction in other regions of the world, and
becoming established in pest populations. Regional conditions
may after some behaviors, but morphological features and the
basic life cycle will remain unchanged and control strategies are
usually transferable from region to region.
URBAN ECOSYSTEM :
Major ecosystems can be broadly classified as natural,
agricultural and urban. Urban ecosystems are primitive sites where
the interacting plant and animal communities have not been
altered by human activity. There are few, if these in the world
today, and a more practical definition of natural ecosystems might
be undisturbed habitats that have had limited human influence
and retain a portion of their original flora and fauna. An impor-
tant feature of these habitats is the populations of native plants
and animals. These are the reservoir populations of many
species that have adapted to agricultural and urban conditions.
Agricultural and urban ecosystems are defined by their use and
the degree to which their biotic and abiotic features have been
altered by human activity. These ecosystems contain few of the
features that characterize their natural origins; many of the
149
features were built or brought there, or designed by humans.
(B) URBAN SLUMS :
Delhi, capital of India, is home to about 3 million people
living in slums and it is estimated that 45% of its population lives
in unauthorized colonies, jhuggi jhompri (JJ) and urban villages.
As the UNHABITAT definition status a slum household is a group
of individuals living under the same roof in an urban area that
lack one of more of the following :
1. Durable housing of a permanent nature that protects against
extreme climate conditions.
2. Sufficient living space which means not more than three
people sharing the same roof.
3. Easy access to safe water in sufficient amounts at an
affordable price.
4. Access to adequate sanitation in the form of a private or
public toilet shared by a reasonable number of people.
5. Security of tenure that prevents forced evictions.
DEFINING THE ISSUE :
For the purpose of Census of India 2001, Slum areas broadly
constitute :
1. All specified areas notified as “slums” by state / local
government and UT administration under any act.
150
2. All areas recognized as “Slums” by State/local government
and UT administration, which may not have been formally
notified as slum under any act.
3. A compact area with a population of at least 300 or about
60-70 households of poorly built congested tenements, in
unhygienic environment usually with inadequate infrastruc-
ture and lacking in proper sanitation and drinking water
facilities.
The slum areas are those that are notified under the Slum
Improvement and Clearance Areas Act of 1956. Building and/or
areas that are considere to be unfit for human habitation may be
declared as the slum areas under section 3 of the act. As such,
they are considered to be legal structures and are eligible for
benefits under the act. The squatter or JJ cluster settlements on
the other hand are considered as encroachments on public and
private lands. They are, therefore, seen as illegal settlements.
According to the United Nations, the proportion of urban
dwellers living in slums decreased from 47 percent to 37 percent
in the developing world between 1990 and 2005. However, due
to rising population, the number of slum dwellers is rising. One
billion people worldwide live in slums and the figure will likely
to grow to 2 billion by 2030.
As India is urbanizing very fast and along with this, the
slum population is also increasing. India’s urban population is
151
increasing at a faster rate than its total population. With over 575
million people, India will have 41% of its population living in
cities and towns by 2030 from the present level of 286 million
and 28%. However, most of them do not have access to basic
facilities like drinking water and sanitation.
Because of the lack at affordable prices to different
categories of residents, various types of unplanned settlements
have come up in Delhi. According to an estimate, the population
residing in different types of settlements in 2006 was as shown in
Figure - 5.1.
Among the urban poor, the slum dwellers are the poorest.
The very definition of slums points at the acute drinking water
and sanitation crisis for the slum dwellers. A slum in India is
defined as “a cluster inside urban areas without having water and
sanitation access.”
The National Sample Survey Organization Survey conducted
in 2002 found that in 84% of the notified slums the main water
Figure - 5.1
152
source is through tap water supply. But these numbers mask
differences across the states of India. In Bihar none of the slums
get water via the tap.
In Chhattisgarh, Gujarat and Uttar Pradesh less than 35%
of slums get tap water. Nearly 44% of non-notified slums do not
have a drainage system of any type whereas only 15% of notified
slums do not have a drainage system.
A similar picture emerges in the case of latrines. Nearly
half of the non-notified slums do not have a latrine of any type. In
contrast only 17% of notified slums do not have a latrine. How-
ever, the past few years have seen significant improvements in
water and sanitation situation in slums. But, that is not a source of
solace as there is still a vast number of slum dweller to be
provided these basic facilities.
CHARACTERIZING LIFE IN SLUMS :
While studying and assessing the feasibility of any policy
it is imperative that there are certain parameters that would help
breakdown the objectives of the policies. Each of these schemes
must be compared with the current situation for slum dwellers
since from their perspective the next best option is starting a new
slum and living in the same conditions as before and thus, the
aforementioned conditions remain. Benchmarks and weightings
to these parameters must also be set before comparison of the
policy objectives so that the methodology is clear. To clearly
153
identify these parameters an understanding of the current situa-
tion and of life as slums dwellers is required. This situation can
be categorized into physical, legal, social, political and economic
characteristics of living in slums as shown in the Figure 5.2.
As can be seen, the physical characteristics of slum life
include shelter but lack a permanent residence, a house and most
of the times even space. The average population density in a shanty
town in Delhi is 3,00,000 people per square kilometer and an
average dwelling houses 6-8 people, yet measures only 6 ft. by 8
ft. Many slums have no latrine facilities, and those that do have
an average of 1 latrine serving 27 households. 1 water pump is
used by 1000 people on average and more often than not water
flows through these pumps only once a day. These low hygiene
and sanitation facilities lead to unhealthy living conditions in the
slums. This, along with illegally high rates for electricity makes
every basic need for slum dwellers is the close proximity of the
slums to most of the resident’s places of work, thus negating
transport costs or reducing it due to convenient transport stations
close by.
Moving onto the economic characteristics, we discuss prob-
ably the main reason for the existence of slums. As mentioned,
people migrate to Delhi from surrounding areas in an attempt to
find employment and improve their own and the lives of their
families. Many a time, these laborers come from their villages on
a contract but end up staying on in Delhi looking to find more
154
work here rather than in their village. Another common case is
that of those who open their own shop or work station in the slum
and operate out of there, such as the local “dhobi” (laundry man)
or tailor. Also because of lack of useable capital many of these
ventures are remain extremely small scale. From the legal aspect,
most of the slums in Delhi are unauthorized i.e. not recognized
and therefore still an illegal encroachment on state land. Because
of this, there is no security of tenure and hardly any dwellers
invest in their houses. Also, in the case that a slum is partially
recognized by the government, i.e. cases when residents before a
certain date are recognized as licensed owners of the land, there
are many hurdles to be faced by the slum dwellers before they
are finally established owners.
For social characteristics, the fact that there are many fairly
good and affordable schools is an important consideration along
with the scene of community and companionship within the slums.
And lastly, the slum dwellers, because of their large numbers,
are eyed by politicians as vote banks where they make many
promises but no one holds them to it.
POVERTY PROFILE OF DELHI :
The Planning Commission estimates the proportion and
number of poor based on the projection of minimum needs and
effective consumption. Such a projection is based on the norm of
2100 calorie per capita per day consumption for an urban area.
155
The calorie norms are invariably expressed in monetary terms
that change with respect to weighted commodity indices of the
consumer price index.
Figure 5.3 shows that the percentage of people below
poverty line (BPL) stood at 52.23% for Delhi in 1973-74. The
figure has been declining steadily to 27.89% in 1983; 16.03 in
1993-94. The percentage of people below poverty line declined
to 10.02% in 2001. Table 5.1 presents the zone wise BPL
population.
TABLE - 5.1
BELOW POVERTY LINE POPULATION
Year Rural BPL %age to Urban BPL %age topopulation Total population Total(in Lakh) (in Lakh)
1973 1.06 24.44 21.78 52.23 1983 0.44 7.66 17.95 27.89 1987 0.10 1.29 10.15 13.56 1993 0.19 1.19 15.32 16.03 2001 0.07 0.40 11.42 9.42
Source : Economic Survey Report, Govt. of Delhi, Delhi.
Figure 5.3
156
SOCIO-ECONOMIC PROFILE OF POOR :
The socio-economic profile of segment of population
categorized as poor is of strategic importance for both planning
purposes, and for managing the habitat and its environmental
up-gradation and improvement.
However, comprehensive data is not available for the whole
of Delhi, although generalization can be made on the following
parameters based on data available from the few available sur-
veys and studies. It is important to keep in perspective however
that inhabitants of LIG/ EWS areas are not homogenous segment.
(a) Income and Expenditure :
The average total monthly income, per household, ranges
from Rs. 1500-2500 among the poor. The expenditure of these
families is around 5-10% more than their incomes. The per capita
monthly income and expenditure is Rs. 245 & Rs. 423 respec-
tively. Poor households, therefore, are increasingly dependent upon
loans from the local moneylenders. The monthly income of around
25-30% households is above Rs. 1500 and around 45-50% house
holds is below Rs. 1000.
(b) Access to Housing :
Housing is a basic need of the poor. Most of the poor do
not have access to secure land tenure. 85% of the poor are squat-
ters, and are vulnerable to frequent eviction. 6% of the poor live
in rented accommodation and have to pay a substantial portion of
157
their income for rent. Most importantly, such rental quarters do
not have even basic infrastructure facilities. The quality of life
led by these people is extremely poor.
(c) Occupation Profile of Poor :
41% of these families work as casual laborers, as most of
them are unskilled. However, one-third of the poor also work in
the service sector and only 20-25% is self-employed. Therefore,
nearly 52% of the poor households do not have access to a
dependable occupation and secure incomes.
(d) Migration Status and Poor :
The employment opportunities (formal and informal) in
Delhi have attracted migrants from all over the country, particu-
larly from the backward state areas due to regional economic
imbalances. In 1961 the annual migration of low income house-
holds into Delhi were estimated to be around 70,000 and that
number has increased every year making it close to an approxi-
mate net addition of around 4 lakh settlers every year, migrating
from various parts of the country in search of livelihood. This
influx of population has resulted in an increased population of
city, pressure on civic amenities, crime, social imbalances, eco-
nomic exploitation, unplanned growth, deterioration of the city
beautification, culture etc.
(e) Access to Infrastructure :
The infrastructure facilities that have been covered are water
158
and sources of energy for the urban poor. A majority of the poor
families (47%) have access to water from community sources.
16% of the families do not have any definite source of water.
With respect to source of light, nearly 30% of the families depend
on kerosene lamps.
(f) Pavement Dwellers :
Around 1 lakh homeless people constitute another
component of the poor in Delhi. They are mostly found in the
Walled City or its surrounding areas and generally sleep on the
pavements. There are around 10 night shelters located at Azadpur,
Subzi Mandi, Paharganj, Jhandewalan, Red Fort, Old Delhi
Railway Station, Azad Market and Roshanara Road. The night
shelters operated by MCD provide accommodation to only male
dwellers.
SHELTER OPTIONS :
The poor typically inhabit unplanned or semi-planned
developments. In Delhi they are classified as :
(a) Notified slums in old walled city area;
(b) Resettlement colonies;
(c) Relocated JJ clusters or squatter settlements.
The section below describe the characteristics of these
areas.
THE OLD WALLED CITY AREA :
In Delhi, areas designated or notified as slums under the
159
act are generally located in the walled city and its adjoining
environs. There are 319 katras in the walled city area with about
3,000 buildings or properties. Out of these, 365 properties have
been identified as dangerous and therefore require resettlement
of inhabitants. In addition, there are 400 properties, which are
with the Evacuee Property Cell of Land and Building Department
of Delhi Government.
SQUATTER SETTLEMENTS/ JJ CLUSTERS :
The squatter settlements are encroachments on mainly
public land. As such these are illegal clusters (JCs) and are
devoid of any legal entitlements. However, efforts have been made
by the government to extend basic social and environmental
services to them.
LOCATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF JJ CLUSTERS :
JJ clusters are scattered all over the city. Generally they
are situated on the vacant land along railway lines, roads, drains
and river embankments and also vacant spaces near residential,
industrial and commercial complexes.
Figure 5.4
160
Figure 5.4 shows that around 55 percent of squatters are
near the residential areas and 40% along the road berms as also
shown in the complete picture in Table 5.2.
TABLE - 5.2
AREAWISE STATUS OF JJ CLUSTERS IN DELHI
Areas with Number of squatters %age to total encroachment Residential Areas 34100 55.86 Road Berms 24184 39.62 Park and open spaces 966 1.58 Schools 500 0.82 Market 1093 1.79 Railway Station 200 0.33 TOTAL 61043 100.00
Source : Sabir Ali, Environment Scenario of Delhi Slums, Centre for social Develop
ment Studies - 1998.
It is clear from Table 5.3 that around 70% of clusters have
less than 500 JJ’s. This percentage has remained constant from
1991-2001. The sharp decline in number of JJ clusters (1994-
2001) is attributed to large scale relocation of JJs since 1999.
TABLE - 5.3
SIZE WISE DISTRIBUTION OF JJ CLUSTERS
No. of JJ in 1991 1994 2001 clusters Upto 100 496 396 227 1119 101-500 311 446 295 1052 501-1000 59 121 110 290 1001-1500 30 54 37 121 1500 & above 33 63 59 155Source : (i) Slum Department, MCD Delhi; (ii) Status Report for Delhi-21, Delhi Urban
Environment and Infrastructure Improvement Project (DUEIIP), January 2001.
161
Figure 5.5 shows the size-wise distribution of JJclusters
in NCT Delhi in 2001.
AREAS WITH CONCENTRATION OF JJ CLUSTERS :
The spread of JJ clusters ranges from a plot of 0.4 acres with 8
JJs to JJcs as large as 50 acres with 10,000 households & 45000
populations. The average number of JJ per acre comes to 200
with 193 being the lowest (Najafgarh area) and 206 the highest
(Gole Market and Kalkaji areas) (Refer to Map 5.1). The
average area of JJ is 20m2. Some of the major areas with such
concentrations are given below :
(i) HIGH CONCENTRATION :
(a) Minto Road/ Gole Market/ Matia Mahal (129 clusters, 43388
JJs, 215.08 Acres) - NDMC Area.
(b) Badarpur/ Tuglaqabad/ Saket (79 clusters, 64187 JJs, 79 Acres)-
MCD area.
Figure 5.5
162
(c) Moti Nagar/ Patel Nagar/ Rajendra Nagar (72 clusters, 35,427
JJs, 175.45 Acres) - MCD Area.
(d) Jahangirpuri/ Adarsh Nagar/ Model Town/ Wazirpur (117 clus-
ters, 71538 JJs, 356 Acres) - MCD Area.
(e) Badli/ Shahbad-Daulatpur (21 clusters, 27551 JJs, 137.70 Acres)-
MCD Area.
(ii) MEDIUM CONCENTRATION :
(a) Delhi Cantonment/ Janakpuri/ Tilak Marg (17 clusters, 18,982
JJs, 95.03 Acres) - MCD Area.
(b) Biswas Nagar/ Shahdara/ Babarpur (44 clusters, 18,915 JJs, 88.91
Acres) - MCD Area.
(c) Hauzkhas. R.K. Puram (52 clusters, 14,110 JJs, 70.22 acres) -
NDMC Area.
(iii) LOW CONCENTRATION :
(a) Nazafgarh/ Nasirpur/ Palam (11 clusters, 363 JJs, 1.83 Acres) -
MCD Area.
(b) Sarojini Nagar/ Kalkaji/ Malviya Nagar/ Ambedkar Nagar/
Kasturba Marg (45 clusters, 11,802 JJs, 68.42 Acres) - NDMC
Area.
GROWTH OF SQUATTER SETTLEMENTS :
The squatter settlements or Jhuggi jhopari clusters (JJC)
assume strategic importance as far as issues of unorganized settle-
163
ments are concerned. As mentioned in Table - 5.4 in 1951 Delhi
had 12,749 jhuggi jhoparis (JJS) scattered over 199 clusters. By
1973 the number of JJS had reached 98,483 spread over 1373
clusters. The resettlement scheme pursued in 1962-77, with a
concentrated effort in 1975-77 resulted in the resettlement of 2.4
lakh JJS in different parts of Delhi. In 1977 only 20,000 JJ house-
holds had gone upto 1.13 lakhs. In 2001 the JJ clusters had declined
to (729 from 1080 in 1994) due to relocation of around 300
clusters from Gautampuri, Kingsway Camp, Ashok Vihar, AIIMS
and Hauz Khas etc.
TABLE - 5(4)
YEARWISE STATUS OF JJ CLUSTERS IN DELHI
Year JJ Clusters Jhuggi Area in PopulationHHS HA
1951 199 12749 21.1 63745
1973 1373 98483 164.1 492415
1983 534 113000 188.3 565000
1990 929 259000 431.7 1295000
1997 1100 600000 902.1 3000000
2001 728 429662 650.2 2148310
Source : Slum Deptt., Municipal Corporation of Delhi, Delhi.
LAND OWNING AGENCIES AND JJ CLUSTERS :
The land owning agencies in whose area the JJ clusters are
situated are given in Table 5.5. Eighty three percent of DDA land
is squatted on by 600 JJ clusters.
164
TABLE - 5.5
LAND OWNING AGENCIES & JJ CLUSTERS
LO Agencies NO. of Jhuggies Population Area in Acres1990 1994 1994
DDA 280988 349705 1856683 1865.93
L&Do 21530 29415 132327 149.86
Railway 12161 17346 78929 84.34
MCD 8428 11052 52045 47.29
NDMC 3226 4487 20182 22.52
Gram Sabha 4132 4360 19619 21.31
Cantonment 1570 1700 7064 7.86 Board
Source : Status Report for Delhi- 21 Delhi Urban Environment
and infrastructure Improvement Project (DUEIIP), January 2001
ACCESS TO INFRASTRUCTURE IN SLUMS/ JJ CLUSTERS:
Water and sanitation facilities, in these unorganized
colonies, particularly JJ clusters, are poor. Only 21% of colonies
are covered with piped water supply and 10% are covered by
sanitation. Table 5.6 presents a satisfactory level of infrastruc-
ture availability in unplanned settlements, but these facilities are
non- functional in around 75-80% of the settlements. The average
population served by one PSP ranges from 250-300 against the
standard of 150. Moreover, average waiting at PSP is 20-30
minutes. Around 85-90% of JJ clusters did not have even
community toilets, forcing habitants to defecate in the open near
the water bodies or drainage channels.
165
TABLE - 5.6
WATER AND SANITATION STATUS IN THEUNPLANNED SETTLEMENTS (2004)
Service provision in Piped water supply Sewer facility unplanned settlement No. % of colonies No. % of colonies
Regularized 557 98.2 458 80.7 unauthorized colonies
Resettlement colonies 44 100.0 44 100.0
JJ Clusters 158 21.7 72 9.8
Source : Slum Department, Municipal Corporation of Delhi, Delhi.
RESETTLEMENT COLONIES :
Under the schemes for resettlement of JJ clusters 47
resettlement colonies were developed during 1961-77. Around
2.0 lakh plots were developed accommodating about 2.4 lakh
households. These resettlement colonies have degenerated due to
intense population pressure and unorganized development. There-
fore investment towards up-gradation of physical infrastructure
has to be made for improving civic life.
LOCATION OF RESETTLEMENT COLONIES :
The spatial distribution of these colonies indicates that they
are proliferating mainly in the South-East, North-East, North-West,
South-West and Central parts of the NCT of Delhi. These are five
colonies in South-East, eight in North-East, fifteen in North-West,
seven in South-West and twelve in Central Delhi.
166
RELOCATION SITES :
The Map 5.2 shows that there are around 12 relocation
sites as Bhalaswa, Holambi Kalan, Pappan Kalan, Rohini, Narela,
Bakanwar, Madanpur Khadar etc. The most recent relocation has
been made to three principal sites. These are Dwarka (known
also as Pappan Kalan), Rohini, Narela and Savda Ghevara. The
main pockets from where JJ clusters were relocated are Central,
South and East Delhi areas. Thus, during 1999-2000, 3741 squat-
ter households from the JJ clusters at CGO Complex, Chankyapuri,
Kotla Mubarakpur, Andrews Ganj, Sadiq Nagar, Mahaki Sarai,
Shahdara were moved to Narela and Rohini. 27.4 acres of land
has been allotted at Molar Band for shifting of the JJ clusters at
Gautam Nagar behind AIIMS as shown in Map 5.3. In 1997-98,
DDA allocated 32 acres of land in Tehkhand Village for reloca-
tion of squatter families.
These relocation resettlement sites offer no security of
tenure to habitants who begin a new life without security, basic
services, schools and other basic amenities.
SLUM DEVELOPMENT POLICIES IN PLACE :
While evaluating the policies affecting housing for slum
dwellers we take a top down approach by first giving a brief
overview of the National Housing Policy 2007, and laid out for
Delhi’s slums by various authorities.
167
(i) NATIONAL URBAN HOUSING AND HABITAT POLICY 2007:
The National Urban Housing and Habitat Policy 2007 states
its goal as ‘affordable housing for all’ in the country. It promotes
various types of Public Private Partnerships and pays special
emphasis on the urban poor, intending to promote sustainable
development of housing in the country with a view to ensuring
equitable supply of land, shelter and services at affordable prices
to all sections of society. The policy focused on multiple stake-
holders the private sector, the cooperative sector, the industrial
sector for labor housing and the services and institutional sector
for employee housing. To attain the overarching goal of afforable
housing for all, emphasis is laid on urban planning, increasing
supply of land and use of spatial incentives like additional floor
area ratio (FAR), transferable development rights, and increased
flow of funds, effective solid waste management and use of
renewal sources of energy. Encouraging integrated townships and
special economic zones (SEZs), the policy calls for reservation
of 10-15 percent land in every new public and private housing
projects or 20-25 percent FAR whichever is greater to for EWS
and LIG housing through appropriate spatial incentives.
The private sector would be permitted assembling land
within the purview of master plans. The policy also sets action
plans for urban slum dwellers with a special package being
prepared for cooperative housing, labor housing and employees
housing. The primary choice would be to give provision of shelter
168
to urban poor at their present location or near their work place.
The role of housing and provision of basic services to the
urban poor has been integrated into the objectives of the Jawaharlal
Nehru Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM).
(ii) BASIC SERVICES TO THE URBAN POOR, JNNURM :
The Sub Mission II of the JNNURM involves Basic
Services to the Urban Poor (BSUP) including the integrated
housing and slum development programme. The objectives of the
mission are outlined as :
1. Focused attention to integrated development of Basic Services to
the urban poor in the cities covered under the mission.
2. Provision of Basic Services to Urban Poor including security of
tenure at affordable prices, improved housing, water supply,
sanitation and ensuring delivery through convergence of other
already existing universal services of the Government for Educa-
tion, health and social security care will be taken to see that the
urban poor are provided housing near their place of occupation.
3. Secure effective linkages between asset creation and asset man-
agement to that the Basic Services to the Urban Poor created in
the cities are not only maintained efficiently but also become self-
sustaining over time.
4. Ensure adequate investment of funds to fulfill deficiencies in the
Basic Services to the Urban Poor.
169
5. Scale up delivery of civic amenities and provision of utilities
with emphasis on universal access to urban poor.
The Delhi Master Plan 2021 has laid emphasis on improve-
ment of the living conditions of the 45% of Delhities living in
slums and JJ clusters in the next ten years as part of the improve-
ment in the livability of the city for its inhabitants.
(iii) THREE PRONGED APPROACH IN DELHI :
Of the settlements considered as sub-standard slum and
squatter settlements rank among the worst and it is the urban poor
that live predominantly in such settlements. The program of
squatter clearance was discontinued at the end of sixth plan (from
1985). Accordingly no major settlement program was carried out
until 1992 when a Revised Resettlement Policy was formulated
by the DDA. This did not mean that there were no resettlement
works in progress. The general policy adopted by the govern-
ment since then it twofold. One is that no fresh encroachments
shall be permitted on public land and the second is that past
encroachments (those in existence till 30.01.1990) would not be
removed without providing alternatives.
Squatter settlements are to be found throughout the city but
especially on the vacant land along railway lines, roads, drains,
river embankments, and around resettlement colonies. The strat-
egy of the government towards slums/ squatter settlements has
been mainly of clearance.
170
In recent years, however, there have been some changes in
the attitude and strategies. Since 1991 three strategies have been
used in Delhi, which are as follows :
1. Improvement of the slum environment.
2. Relocation of the slums
3. In situ-up-gradation and rehabilitation.
(iv) IMPROVEMENT OF THE SLUM ENVIRONMENT :
Since 1987, in JJ clusters and notified slums which are not
being relocated or developed with the in situ approach, basic
urban services and amenities are being provided under ‘Envi-
ronmental improvement in urban slum scheme’. The facilities are
extended to all JJ clusters even those that developed after 1990.
The facilities being provided under the scheme are :
1. Pay and use Jan Suvidha Complexes containing toilets and bath-
rooms at the community level or the provision of mobile toilet,
vans in all those JJ clusters where the Jan Suvidha Complex can
not be provided.
2. Water supply either through water hydrants, hand pipes or water
tanker.
3. Street lighting.
4. Dusbins for collection of domestic waste.
5. Paved pathways and drains.
171
(v) RELOCATION OF SLUMS :
Jhuggi Jhopri resettlement, relocation scheme was started
in the Union Territory of Delhi for the rehousing of squatters on
government and private lands in 1960. The scheme began with
the allotment of two room tenements to 3,560 JJ households.
Subsequently, partially developed plots of 80 square yards were
allotted under the scheme to the squatters on a nominal rent.
However, due to demand of land in Delhi and the fact that the
allotment procedure was misused, size of plots was reduced to
40 square meters and then 25 square meters. Under the present
situation, Relocation is carried out for only those JJ clusters and
slums that are required by the land owning agency for public
interest projects.
Since the inception of the scheme with effect from 1990-
1991, so far about 70,000 plots have been developed and about
60,000 families have been rehabilitated at Dwarka, Rohini, Narela,
Bawana, Holambi, Molar Band, Madanpur Khaddar & Sawda
Ghevre keeping in view the scarcity of land in Delhi and as per
the directions of the Delhi Government and Government of India.
The Delhi Government has formulated a new policy for the
resettlement of squatter families in Delhi. Under the new policy,
Delhi Government has proposed to provide built up flats instead
of plots to the slum dwellers, economically weaker sections
under the Rajiv Awas Yojna, JNNURM. Under this scheme, the
Delhi Government aims to provide 4 lakh flats by 2012.
172
(vi) IN SITU UP-GRADATION AND REHABILITATION :
There has been a general shift in the approach to slum and
JJ clusters in recent years. The emphasis is now on the improve-
ment of the environment of the JJ cluster and their in situ rehabili-
tation wherever possible. The in situ up gradation is undertaken
after the area has been notified as a slum area under the Slum
Area Act of 1956. The scheme involves replanning of JJ dwell-
ing units in modified layout by redistributing the encroached land
pockets amongst the squatter families. The JJ households are given
sites of 10 to 12.5 square meters for construction of their own
shelters. The housing plots are generally designed in a cluster
around open courtyards. The beneficiary constructs the shelter
under a self help approach with technical extension services
provided by the slum and JJ department of the MCD. So far 5,583
families have been rehabilitated at Prayog Vihar, Ekta Vihar, Shanti
Vihar and Shahbad Daulatpur Phase I. The implementation of the
in situ- up-gradation is very poor due to non availability of the
Notice of Consent from the concerned land owning agency. A
new policy of in situ slum up grading also suggests, as in the case
of relocation, the provision of developed flats on the same
location instead of plots for the slum dwellers.
The Delhi Development Authority (DDA) decided to take
up in situ development towards rehabilitation of slum dwelling
units of about 25 square meters will be about 47,500. These will
be taken up on public- private partnership model in which the
173
land occupied by slum dwellers will be made available to de-
velopers, who will construct houses in accordance with the num-
bers identified by the DDA. These houses will be constructed in
same parts of the area while in the remaining areas the developer
will be allowed to carry out commercial exploitation of the land.
This would enable the developer to spill over some of the costs
from building the rehabilitation units to the commercial activity,
thereby reducing the burden on the slum dwellers as well. This
mixed development allows them to get the cross subsidy by way
of targeting two different segments of society.
This model is being applied at the kathputli colony where
residents will have access to 12 storeyed buildings in which the
ground floors will be devoted to promoting artistic and commer-
cial enterprise since most of the residents are puppeteers, crafts-
men or musicians. The constructions will house 2,800 dwelling
units meant for the colony’s residents. The site will also boast of
a separate 2.1 acre commercial space to be developed by private
developers and “high-category residential apartmentments” in 2.4
acres which will help boost the earning of artisans and crafts-
men, according to the DDA’s plans.
In the scheme, modeled on Mumbai’s slum rehabilitation
programme, private players will join hands with the government
and the work of clearing the slums would proceed in phases.
Since residents will be resettled, tents will be pitched to provide
174
temporary accommodation to the people till the project is
completed.
(vii) DRAFT NATIONAL SLUM POLICY 2001 :
Another more specific, policy the “draft” National Slum
Policy is yet to be ratified by the government. The draft National
Slum Policy envisages cities without slums. Towards fulfillment
of this vision, the policy adopts an approach of in situ up gradation
and improvement. It recommends clearance only in exceptional
circumstances. It, therefore, talks of urban growth with equity
and justice and makes plea for greater participation of communi-
ties and civil society in all areas of planning, capacity building
and development. Correspondingly it proposes a series of
interventions with regards to definitions, tenure, planning,
economic empowerment, governance and management, shelter up
gradation etc.
The governing principal of the Draft National Slum Policy
are as follows :
1. The endorsement of an upgrading and improvement approach in
all slums, and the acceptance of the necessity of slum clearance
in an extremely defined circumstances.
2. Recognition that households in all urban informal settlements
should have access to certain basic minimum services, irrespec-
tive of land tenure or occupancy status.
175
3. The goal that planning in all cities should have the objective of
creating cities without slums.
4. The objective of ensuring that urban growth takes place with
equity and distributive justice.
5. The intention that urban local bodies should work in collabora-
tion with all other stakeholders to enhance the impact of slum
development through building the capacities of the poor and
empowering them to improve their own living conditions.
6. The adoption of a more “enabling” approach to the delivery of
basic social services to the poor as a result of more effective
mobilization of community resources and skills to complement
public resource allocations.
7. A greater participation of communities and civil society in all
areas of planning, capacity building and development.
The draft policy is however silent over the ways in which
such goals could be realized. Also, the definition of all under
served serviced lands as slums will hinder and deny the most
needy and vulnerable from having access to resources for up-
gradation and improvement.
POLICY COMPARISON :
A comparative study of these policies and schemes can now
be undertaken, based on the parameters discussed earlier. The
National Urban Housing and Habitat Policy 2007 seems to be a
176
step in the right direction, with focus on affordable housing,
public private partnerships (PPP), sustainable development of
housing in the country, special package being prepared for
cooperative housing, labor housing and employees housing and
prioritizing houses for the urban poor at their present location or
near their work place using the in- situ slum rehabilitation
approach. Using the parameters as tools for analysis we see that
with PPPs and the in situ rehabilitation approach, affordable
housing for slum dwellers at their present location is an option.
This enables them to earn their livelihood just as they did before,
in the slums. The security of tenure objective is also achieved
through the policy. Only the characteristics of housing provided
remains questionable. The quality of houses, its cost and the
allocation can be a hindrance to the residents. Sometimes the
costs are too high for them and at other times the quality of the
houses is compromised. Under the JNNURM, the improved quality
of housing is specifically included and allocation is said to be on
the basis of need (determined through income). As is the case
with both the relocation and the in situ rehabilitation policy, any
worker whose source of livelihood is within the slums (dhobi,
tailor etc.) might be compromised unless there is specific
mention of a workstation being supplied. Thus this would be a
violation of the first parameter and the people affected by this
would prefer to stay in some other slum again. This vary case
would be an important characteristic of the third approach of
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improvement of the slum environment or up- gradation. The
livelihoods of the residents are maintained even though the slum,
not lacking basic facilities but still an unplanned part of the city,
still exists. The draft national slum policy outlines its objectives
but has not clearly defined how these objectives will be met and
therefore no analysis on the basis of parameters and incentives
for residents can be undertaken. Thus, as is the case with most of
the policies in India, each of these policies, schemes and
approaches looks impeccable on paper but the ground realities
of these projects are often very different from what is claimed
and therefore it is necessary that a follow up mechanism be
incorporated into each of the policies to ensure their efficiency.
(C) URBAN GARBAGE GROUNDS :
Various human processes produce waste. Disposing waste
products is major global problem since last many decades.
Landfill is considered as the primitive way to organized waste
dumping in various parts of earth. It is a method of removing the
refuse on land without creating a hazard to public health or safety.
Landfills may consist of domestic waste dumping sites as well as
sites utilized by several manufacturers. This method is also
adopted for other waste management tasks for example the
momentary storage, consolidation and relocation, or meting out
of waste substance such as sorting, treatment, or recycling. The
landfill is supportive process of waste diminution and has a key
role in resource revival. A landfill also denotes the practice in
178
which ground has been packed in with soil and rocks as an alter-
native of garbage which solves many important purposes such as
for building construction.
Landfill is emerged as the most practicable ecological
substitute for the specific waste removal in various countries.
Today government priority is to set up a waste policy by
applying the ideology in order to deal with environmental risks,
the economic and health dangers of resource degradation. These
strategies are basically planned to maintain landfill practices
which will stabilize the landfill sites in present generation. The
main intent of waste organization is to deal with the garbage
produced by existing generation and do not switch over waste
related harms to next generation. The Landfill Directive is
committed to raise standards and lessen harmful consequences
on the surroundings, groundwater, surface waters, soil, and
restrictions on the universal impact of waste dumping. For
commercial purpose, a landfill technique must meet definite
requirements, which are linked to many important factors. The
first factor is the location. Landfill must have easy access to
transportation via road. It must have stability such as fundamen-
tal geology, earthquake faults, water table. Another factor is
capacity. The existing annulled space must be planned by assess-
ment of the landform with a proposed re-establishment profile.
This computation of capacity is based on density of the wastes,
amount of intermediate and daily cover, and amount of settle-
179
ment. Landfill must have protection of soil and water through
installation of inside layer and collection systems. To handle speci-
fied harmless waste landfills such method must be applied through
which the trash are cramped to small area, compressed to decrease
their quantity, enclosed with layers of soil. Completely lined
landfills reinstate the previous one, unlined deposits that were
earlier used. In the operation of landfill, the garbage collection
trucks are weighed at entrance and their load is checked for wastes.
Then, these vehicles drop their load. After loads are dumped,
compactors or dozers spread and compressed the waste on the
operational field. This flattened waste is enclosed with soil
every day. Other waste wrap materials are sprayed on froth
products and transitory mantles. These mantles can be elevated
into place with tracked excavators and then detatched the next
day proceeding to waste placement. Chipped wood and chemi-
cally ‘fixed’ bio-solids are the substitute cover. Since the 20th
century, population is exploding speedily in developed areas; it
is a need of an hour to implement land reprocesses tractics for
completed landfills. The common usages are parks, golf courses.
Office buildings and industrial uses are made of a completed
landfill. Many steps are taken to disperse garbage produced
through communities, Industry and other establishments. At the
end of 20th century, different methods to waste removal to land-
fill and burning have started. The apparent substitutes to landfills
are waste reduction and recycling policies. Incineration is the
180
most effectual technique of plummeting volume and weight of
solid waste by burning in a well designed furnace.
Landfill reclamation is one of the control measures to check
spoilage of landscape. It is the burning of landfill garbage at high
temperature via the plasma-arc gasification procedure. Another
important way to deal with solid waste is composing by which
the organic components of solid waste are biologically decom-
posed under controlled aerobic conditions. In this method,
plastics, rubber and leather are separated from the solid waste
and the remaining organic matter is decomposed aerobically or
an aerobically to end product called compost. Anaerobic
digestion, mechanical biological treatment, pyrolysis and gasifi-
cation have all started to establish themselves in the marketplace.
Optional waste disposal technology is quite expensive than
landfill and mass burn incineration is the sole technology for mixed
waste. India is working to develop clean energy sources that can
yield considerable economic, environmental and health benefits
for people. Methane emissions from the solid waste sector in
India are projected to increase significantly over the next 15 years.
Reusing landfill methane gas for energy purposes has the poten-
tial to mitigate 5.5 million metric tons of carbon dioxide equiva-
lents, which is equal to the annual emissions from one million
vehicles. Currently, there are no operational landfill gas-to-
energy projects in India but several large sites in Delhi, Mumbai
and other cities could support the clean energy projects.
181
Basically, a landfill is a large area of land or an excavated
site that is a carefully designed structure built into or on top of the
ground. The rubbish collected at the landfill is isolated from the
surrounding environment with a bottom liner and a daily cover-
ing of soil. Though the modern landfill practices are technically
sound but still these proven techniques sometimes fail to meet
challenges. These practices require further precision to secure
public areas. Appropriate removal practices should be adopted
to control environmental contamination. These practices include-
All loads must be alienated when unloading in selected area.
Domestic refuse and small things should be kept in the dustbin.
Removal should be permitted exterior the landfill entrance and
video watch is carried out.
SOLID WASTE GENERATION IN NCT DELHI :
The problem of solid waste management in Delhi is as-
suming serious proportions due to increasing population, urban-
ization, changing lifestyles and consumption patterns. There are
24 existing landfill sites for waste management in NCT Delhi
from 16 are filled up, 4 are in operation and other 4 are newly
operated as shown in Map 5.4. The garbage from unauthorized
developments, slums, JJ settlements, etc. is not collected which
further adds to the environmental degradation. The projected
average garbage generation upto the year 2021 is @ 0.68 kg. per
capita per day and total quantum of solid waste is 15750 tonnes/
day as given in Table - 5.7.
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TABLE - 5.7
QUANTUM OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE(TONNES / DAY)
Local body area Existing Capacity Projected generation
2001 for 2021
MCD 5250 15100
NDMC 245 550
Cantonment 48 100
TOTAL 5543 15750
Management of solid waste involves waste generation,
segregation and storage; waste collection; waste transfer/ trans-
portation treatment, recycle reuse, recovery; and disposal. For
effective waste management, its segregation at the community and
neighbourhood level is imperative. The waste shall be segre-
gated and collected, in separate chambers at dalaos. For this,
involvement of rag pickers with RWAs, CBOs and NGOs is to be
encouraged.
The projected composition of municipal waste for the plan
period is estimated as given in table - 5.8 for biodegradable and
recyclable waste which is segregated at the source, decentral-
ized treatment at neighbourhood level may be adopted, while for
silt, centralized treatment may be followed.
The other type of specialized waste includes biomedical
waste; hazardous waste from industries; construction debris and
fly ash; meat processing centre etc. Disposal of bio-medical waste
183
is to be as per bio-medical waste rules and hazardous waste
requires special handling rules. Proper dumping, recycling and
reuse of construction debris and fly ash have to be linked. Meat
processing centre waste is to be recycled for chicken feed etc.
TABLE - 5.8
PROJECTED COMPOSITION OFTOTAL MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE FOR 2021
Constituents Quantum (in tons) Percentage to totalwaste
Bio- degradable 6000 38
Silt 6000 38
Recyclable 3750 24
TOTAL 15750 100
Notes :(i) Above figures are based on Report on Solid Waste Management in Delhi
conducted by NEERI, Nagpur through DDA;(ii) Figures of MCD are based on Feasibility study in Master Plan for optimal
waste Treatment & Disposal for the entire state of Delhi, June, 2004, by COWIConsultants appointed by MCD.
Considering the nature of solid waste and the economic
aspects of its disposal, major part of solid waste especially silt
has to be disposed off in sanitary landfills. But wherever recy-
cling is possible, it should be preferred than disposing off the
waste in sanitary landfill sites. More viable alternatives to land-
fills are vermiculture, fossilization, composting etc. Waste Mini-
mization Circles (WMCs) should be constituted and made effec-
tive. Implementation and monitoring & Bio-Medical Wastes (Han-
dling & Management) Rules, 1998, for hospitals, nursing homes,
184
and clinics should be taken up. The sites, which are filled up or
are in operation, given in Table - 5.9. The filled up sites may be
reuse for plantation or as recreational area. The proposed sites
for sanitary landfill and compost plants are to be finalized by
MCD. The Map 5.5 shows the area of existing and proposed
landfill sites.
Keeping in view the fact that finding new sanitary landfill
sites in Delhi is becoming extremely difficult there is no option,
as shown by the Map 5.5 & 5.6 but to resort to alternative and
decentralized methods of waste treatment, reduction, recycle and
use, which include vermiculture, fossilization and composting.
TABLE - 5.9
EXISTING LANDFILL SITES FORWASTE MANAGEMENT
S.N. Location Area (in ha.) Remarks
1. Kailash Nagar, East Delhi 1.8 Filled up
2. Tilak Nagar 16.0 Filled up
3. Subroto Park - Filled up
4. Purana Quila/ Bharion Road 2.7 Filled up
5. Timar Pur 16.0 Filled up
6. Sarai Kale Khan 24.0 Filled up
7. Gopal Pur 4.0 Filled up
8. Chhater Pur 1.7 Filled up
9. S.G.T. Nagar 14.4 Filled up
10. I.P. Depot 1.8 Filled up
11. Sunder Nagar 2.8 Filled up
12. Tuglakabad Ext. 2.4 Filled up
185
13. Haiderpur 1.6 Filled up
14. Mandawali Fazilpur 2.8 --
15. Rohini Phase III 4.8 --
16. Near Hastsal Village in West Delhi 9.6 Filled up
17. Site near Gazipur Dairy Farm 28.0 In Operation
18. Site near Jhangirpur/ Bhalswa 16.0 In Operation
19. Okhla Phase I 12.8 In Operation
20. Crossing on G.T. Karnal Road 3.2 In Operation
21. Jaitpur/ Tajpur 9.84 New
22. Near Puthkhurd 55.0 New
23. Bhawana to Narela Road 28.0 New
24. Sultanpur Dabas (Bawana) 16.0 New
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT :
The dumping of solid waste on land is the cause of follow-
ing problems :
(a) WATER POLLUTION :
Toxic liquid (leachate) that flows from the dumped waste
seeps into surface and groundwater and contaminates postable
water.
(b) SOIL POLLUTION :
Toxins seep into the soil and surrounding vegetation, and
move into the food chain through fruits and vegetables grown in
the area.
(c) DUM FIRES :
When waste decomposes, inflammable methane is released
186
which can result in explosion. The smoke released is also highly
toxic for inhalation and contributes to global warming.
(d) SOURCE OF DISEASE :
Dumpsites breed flies, rodents, and pests, which spread
diseases.
(e) OTHER IMPACTS :
Foul smell, visual ugliness, and bird menace which can be
a hazard to airplanes.
CONCLUSION :
The primary goal of any solid waste management system is
to safeguard the health of the citizens and protect the environ-
ment. This is achieved by ensuring proper collection, transporta-
tion, treatment and finally, safe disposal of waste. However, the
last step is missing in most solid waste management systems
implemented in the country.
REFERENCES :
* Gita Dewan Verma (2002): ‘Slumming India—A Chronicle of
Slums and Their Saviours’. Penguin Books, India.
* Voluntary Health Association of India (1993). ‘Delhi—A Tale of
Two Cities’. 40, Qutab Institutional Area, New Delhi.
* Sabir Ali (1991). ‘Slums Within Slums’. Vikas Publications, New
Delhi.
187
* Supriti, Barnhardt S. and Ramanathan R. 2002. Urban Poverty
Alleviation in India : A General Assessment and a Particular
Perspective; Bangalore : Ramanathan foundation.
* Subramaniam. 2003. Inequalities in health in India : The Method-
ological construction of indices and measures- Draft report,
Department of health and social behavior, Harvard School of
Public Health.
* Carmines EG, Zeller RA. 1991. Reliability and Validity assess-
ment. Newbury Park : Sage Publications.
* WHO and UNICEF, 2000 : Global Water Supply and Sanitation
Assessment 2000 Report. WHO and UNICEF.
* GNCT. 2006. Delhi Human Development Report 2006. New
Delhi: Oxford University Press.
* Banerji, Manjistha, Provision of Basic Services in the Slums and
Resettlement Colonies of Delhi, Ensuring public accountability
through community action 2005, Institute of Social Studies Trust,
New Delhi.
* Verma, G.D. (2002), Slumming India : A chronicle of slums and
their saviours, Penguin Books India, Delhi.
—:: O ::—
CHAPTER - 5
CIVIC AMENITIES ANDHEALTH HAZARDS
(A) URBAN BORN INSECTS :
Insects and related arthropods of importance in the urban
environment are broadly covered under the auspices of urban
entomology. Most arthropods in human environments go unno-
ticed. However, some species post significant problems because
they directly affect the health of humans or their domesticated
animals, attack human structures, foods, goods, materials, or plants
that adorn urban settings.
A relatively small number of insect species have been
intentionally introduced into the urban environment. Examples
include the gupsy moth, Lymantria dispar that was intentionally
introduced into Massachustts in 1868. It is highly probable also
that the Asian Lady Beetle, Harmonia axyridis, was intentionally
introduced in 1980s. Many pest species have been accidentally
introduced with human commerce and travel. Some invasive
species have adapted themselves to disturbed human habitats and
have rapidly spread world wide via commerce and human travel.
The German cockroach Blattella germanica, is an excellent
example of such a species. It is rarely found outdoors, preferring
heated and controlled environments typically associated with
human food preparation. Probably native to Eastern Asia, it spread
143
throughout the Eastern Mediterranean Region by Greek or
Phoenician Vessels. It remained in Southern Russia until after the
Thirty years war (1618-1648) spreading into Europe and finally
becoming established in restaurants and other food handling
establishments in the rapid modernization of China.
With the increasing rate of urbanization in NCT Delhi,
problems associated with arthropod pests in urban centers will
continue to grow. In 1951, about 14.37 lac people (82.4%) lived
in urban areas. At the turn of the twenty-first century, this had
increased to greater than 129 lac people (93.18%) in Delhi. By
the year 2021, it is estimated that there will be greater than 230
lac people living in urban areas. The most dramatic increases in
urbanization and challenges in Delhi will occur in development;
the complex of urban invasive species will likely spread to these
urban centers, or attain the problem status now associated with
more developed countries. Many of these countries and develop-
ing urban centres exist in areas endemic to arthropod vector
borne diseases such as malaria, dengue, encephalitis, yellow fe-
ver, and plague the importance of urban and medical entomology
in tropical urban centers will increase in the future.
The urban environment in NCT Delhi is a complex of
habitats developed by human from natural sites. Houses, villages,
towns, cities, buildings, roads and other features that characterize
the urban environment in Delhi have gradually and irrecoverably
changed the landscape of natural and agricultural areas. As a part
144
of this change, some habitats and their associated plants and
animal communities were eliminated, while others were expanded
and new ones were created. Many of the new habitats were
intentional - parks, waterways, street trees, turf grass, food stores
but some were consequential- standing water in road side ditches,
garbage and landfill sites near residential neighbourhoods, the
underground sewer and storm drain network in urban and
suburban areas of Delhi. They all provided habitats for a select
group of insects and other arthropods, some of which attained
pest status.
Local conditions, climate, and available resources deter-
mine the distribution of some arthropods in the urban environ-
ment of Delhi, and for some species their abundance is limited.
Other species are broadly adapted to the resources and harbor-
ages in and around buildings, and these are cosmopolitan in their
distribution and pest status. Stable habitats with resources and
conditions suitable for long-term survival support reservoir popu-
lations of pest species, and from these habitats individuals or
groups move or are transported to establish infestations in
unstable or temporary habitats.
PERIDOMESTIC AND DOMESTIC HABITATS :
Within and around buildings, houses, and other urban struc-
tures are habitats that support individuals or populations of plants
and animals. Peridomestic habitats are outside, around the pe-
145
rimeter of structures. They include the external surfaces of
buildings, the ornamental trees, shrubs, and turf grass that
characterize the urban and suburban landscape. Domestic
habitats are indoors and include the plant and animal based
materials in this controlled, anthropogenic environment.
PERIDOMESTIC :
Harborage substrates, food resources, and environmental
conditions of urban landscapes of Delhi generally support a large
numbers. The soil-inhabiting and nesting arthropods in this envi-
ronment include ants that forage indoors and termites that damage
structural wood, ground nest bees and wasps, and occasional or
nuisance pests such as clover mites, millipedes, centipedes, and
springtails. Plant-feeding insects utilize the cultivated urban and
suburban trees and shrubs, and many are aesthetic pests. Blood
feeding mites (chiggers), ticks, mosquitoes and other biting flies
are associated with domestic and feral vertebrates. Species
utilizing building surfaces or perimeter substrates include the
umbrella wasp, hornets, yellow jackets, spiders and scorpions.
Underground sewer and storm drainage pipes provide some
cockroach and rodent species access to urban areas. The garbage
disposal network of collection, sorting, and landfill in Delhi
provide harborage and food for cockroaches, flies, rodents, and
pest birds.
Reservoir populations for many of the pest species estab-
lished in peridomestic habitats are in nearby natural or undis-
146
turbed areas. Woodland tracts and other small or large patches of
green space can support populations of biting flies, wasps and
hornets, ticks, and spiders in Delhi. Here are the populations that
provide the individuals or groups that establish or replenish
infestations in less stable habitats, or re-establish populations
lost to habitat destruction.
DOMESTIC :
Environmental conditions in NCT Delhi indoors are
generally stable and the harborages and food resources are some-
what limited. There may be few species, but those adapted to
specialized resources often occur in large numbers. Stored food,
including packaged whole food and vegetables, organic fabrics
and other materials are the most common harborates and food
resources in the domestic habitat. Directly or indirectly associ-
ated with these are dermestid beetles, flour beetles and moths,
flies and cockroaches. The distribution of domestic products and
similar storage environments has contributed to the cosmopolitan
pest status of many of these insects, in both residential and com-
mercial sites in Delhi. Blood and skin feeding species that breed
indoors are limited, but lice, fleas, bed bugs and mites are medi-
cally important pests for more than one socio-economic level of
society. Insects and other arthropods in the living space are
nuisance pest when they are few and their presence brief, but are
not tolerated when they pose a health treat or persist in large
numbers.
147
Natural habitats and populations for some domestic
species, especially those infesting sored food have been lost. Only
populations in the urban environment in NCT Delhi represent
many of these species or they survive only through their link to
humans (bed bugs, lice). Other indoor pests have reservoir popu-
lations in peridomestic and natural areas. Many of the common
species occur in the nests of bird and rodents and from there
have access to indoor habitats.
INSECT DISPERSAL AND DISTRIBUTION :
International transportation, economic exchange, and
globalization have brought a degree of uniformity to the urban
area around the world, and increased the movement and exchange
of arthropods. The majorities of household and store food pests,
including fruit flies, cockroaches, flour beetles, moths and mites,
have moved with infested commercial goods and now have
cosmopolitan distribution. Peridomestic mosquitoes, subterranean
termites and wood-infesting beetles share the same potential for
widespread distribution. Current distribution records for many
household and structural pests are subject to change with increased
movement of people and materials around the world.
Information on pest identification, biology and habits,
compiled on an international basis, is appropriate for the urban
environment. A global census indicates that nearly 2300 insects
and other arthropods have some level of pest status around the
148
world. Some are only occasional invaders of houses and other
buildings, some are closely associated with the foods, fabrics,
and other aspects of dwellings and others are linked to plants and
animals in domestic and peridomestic habitats. Many of these
species are capable of adapting to the soil conditions, climate
and building construction in other regions of the world, and
becoming established in pest populations. Regional conditions
may after some behaviors, but morphological features and the
basic life cycle will remain unchanged and control strategies are
usually transferable from region to region.
URBAN ECOSYSTEM :
Major ecosystems can be broadly classified as natural,
agricultural and urban. Urban ecosystems are primitive sites where
the interacting plant and animal communities have not been
altered by human activity. There are few, if these in the world
today, and a more practical definition of natural ecosystems might
be undisturbed habitats that have had limited human influence
and retain a portion of their original flora and fauna. An impor-
tant feature of these habitats is the populations of native plants
and animals. These are the reservoir populations of many
species that have adapted to agricultural and urban conditions.
Agricultural and urban ecosystems are defined by their use and
the degree to which their biotic and abiotic features have been
altered by human activity. These ecosystems contain few of the
features that characterize their natural origins; many of the
149
features were built or brought there, or designed by humans.
(B) URBAN SLUMS :
Delhi, capital of India, is home to about 3 million people
living in slums and it is estimated that 45% of its population lives
in unauthorized colonies, jhuggi jhompri (JJ) and urban villages.
As the UNHABITAT definition status a slum household is a group
of individuals living under the same roof in an urban area that
lack one of more of the following :
1. Durable housing of a permanent nature that protects against
extreme climate conditions.
2. Sufficient living space which means not more than three
people sharing the same roof.
3. Easy access to safe water in sufficient amounts at an
affordable price.
4. Access to adequate sanitation in the form of a private or
public toilet shared by a reasonable number of people.
5. Security of tenure that prevents forced evictions.
DEFINING THE ISSUE :
For the purpose of Census of India 2001, Slum areas broadly
constitute :
1. All specified areas notified as “slums” by state / local
government and UT administration under any act.
150
2. All areas recognized as “Slums” by State/local government
and UT administration, which may not have been formally
notified as slum under any act.
3. A compact area with a population of at least 300 or about
60-70 households of poorly built congested tenements, in
unhygienic environment usually with inadequate infrastruc-
ture and lacking in proper sanitation and drinking water
facilities.
The slum areas are those that are notified under the Slum
Improvement and Clearance Areas Act of 1956. Building and/or
areas that are considere to be unfit for human habitation may be
declared as the slum areas under section 3 of the act. As such,
they are considered to be legal structures and are eligible for
benefits under the act. The squatter or JJ cluster settlements on
the other hand are considered as encroachments on public and
private lands. They are, therefore, seen as illegal settlements.
According to the United Nations, the proportion of urban
dwellers living in slums decreased from 47 percent to 37 percent
in the developing world between 1990 and 2005. However, due
to rising population, the number of slum dwellers is rising. One
billion people worldwide live in slums and the figure will likely
to grow to 2 billion by 2030.
As India is urbanizing very fast and along with this, the
slum population is also increasing. India’s urban population is
151
increasing at a faster rate than its total population. With over 575
million people, India will have 41% of its population living in
cities and towns by 2030 from the present level of 286 million
and 28%. However, most of them do not have access to basic
facilities like drinking water and sanitation.
Because of the lack at affordable prices to different
categories of residents, various types of unplanned settlements
have come up in Delhi. According to an estimate, the population
residing in different types of settlements in 2006 was as shown in
Figure - 5.1.
Among the urban poor, the slum dwellers are the poorest.
The very definition of slums points at the acute drinking water
and sanitation crisis for the slum dwellers. A slum in India is
defined as “a cluster inside urban areas without having water and
sanitation access.”
The National Sample Survey Organization Survey conducted
in 2002 found that in 84% of the notified slums the main water
Figure - 5.1
152
source is through tap water supply. But these numbers mask
differences across the states of India. In Bihar none of the slums
get water via the tap.
In Chhattisgarh, Gujarat and Uttar Pradesh less than 35%
of slums get tap water. Nearly 44% of non-notified slums do not
have a drainage system of any type whereas only 15% of notified
slums do not have a drainage system.
A similar picture emerges in the case of latrines. Nearly
half of the non-notified slums do not have a latrine of any type. In
contrast only 17% of notified slums do not have a latrine. How-
ever, the past few years have seen significant improvements in
water and sanitation situation in slums. But, that is not a source of
solace as there is still a vast number of slum dweller to be
provided these basic facilities.
CHARACTERIZING LIFE IN SLUMS :
While studying and assessing the feasibility of any policy
it is imperative that there are certain parameters that would help
breakdown the objectives of the policies. Each of these schemes
must be compared with the current situation for slum dwellers
since from their perspective the next best option is starting a new
slum and living in the same conditions as before and thus, the
aforementioned conditions remain. Benchmarks and weightings
to these parameters must also be set before comparison of the
policy objectives so that the methodology is clear. To clearly
153
identify these parameters an understanding of the current situa-
tion and of life as slums dwellers is required. This situation can
be categorized into physical, legal, social, political and economic
characteristics of living in slums as shown in the Figure 5.2.
As can be seen, the physical characteristics of slum life
include shelter but lack a permanent residence, a house and most
of the times even space. The average population density in a shanty
town in Delhi is 3,00,000 people per square kilometer and an
average dwelling houses 6-8 people, yet measures only 6 ft. by 8
ft. Many slums have no latrine facilities, and those that do have
an average of 1 latrine serving 27 households. 1 water pump is
used by 1000 people on average and more often than not water
flows through these pumps only once a day. These low hygiene
and sanitation facilities lead to unhealthy living conditions in the
slums. This, along with illegally high rates for electricity makes
every basic need for slum dwellers is the close proximity of the
slums to most of the resident’s places of work, thus negating
transport costs or reducing it due to convenient transport stations
close by.
Moving onto the economic characteristics, we discuss prob-
ably the main reason for the existence of slums. As mentioned,
people migrate to Delhi from surrounding areas in an attempt to
find employment and improve their own and the lives of their
families. Many a time, these laborers come from their villages on
a contract but end up staying on in Delhi looking to find more
154
work here rather than in their village. Another common case is
that of those who open their own shop or work station in the slum
and operate out of there, such as the local “dhobi” (laundry man)
or tailor. Also because of lack of useable capital many of these
ventures are remain extremely small scale. From the legal aspect,
most of the slums in Delhi are unauthorized i.e. not recognized
and therefore still an illegal encroachment on state land. Because
of this, there is no security of tenure and hardly any dwellers
invest in their houses. Also, in the case that a slum is partially
recognized by the government, i.e. cases when residents before a
certain date are recognized as licensed owners of the land, there
are many hurdles to be faced by the slum dwellers before they
are finally established owners.
For social characteristics, the fact that there are many fairly
good and affordable schools is an important consideration along
with the scene of community and companionship within the slums.
And lastly, the slum dwellers, because of their large numbers,
are eyed by politicians as vote banks where they make many
promises but no one holds them to it.
POVERTY PROFILE OF DELHI :
The Planning Commission estimates the proportion and
number of poor based on the projection of minimum needs and
effective consumption. Such a projection is based on the norm of
2100 calorie per capita per day consumption for an urban area.
155
The calorie norms are invariably expressed in monetary terms
that change with respect to weighted commodity indices of the
consumer price index.
Figure 5.3 shows that the percentage of people below
poverty line (BPL) stood at 52.23% for Delhi in 1973-74. The
figure has been declining steadily to 27.89% in 1983; 16.03 in
1993-94. The percentage of people below poverty line declined
to 10.02% in 2001. Table 5.1 presents the zone wise BPL
population.
TABLE - 5.1
BELOW POVERTY LINE POPULATION
Year Rural BPL %age to Urban BPL %age topopulation Total population Total(in Lakh) (in Lakh)
1973 1.06 24.44 21.78 52.23 1983 0.44 7.66 17.95 27.89 1987 0.10 1.29 10.15 13.56 1993 0.19 1.19 15.32 16.03 2001 0.07 0.40 11.42 9.42
Source : Economic Survey Report, Govt. of Delhi, Delhi.
Figure 5.3
156
SOCIO-ECONOMIC PROFILE OF POOR :
The socio-economic profile of segment of population
categorized as poor is of strategic importance for both planning
purposes, and for managing the habitat and its environmental
up-gradation and improvement.
However, comprehensive data is not available for the whole
of Delhi, although generalization can be made on the following
parameters based on data available from the few available sur-
veys and studies. It is important to keep in perspective however
that inhabitants of LIG/ EWS areas are not homogenous segment.
(a) Income and Expenditure :
The average total monthly income, per household, ranges
from Rs. 1500-2500 among the poor. The expenditure of these
families is around 5-10% more than their incomes. The per capita
monthly income and expenditure is Rs. 245 & Rs. 423 respec-
tively. Poor households, therefore, are increasingly dependent upon
loans from the local moneylenders. The monthly income of around
25-30% households is above Rs. 1500 and around 45-50% house
holds is below Rs. 1000.
(b) Access to Housing :
Housing is a basic need of the poor. Most of the poor do
not have access to secure land tenure. 85% of the poor are squat-
ters, and are vulnerable to frequent eviction. 6% of the poor live
in rented accommodation and have to pay a substantial portion of
157
their income for rent. Most importantly, such rental quarters do
not have even basic infrastructure facilities. The quality of life
led by these people is extremely poor.
(c) Occupation Profile of Poor :
41% of these families work as casual laborers, as most of
them are unskilled. However, one-third of the poor also work in
the service sector and only 20-25% is self-employed. Therefore,
nearly 52% of the poor households do not have access to a
dependable occupation and secure incomes.
(d) Migration Status and Poor :
The employment opportunities (formal and informal) in
Delhi have attracted migrants from all over the country, particu-
larly from the backward state areas due to regional economic
imbalances. In 1961 the annual migration of low income house-
holds into Delhi were estimated to be around 70,000 and that
number has increased every year making it close to an approxi-
mate net addition of around 4 lakh settlers every year, migrating
from various parts of the country in search of livelihood. This
influx of population has resulted in an increased population of
city, pressure on civic amenities, crime, social imbalances, eco-
nomic exploitation, unplanned growth, deterioration of the city
beautification, culture etc.
(e) Access to Infrastructure :
The infrastructure facilities that have been covered are water
158
and sources of energy for the urban poor. A majority of the poor
families (47%) have access to water from community sources.
16% of the families do not have any definite source of water.
With respect to source of light, nearly 30% of the families depend
on kerosene lamps.
(f) Pavement Dwellers :
Around 1 lakh homeless people constitute another
component of the poor in Delhi. They are mostly found in the
Walled City or its surrounding areas and generally sleep on the
pavements. There are around 10 night shelters located at Azadpur,
Subzi Mandi, Paharganj, Jhandewalan, Red Fort, Old Delhi
Railway Station, Azad Market and Roshanara Road. The night
shelters operated by MCD provide accommodation to only male
dwellers.
SHELTER OPTIONS :
The poor typically inhabit unplanned or semi-planned
developments. In Delhi they are classified as :
(a) Notified slums in old walled city area;
(b) Resettlement colonies;
(c) Relocated JJ clusters or squatter settlements.
The section below describe the characteristics of these
areas.
THE OLD WALLED CITY AREA :
In Delhi, areas designated or notified as slums under the
159
act are generally located in the walled city and its adjoining
environs. There are 319 katras in the walled city area with about
3,000 buildings or properties. Out of these, 365 properties have
been identified as dangerous and therefore require resettlement
of inhabitants. In addition, there are 400 properties, which are
with the Evacuee Property Cell of Land and Building Department
of Delhi Government.
SQUATTER SETTLEMENTS/ JJ CLUSTERS :
The squatter settlements are encroachments on mainly
public land. As such these are illegal clusters (JCs) and are
devoid of any legal entitlements. However, efforts have been made
by the government to extend basic social and environmental
services to them.
LOCATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF JJ CLUSTERS :
JJ clusters are scattered all over the city. Generally they
are situated on the vacant land along railway lines, roads, drains
and river embankments and also vacant spaces near residential,
industrial and commercial complexes.
Figure 5.4
160
Figure 5.4 shows that around 55 percent of squatters are
near the residential areas and 40% along the road berms as also
shown in the complete picture in Table 5.2.
TABLE - 5.2
AREAWISE STATUS OF JJ CLUSTERS IN DELHI
Areas with Number of squatters %age to total encroachment Residential Areas 34100 55.86 Road Berms 24184 39.62 Park and open spaces 966 1.58 Schools 500 0.82 Market 1093 1.79 Railway Station 200 0.33 TOTAL 61043 100.00
Source : Sabir Ali, Environment Scenario of Delhi Slums, Centre for social Develop
ment Studies - 1998.
It is clear from Table 5.3 that around 70% of clusters have
less than 500 JJ’s. This percentage has remained constant from
1991-2001. The sharp decline in number of JJ clusters (1994-
2001) is attributed to large scale relocation of JJs since 1999.
TABLE - 5.3
SIZE WISE DISTRIBUTION OF JJ CLUSTERS
No. of JJ in 1991 1994 2001 clusters Upto 100 496 396 227 1119 101-500 311 446 295 1052 501-1000 59 121 110 290 1001-1500 30 54 37 121 1500 & above 33 63 59 155Source : (i) Slum Department, MCD Delhi; (ii) Status Report for Delhi-21, Delhi Urban
Environment and Infrastructure Improvement Project (DUEIIP), January 2001.
161
Figure 5.5 shows the size-wise distribution of JJclusters
in NCT Delhi in 2001.
AREAS WITH CONCENTRATION OF JJ CLUSTERS :
The spread of JJ clusters ranges from a plot of 0.4 acres with 8
JJs to JJcs as large as 50 acres with 10,000 households & 45000
populations. The average number of JJ per acre comes to 200
with 193 being the lowest (Najafgarh area) and 206 the highest
(Gole Market and Kalkaji areas) (Refer to Map 5.1). The
average area of JJ is 20m2. Some of the major areas with such
concentrations are given below :
(i) HIGH CONCENTRATION :
(a) Minto Road/ Gole Market/ Matia Mahal (129 clusters, 43388
JJs, 215.08 Acres) - NDMC Area.
(b) Badarpur/ Tuglaqabad/ Saket (79 clusters, 64187 JJs, 79 Acres)-
MCD area.
Figure 5.5
162
(c) Moti Nagar/ Patel Nagar/ Rajendra Nagar (72 clusters, 35,427
JJs, 175.45 Acres) - MCD Area.
(d) Jahangirpuri/ Adarsh Nagar/ Model Town/ Wazirpur (117 clus-
ters, 71538 JJs, 356 Acres) - MCD Area.
(e) Badli/ Shahbad-Daulatpur (21 clusters, 27551 JJs, 137.70 Acres)-
MCD Area.
(ii) MEDIUM CONCENTRATION :
(a) Delhi Cantonment/ Janakpuri/ Tilak Marg (17 clusters, 18,982
JJs, 95.03 Acres) - MCD Area.
(b) Biswas Nagar/ Shahdara/ Babarpur (44 clusters, 18,915 JJs, 88.91
Acres) - MCD Area.
(c) Hauzkhas. R.K. Puram (52 clusters, 14,110 JJs, 70.22 acres) -
NDMC Area.
(iii) LOW CONCENTRATION :
(a) Nazafgarh/ Nasirpur/ Palam (11 clusters, 363 JJs, 1.83 Acres) -
MCD Area.
(b) Sarojini Nagar/ Kalkaji/ Malviya Nagar/ Ambedkar Nagar/
Kasturba Marg (45 clusters, 11,802 JJs, 68.42 Acres) - NDMC
Area.
GROWTH OF SQUATTER SETTLEMENTS :
The squatter settlements or Jhuggi jhopari clusters (JJC)
assume strategic importance as far as issues of unorganized settle-
163
ments are concerned. As mentioned in Table - 5.4 in 1951 Delhi
had 12,749 jhuggi jhoparis (JJS) scattered over 199 clusters. By
1973 the number of JJS had reached 98,483 spread over 1373
clusters. The resettlement scheme pursued in 1962-77, with a
concentrated effort in 1975-77 resulted in the resettlement of 2.4
lakh JJS in different parts of Delhi. In 1977 only 20,000 JJ house-
holds had gone upto 1.13 lakhs. In 2001 the JJ clusters had declined
to (729 from 1080 in 1994) due to relocation of around 300
clusters from Gautampuri, Kingsway Camp, Ashok Vihar, AIIMS
and Hauz Khas etc.
TABLE - 5(4)
YEARWISE STATUS OF JJ CLUSTERS IN DELHI
Year JJ Clusters Jhuggi Area in PopulationHHS HA
1951 199 12749 21.1 63745
1973 1373 98483 164.1 492415
1983 534 113000 188.3 565000
1990 929 259000 431.7 1295000
1997 1100 600000 902.1 3000000
2001 728 429662 650.2 2148310
Source : Slum Deptt., Municipal Corporation of Delhi, Delhi.
LAND OWNING AGENCIES AND JJ CLUSTERS :
The land owning agencies in whose area the JJ clusters are
situated are given in Table 5.5. Eighty three percent of DDA land
is squatted on by 600 JJ clusters.
164
TABLE - 5.5
LAND OWNING AGENCIES & JJ CLUSTERS
LO Agencies NO. of Jhuggies Population Area in Acres1990 1994 1994
DDA 280988 349705 1856683 1865.93
L&Do 21530 29415 132327 149.86
Railway 12161 17346 78929 84.34
MCD 8428 11052 52045 47.29
NDMC 3226 4487 20182 22.52
Gram Sabha 4132 4360 19619 21.31
Cantonment 1570 1700 7064 7.86 Board
Source : Status Report for Delhi- 21 Delhi Urban Environment
and infrastructure Improvement Project (DUEIIP), January 2001
ACCESS TO INFRASTRUCTURE IN SLUMS/ JJ CLUSTERS:
Water and sanitation facilities, in these unorganized
colonies, particularly JJ clusters, are poor. Only 21% of colonies
are covered with piped water supply and 10% are covered by
sanitation. Table 5.6 presents a satisfactory level of infrastruc-
ture availability in unplanned settlements, but these facilities are
non- functional in around 75-80% of the settlements. The average
population served by one PSP ranges from 250-300 against the
standard of 150. Moreover, average waiting at PSP is 20-30
minutes. Around 85-90% of JJ clusters did not have even
community toilets, forcing habitants to defecate in the open near
the water bodies or drainage channels.
165
TABLE - 5.6
WATER AND SANITATION STATUS IN THEUNPLANNED SETTLEMENTS (2004)
Service provision in Piped water supply Sewer facility unplanned settlement No. % of colonies No. % of colonies
Regularized 557 98.2 458 80.7 unauthorized colonies
Resettlement colonies 44 100.0 44 100.0
JJ Clusters 158 21.7 72 9.8
Source : Slum Department, Municipal Corporation of Delhi, Delhi.
RESETTLEMENT COLONIES :
Under the schemes for resettlement of JJ clusters 47
resettlement colonies were developed during 1961-77. Around
2.0 lakh plots were developed accommodating about 2.4 lakh
households. These resettlement colonies have degenerated due to
intense population pressure and unorganized development. There-
fore investment towards up-gradation of physical infrastructure
has to be made for improving civic life.
LOCATION OF RESETTLEMENT COLONIES :
The spatial distribution of these colonies indicates that they
are proliferating mainly in the South-East, North-East, North-West,
South-West and Central parts of the NCT of Delhi. These are five
colonies in South-East, eight in North-East, fifteen in North-West,
seven in South-West and twelve in Central Delhi.
166
RELOCATION SITES :
The Map 5.2 shows that there are around 12 relocation
sites as Bhalaswa, Holambi Kalan, Pappan Kalan, Rohini, Narela,
Bakanwar, Madanpur Khadar etc. The most recent relocation has
been made to three principal sites. These are Dwarka (known
also as Pappan Kalan), Rohini, Narela and Savda Ghevara. The
main pockets from where JJ clusters were relocated are Central,
South and East Delhi areas. Thus, during 1999-2000, 3741 squat-
ter households from the JJ clusters at CGO Complex, Chankyapuri,
Kotla Mubarakpur, Andrews Ganj, Sadiq Nagar, Mahaki Sarai,
Shahdara were moved to Narela and Rohini. 27.4 acres of land
has been allotted at Molar Band for shifting of the JJ clusters at
Gautam Nagar behind AIIMS as shown in Map 5.3. In 1997-98,
DDA allocated 32 acres of land in Tehkhand Village for reloca-
tion of squatter families.
These relocation resettlement sites offer no security of
tenure to habitants who begin a new life without security, basic
services, schools and other basic amenities.
SLUM DEVELOPMENT POLICIES IN PLACE :
While evaluating the policies affecting housing for slum
dwellers we take a top down approach by first giving a brief
overview of the National Housing Policy 2007, and laid out for
Delhi’s slums by various authorities.
167
(i) NATIONAL URBAN HOUSING AND HABITAT POLICY 2007:
The National Urban Housing and Habitat Policy 2007 states
its goal as ‘affordable housing for all’ in the country. It promotes
various types of Public Private Partnerships and pays special
emphasis on the urban poor, intending to promote sustainable
development of housing in the country with a view to ensuring
equitable supply of land, shelter and services at affordable prices
to all sections of society. The policy focused on multiple stake-
holders the private sector, the cooperative sector, the industrial
sector for labor housing and the services and institutional sector
for employee housing. To attain the overarching goal of afforable
housing for all, emphasis is laid on urban planning, increasing
supply of land and use of spatial incentives like additional floor
area ratio (FAR), transferable development rights, and increased
flow of funds, effective solid waste management and use of
renewal sources of energy. Encouraging integrated townships and
special economic zones (SEZs), the policy calls for reservation
of 10-15 percent land in every new public and private housing
projects or 20-25 percent FAR whichever is greater to for EWS
and LIG housing through appropriate spatial incentives.
The private sector would be permitted assembling land
within the purview of master plans. The policy also sets action
plans for urban slum dwellers with a special package being
prepared for cooperative housing, labor housing and employees
housing. The primary choice would be to give provision of shelter
168
to urban poor at their present location or near their work place.
The role of housing and provision of basic services to the
urban poor has been integrated into the objectives of the Jawaharlal
Nehru Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM).
(ii) BASIC SERVICES TO THE URBAN POOR, JNNURM :
The Sub Mission II of the JNNURM involves Basic
Services to the Urban Poor (BSUP) including the integrated
housing and slum development programme. The objectives of the
mission are outlined as :
1. Focused attention to integrated development of Basic Services to
the urban poor in the cities covered under the mission.
2. Provision of Basic Services to Urban Poor including security of
tenure at affordable prices, improved housing, water supply,
sanitation and ensuring delivery through convergence of other
already existing universal services of the Government for Educa-
tion, health and social security care will be taken to see that the
urban poor are provided housing near their place of occupation.
3. Secure effective linkages between asset creation and asset man-
agement to that the Basic Services to the Urban Poor created in
the cities are not only maintained efficiently but also become self-
sustaining over time.
4. Ensure adequate investment of funds to fulfill deficiencies in the
Basic Services to the Urban Poor.
169
5. Scale up delivery of civic amenities and provision of utilities
with emphasis on universal access to urban poor.
The Delhi Master Plan 2021 has laid emphasis on improve-
ment of the living conditions of the 45% of Delhities living in
slums and JJ clusters in the next ten years as part of the improve-
ment in the livability of the city for its inhabitants.
(iii) THREE PRONGED APPROACH IN DELHI :
Of the settlements considered as sub-standard slum and
squatter settlements rank among the worst and it is the urban poor
that live predominantly in such settlements. The program of
squatter clearance was discontinued at the end of sixth plan (from
1985). Accordingly no major settlement program was carried out
until 1992 when a Revised Resettlement Policy was formulated
by the DDA. This did not mean that there were no resettlement
works in progress. The general policy adopted by the govern-
ment since then it twofold. One is that no fresh encroachments
shall be permitted on public land and the second is that past
encroachments (those in existence till 30.01.1990) would not be
removed without providing alternatives.
Squatter settlements are to be found throughout the city but
especially on the vacant land along railway lines, roads, drains,
river embankments, and around resettlement colonies. The strat-
egy of the government towards slums/ squatter settlements has
been mainly of clearance.
170
In recent years, however, there have been some changes in
the attitude and strategies. Since 1991 three strategies have been
used in Delhi, which are as follows :
1. Improvement of the slum environment.
2. Relocation of the slums
3. In situ-up-gradation and rehabilitation.
(iv) IMPROVEMENT OF THE SLUM ENVIRONMENT :
Since 1987, in JJ clusters and notified slums which are not
being relocated or developed with the in situ approach, basic
urban services and amenities are being provided under ‘Envi-
ronmental improvement in urban slum scheme’. The facilities are
extended to all JJ clusters even those that developed after 1990.
The facilities being provided under the scheme are :
1. Pay and use Jan Suvidha Complexes containing toilets and bath-
rooms at the community level or the provision of mobile toilet,
vans in all those JJ clusters where the Jan Suvidha Complex can
not be provided.
2. Water supply either through water hydrants, hand pipes or water
tanker.
3. Street lighting.
4. Dusbins for collection of domestic waste.
5. Paved pathways and drains.
171
(v) RELOCATION OF SLUMS :
Jhuggi Jhopri resettlement, relocation scheme was started
in the Union Territory of Delhi for the rehousing of squatters on
government and private lands in 1960. The scheme began with
the allotment of two room tenements to 3,560 JJ households.
Subsequently, partially developed plots of 80 square yards were
allotted under the scheme to the squatters on a nominal rent.
However, due to demand of land in Delhi and the fact that the
allotment procedure was misused, size of plots was reduced to
40 square meters and then 25 square meters. Under the present
situation, Relocation is carried out for only those JJ clusters and
slums that are required by the land owning agency for public
interest projects.
Since the inception of the scheme with effect from 1990-
1991, so far about 70,000 plots have been developed and about
60,000 families have been rehabilitated at Dwarka, Rohini, Narela,
Bawana, Holambi, Molar Band, Madanpur Khaddar & Sawda
Ghevre keeping in view the scarcity of land in Delhi and as per
the directions of the Delhi Government and Government of India.
The Delhi Government has formulated a new policy for the
resettlement of squatter families in Delhi. Under the new policy,
Delhi Government has proposed to provide built up flats instead
of plots to the slum dwellers, economically weaker sections
under the Rajiv Awas Yojna, JNNURM. Under this scheme, the
Delhi Government aims to provide 4 lakh flats by 2012.
172
(vi) IN SITU UP-GRADATION AND REHABILITATION :
There has been a general shift in the approach to slum and
JJ clusters in recent years. The emphasis is now on the improve-
ment of the environment of the JJ cluster and their in situ rehabili-
tation wherever possible. The in situ up gradation is undertaken
after the area has been notified as a slum area under the Slum
Area Act of 1956. The scheme involves replanning of JJ dwell-
ing units in modified layout by redistributing the encroached land
pockets amongst the squatter families. The JJ households are given
sites of 10 to 12.5 square meters for construction of their own
shelters. The housing plots are generally designed in a cluster
around open courtyards. The beneficiary constructs the shelter
under a self help approach with technical extension services
provided by the slum and JJ department of the MCD. So far 5,583
families have been rehabilitated at Prayog Vihar, Ekta Vihar, Shanti
Vihar and Shahbad Daulatpur Phase I. The implementation of the
in situ- up-gradation is very poor due to non availability of the
Notice of Consent from the concerned land owning agency. A
new policy of in situ slum up grading also suggests, as in the case
of relocation, the provision of developed flats on the same
location instead of plots for the slum dwellers.
The Delhi Development Authority (DDA) decided to take
up in situ development towards rehabilitation of slum dwelling
units of about 25 square meters will be about 47,500. These will
be taken up on public- private partnership model in which the
173
land occupied by slum dwellers will be made available to de-
velopers, who will construct houses in accordance with the num-
bers identified by the DDA. These houses will be constructed in
same parts of the area while in the remaining areas the developer
will be allowed to carry out commercial exploitation of the land.
This would enable the developer to spill over some of the costs
from building the rehabilitation units to the commercial activity,
thereby reducing the burden on the slum dwellers as well. This
mixed development allows them to get the cross subsidy by way
of targeting two different segments of society.
This model is being applied at the kathputli colony where
residents will have access to 12 storeyed buildings in which the
ground floors will be devoted to promoting artistic and commer-
cial enterprise since most of the residents are puppeteers, crafts-
men or musicians. The constructions will house 2,800 dwelling
units meant for the colony’s residents. The site will also boast of
a separate 2.1 acre commercial space to be developed by private
developers and “high-category residential apartmentments” in 2.4
acres which will help boost the earning of artisans and crafts-
men, according to the DDA’s plans.
In the scheme, modeled on Mumbai’s slum rehabilitation
programme, private players will join hands with the government
and the work of clearing the slums would proceed in phases.
Since residents will be resettled, tents will be pitched to provide
174
temporary accommodation to the people till the project is
completed.
(vii) DRAFT NATIONAL SLUM POLICY 2001 :
Another more specific, policy the “draft” National Slum
Policy is yet to be ratified by the government. The draft National
Slum Policy envisages cities without slums. Towards fulfillment
of this vision, the policy adopts an approach of in situ up gradation
and improvement. It recommends clearance only in exceptional
circumstances. It, therefore, talks of urban growth with equity
and justice and makes plea for greater participation of communi-
ties and civil society in all areas of planning, capacity building
and development. Correspondingly it proposes a series of
interventions with regards to definitions, tenure, planning,
economic empowerment, governance and management, shelter up
gradation etc.
The governing principal of the Draft National Slum Policy
are as follows :
1. The endorsement of an upgrading and improvement approach in
all slums, and the acceptance of the necessity of slum clearance
in an extremely defined circumstances.
2. Recognition that households in all urban informal settlements
should have access to certain basic minimum services, irrespec-
tive of land tenure or occupancy status.
175
3. The goal that planning in all cities should have the objective of
creating cities without slums.
4. The objective of ensuring that urban growth takes place with
equity and distributive justice.
5. The intention that urban local bodies should work in collabora-
tion with all other stakeholders to enhance the impact of slum
development through building the capacities of the poor and
empowering them to improve their own living conditions.
6. The adoption of a more “enabling” approach to the delivery of
basic social services to the poor as a result of more effective
mobilization of community resources and skills to complement
public resource allocations.
7. A greater participation of communities and civil society in all
areas of planning, capacity building and development.
The draft policy is however silent over the ways in which
such goals could be realized. Also, the definition of all under
served serviced lands as slums will hinder and deny the most
needy and vulnerable from having access to resources for up-
gradation and improvement.
POLICY COMPARISON :
A comparative study of these policies and schemes can now
be undertaken, based on the parameters discussed earlier. The
National Urban Housing and Habitat Policy 2007 seems to be a
176
step in the right direction, with focus on affordable housing,
public private partnerships (PPP), sustainable development of
housing in the country, special package being prepared for
cooperative housing, labor housing and employees housing and
prioritizing houses for the urban poor at their present location or
near their work place using the in- situ slum rehabilitation
approach. Using the parameters as tools for analysis we see that
with PPPs and the in situ rehabilitation approach, affordable
housing for slum dwellers at their present location is an option.
This enables them to earn their livelihood just as they did before,
in the slums. The security of tenure objective is also achieved
through the policy. Only the characteristics of housing provided
remains questionable. The quality of houses, its cost and the
allocation can be a hindrance to the residents. Sometimes the
costs are too high for them and at other times the quality of the
houses is compromised. Under the JNNURM, the improved quality
of housing is specifically included and allocation is said to be on
the basis of need (determined through income). As is the case
with both the relocation and the in situ rehabilitation policy, any
worker whose source of livelihood is within the slums (dhobi,
tailor etc.) might be compromised unless there is specific
mention of a workstation being supplied. Thus this would be a
violation of the first parameter and the people affected by this
would prefer to stay in some other slum again. This vary case
would be an important characteristic of the third approach of
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improvement of the slum environment or up- gradation. The
livelihoods of the residents are maintained even though the slum,
not lacking basic facilities but still an unplanned part of the city,
still exists. The draft national slum policy outlines its objectives
but has not clearly defined how these objectives will be met and
therefore no analysis on the basis of parameters and incentives
for residents can be undertaken. Thus, as is the case with most of
the policies in India, each of these policies, schemes and
approaches looks impeccable on paper but the ground realities
of these projects are often very different from what is claimed
and therefore it is necessary that a follow up mechanism be
incorporated into each of the policies to ensure their efficiency.
(C) URBAN GARBAGE GROUNDS :
Various human processes produce waste. Disposing waste
products is major global problem since last many decades.
Landfill is considered as the primitive way to organized waste
dumping in various parts of earth. It is a method of removing the
refuse on land without creating a hazard to public health or safety.
Landfills may consist of domestic waste dumping sites as well as
sites utilized by several manufacturers. This method is also
adopted for other waste management tasks for example the
momentary storage, consolidation and relocation, or meting out
of waste substance such as sorting, treatment, or recycling. The
landfill is supportive process of waste diminution and has a key
role in resource revival. A landfill also denotes the practice in
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which ground has been packed in with soil and rocks as an alter-
native of garbage which solves many important purposes such as
for building construction.
Landfill is emerged as the most practicable ecological
substitute for the specific waste removal in various countries.
Today government priority is to set up a waste policy by
applying the ideology in order to deal with environmental risks,
the economic and health dangers of resource degradation. These
strategies are basically planned to maintain landfill practices
which will stabilize the landfill sites in present generation. The
main intent of waste organization is to deal with the garbage
produced by existing generation and do not switch over waste
related harms to next generation. The Landfill Directive is
committed to raise standards and lessen harmful consequences
on the surroundings, groundwater, surface waters, soil, and
restrictions on the universal impact of waste dumping. For
commercial purpose, a landfill technique must meet definite
requirements, which are linked to many important factors. The
first factor is the location. Landfill must have easy access to
transportation via road. It must have stability such as fundamen-
tal geology, earthquake faults, water table. Another factor is
capacity. The existing annulled space must be planned by assess-
ment of the landform with a proposed re-establishment profile.
This computation of capacity is based on density of the wastes,
amount of intermediate and daily cover, and amount of settle-
179
ment. Landfill must have protection of soil and water through
installation of inside layer and collection systems. To handle speci-
fied harmless waste landfills such method must be applied through
which the trash are cramped to small area, compressed to decrease
their quantity, enclosed with layers of soil. Completely lined
landfills reinstate the previous one, unlined deposits that were
earlier used. In the operation of landfill, the garbage collection
trucks are weighed at entrance and their load is checked for wastes.
Then, these vehicles drop their load. After loads are dumped,
compactors or dozers spread and compressed the waste on the
operational field. This flattened waste is enclosed with soil
every day. Other waste wrap materials are sprayed on froth
products and transitory mantles. These mantles can be elevated
into place with tracked excavators and then detatched the next
day proceeding to waste placement. Chipped wood and chemi-
cally ‘fixed’ bio-solids are the substitute cover. Since the 20th
century, population is exploding speedily in developed areas; it
is a need of an hour to implement land reprocesses tractics for
completed landfills. The common usages are parks, golf courses.
Office buildings and industrial uses are made of a completed
landfill. Many steps are taken to disperse garbage produced
through communities, Industry and other establishments. At the
end of 20th century, different methods to waste removal to land-
fill and burning have started. The apparent substitutes to landfills
are waste reduction and recycling policies. Incineration is the
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most effectual technique of plummeting volume and weight of
solid waste by burning in a well designed furnace.
Landfill reclamation is one of the control measures to check
spoilage of landscape. It is the burning of landfill garbage at high
temperature via the plasma-arc gasification procedure. Another
important way to deal with solid waste is composing by which
the organic components of solid waste are biologically decom-
posed under controlled aerobic conditions. In this method,
plastics, rubber and leather are separated from the solid waste
and the remaining organic matter is decomposed aerobically or
an aerobically to end product called compost. Anaerobic
digestion, mechanical biological treatment, pyrolysis and gasifi-
cation have all started to establish themselves in the marketplace.
Optional waste disposal technology is quite expensive than
landfill and mass burn incineration is the sole technology for mixed
waste. India is working to develop clean energy sources that can
yield considerable economic, environmental and health benefits
for people. Methane emissions from the solid waste sector in
India are projected to increase significantly over the next 15 years.
Reusing landfill methane gas for energy purposes has the poten-
tial to mitigate 5.5 million metric tons of carbon dioxide equiva-
lents, which is equal to the annual emissions from one million
vehicles. Currently, there are no operational landfill gas-to-
energy projects in India but several large sites in Delhi, Mumbai
and other cities could support the clean energy projects.
181
Basically, a landfill is a large area of land or an excavated
site that is a carefully designed structure built into or on top of the
ground. The rubbish collected at the landfill is isolated from the
surrounding environment with a bottom liner and a daily cover-
ing of soil. Though the modern landfill practices are technically
sound but still these proven techniques sometimes fail to meet
challenges. These practices require further precision to secure
public areas. Appropriate removal practices should be adopted
to control environmental contamination. These practices include-
All loads must be alienated when unloading in selected area.
Domestic refuse and small things should be kept in the dustbin.
Removal should be permitted exterior the landfill entrance and
video watch is carried out.
SOLID WASTE GENERATION IN NCT DELHI :
The problem of solid waste management in Delhi is as-
suming serious proportions due to increasing population, urban-
ization, changing lifestyles and consumption patterns. There are
24 existing landfill sites for waste management in NCT Delhi
from 16 are filled up, 4 are in operation and other 4 are newly
operated as shown in Map 5.4. The garbage from unauthorized
developments, slums, JJ settlements, etc. is not collected which
further adds to the environmental degradation. The projected
average garbage generation upto the year 2021 is @ 0.68 kg. per
capita per day and total quantum of solid waste is 15750 tonnes/
day as given in Table - 5.7.
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TABLE - 5.7
QUANTUM OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE(TONNES / DAY)
Local body area Existing Capacity Projected generation
2001 for 2021
MCD 5250 15100
NDMC 245 550
Cantonment 48 100
TOTAL 5543 15750
Management of solid waste involves waste generation,
segregation and storage; waste collection; waste transfer/ trans-
portation treatment, recycle reuse, recovery; and disposal. For
effective waste management, its segregation at the community and
neighbourhood level is imperative. The waste shall be segre-
gated and collected, in separate chambers at dalaos. For this,
involvement of rag pickers with RWAs, CBOs and NGOs is to be
encouraged.
The projected composition of municipal waste for the plan
period is estimated as given in table - 5.8 for biodegradable and
recyclable waste which is segregated at the source, decentral-
ized treatment at neighbourhood level may be adopted, while for
silt, centralized treatment may be followed.
The other type of specialized waste includes biomedical
waste; hazardous waste from industries; construction debris and
fly ash; meat processing centre etc. Disposal of bio-medical waste
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is to be as per bio-medical waste rules and hazardous waste
requires special handling rules. Proper dumping, recycling and
reuse of construction debris and fly ash have to be linked. Meat
processing centre waste is to be recycled for chicken feed etc.
TABLE - 5.8
PROJECTED COMPOSITION OFTOTAL MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE FOR 2021
Constituents Quantum (in tons) Percentage to totalwaste
Bio- degradable 6000 38
Silt 6000 38
Recyclable 3750 24
TOTAL 15750 100
Notes :(i) Above figures are based on Report on Solid Waste Management in Delhi
conducted by NEERI, Nagpur through DDA;(ii) Figures of MCD are based on Feasibility study in Master Plan for optimal
waste Treatment & Disposal for the entire state of Delhi, June, 2004, by COWIConsultants appointed by MCD.
Considering the nature of solid waste and the economic
aspects of its disposal, major part of solid waste especially silt
has to be disposed off in sanitary landfills. But wherever recy-
cling is possible, it should be preferred than disposing off the
waste in sanitary landfill sites. More viable alternatives to land-
fills are vermiculture, fossilization, composting etc. Waste Mini-
mization Circles (WMCs) should be constituted and made effec-
tive. Implementation and monitoring & Bio-Medical Wastes (Han-
dling & Management) Rules, 1998, for hospitals, nursing homes,
184
and clinics should be taken up. The sites, which are filled up or
are in operation, given in Table - 5.9. The filled up sites may be
reuse for plantation or as recreational area. The proposed sites
for sanitary landfill and compost plants are to be finalized by
MCD. The Map 5.5 shows the area of existing and proposed
landfill sites.
Keeping in view the fact that finding new sanitary landfill
sites in Delhi is becoming extremely difficult there is no option,
as shown by the Map 5.5 & 5.6 but to resort to alternative and
decentralized methods of waste treatment, reduction, recycle and
use, which include vermiculture, fossilization and composting.
TABLE - 5.9
EXISTING LANDFILL SITES FORWASTE MANAGEMENT
S.N. Location Area (in ha.) Remarks
1. Kailash Nagar, East Delhi 1.8 Filled up
2. Tilak Nagar 16.0 Filled up
3. Subroto Park - Filled up
4. Purana Quila/ Bharion Road 2.7 Filled up
5. Timar Pur 16.0 Filled up
6. Sarai Kale Khan 24.0 Filled up
7. Gopal Pur 4.0 Filled up
8. Chhater Pur 1.7 Filled up
9. S.G.T. Nagar 14.4 Filled up
10. I.P. Depot 1.8 Filled up
11. Sunder Nagar 2.8 Filled up
12. Tuglakabad Ext. 2.4 Filled up
185
13. Haiderpur 1.6 Filled up
14. Mandawali Fazilpur 2.8 --
15. Rohini Phase III 4.8 --
16. Near Hastsal Village in West Delhi 9.6 Filled up
17. Site near Gazipur Dairy Farm 28.0 In Operation
18. Site near Jhangirpur/ Bhalswa 16.0 In Operation
19. Okhla Phase I 12.8 In Operation
20. Crossing on G.T. Karnal Road 3.2 In Operation
21. Jaitpur/ Tajpur 9.84 New
22. Near Puthkhurd 55.0 New
23. Bhawana to Narela Road 28.0 New
24. Sultanpur Dabas (Bawana) 16.0 New
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT :
The dumping of solid waste on land is the cause of follow-
ing problems :
(a) WATER POLLUTION :
Toxic liquid (leachate) that flows from the dumped waste
seeps into surface and groundwater and contaminates postable
water.
(b) SOIL POLLUTION :
Toxins seep into the soil and surrounding vegetation, and
move into the food chain through fruits and vegetables grown in
the area.
(c) DUM FIRES :
When waste decomposes, inflammable methane is released
186
which can result in explosion. The smoke released is also highly
toxic for inhalation and contributes to global warming.
(d) SOURCE OF DISEASE :
Dumpsites breed flies, rodents, and pests, which spread
diseases.
(e) OTHER IMPACTS :
Foul smell, visual ugliness, and bird menace which can be
a hazard to airplanes.
CONCLUSION :
The primary goal of any solid waste management system is
to safeguard the health of the citizens and protect the environ-
ment. This is achieved by ensuring proper collection, transporta-
tion, treatment and finally, safe disposal of waste. However, the
last step is missing in most solid waste management systems
implemented in the country.
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* Sabir Ali (1991). ‘Slums Within Slums’. Vikas Publications, New
Delhi.
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