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Chemistry Chemistry

Chemistry. Electron- negatively charged particle Proton- positively charged particle Neutron- neutral particle, no charge

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Page 1: Chemistry.  Electron- negatively charged particle  Proton- positively charged particle  Neutron- neutral particle, no charge

ChemistryChemistry

Page 2: Chemistry.  Electron- negatively charged particle  Proton- positively charged particle  Neutron- neutral particle, no charge
Page 3: Chemistry.  Electron- negatively charged particle  Proton- positively charged particle  Neutron- neutral particle, no charge

Electron- negatively charged particleElectron- negatively charged particle Proton- positively charged particleProton- positively charged particle Neutron- neutral particle, no chargeNeutron- neutral particle, no charge

Page 4: Chemistry.  Electron- negatively charged particle  Proton- positively charged particle  Neutron- neutral particle, no charge

Elements- pure substances that consists Elements- pure substances that consists entirely of one type of atomentirely of one type of atom

Isotopes- an atom with extra neutronsIsotopes- an atom with extra neutrons Compound- is a combination of 2 or more Compound- is a combination of 2 or more

elementselements

Page 5: Chemistry.  Electron- negatively charged particle  Proton- positively charged particle  Neutron- neutral particle, no charge

BondingBonding Ionic Bond- are formed when 1 or more electrons are Ionic Bond- are formed when 1 or more electrons are

transferred from 1 atom to anothertransferred from 1 atom to another

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Covalent Bond- formed when electrons are shared. There are 3 types single, double, and triple covalent bonds.

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WaterWater PolarityPolarity Cohesion- is the attraction between Cohesion- is the attraction between

molecules of the same substancemolecules of the same substance Adhesion- the attraction between Adhesion- the attraction between

molecules of different substancesmolecules of different substances

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Mixture- is composed of 2 or more Mixture- is composed of 2 or more elements or compounds that are physically elements or compounds that are physically mixed together not chemically combined.mixed together not chemically combined.

Solute- the substance dissolvedSolute- the substance dissolved Solvent – the substance in which the Solvent – the substance in which the

solute is dissolvedsolute is dissolved Solution- what the solute and solvent are Solution- what the solute and solvent are

togethertogether Suspension- water and a nondissolved Suspension- water and a nondissolved

materialmaterial

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4 Major Macromolecules4 Major Macromolecules

Carbohydrates- are compounds made of Carbohydrates- are compounds made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Living things carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Living things use these as their main source of energyuse these as their main source of energy

- Types of carbohydrates- Types of carbohydrates

- sugar- sugar

- starch (pasta, bread, potatoes, etc.)- starch (pasta, bread, potatoes, etc.)

- cellulose (plants its what makes wood)- cellulose (plants its what makes wood)

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Lipids- generally not soluble in water. Mostly Lipids- generally not soluble in water. Mostly made of carbon and hydrogen. made of carbon and hydrogen.

- Can be used to store energy- Can be used to store energy

- Used as membranes and waterproof - Used as membranes and waterproof coveringscoverings

- Common categories are fats, oils, and waxes- Common categories are fats, oils, and waxes

-Types of lipids-Types of lipids

- corn oil- corn oil

-sesame oil-sesame oil

- olive oil- olive oil

- peanut oil- peanut oil

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Nucleic Acids- contain hydrogen, oxygen, Nucleic Acids- contain hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, and phosphorusnitrogen, carbon, and phosphorus

- they store and transmit hereditary or - they store and transmit hereditary or genetic informationgenetic information

-there are 2 types RNA and DNA-there are 2 types RNA and DNA

-Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Cytosine (C), -Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Cytosine (C), Guanine (G), Guanine (G),

and Uracil (U)and Uracil (U)

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Page 13: Chemistry.  Electron- negatively charged particle  Proton- positively charged particle  Neutron- neutral particle, no charge

Proteins- macromolecules that Proteins- macromolecules that contain nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen & contain nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen & oxygenoxygen

- proteins are made up of amino acids- proteins are made up of amino acids

-they help carry out chemical -they help carry out chemical reactions, transport small molecules, reactions, transport small molecules, regulate cell processesregulate cell processes

- transport things in and out of cells- transport things in and out of cells

-helps fight disease-helps fight disease

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Monomers/Polymers

Monomers- single compound Sugar is a monomer

Polymers- made up of many monomers

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ReactionsReactions

Chemical reaction- is a process that Chemical reaction- is a process that changes, one set of chemicals into changes, one set of chemicals into anotheranother Always involves changes in the chemical Always involves changes in the chemical

bonds that join atoms togetherbonds that join atoms together Reactants- the elements or compounds that Reactants- the elements or compounds that

enter into a chemical reactionenter into a chemical reaction Products- elements or compounds produced Products- elements or compounds produced

by a chemical reactionby a chemical reaction

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Energy in ReactionsEnergy in Reactions

Energy is released when chemical bonds Energy is released when chemical bonds are broken and absorbed whenever are broken and absorbed whenever chemical bonds are formedchemical bonds are formed

Chemical reactions that release energy Chemical reactions that release energy often occur spontaneouslyoften occur spontaneously

Chemical reactions that absorb energy will Chemical reactions that absorb energy will not occur with out a source of energynot occur with out a source of energy

Activation energy- the energy needed to Activation energy- the energy needed to start a reactionstart a reaction

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Energy released

Energy absorbed

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EnzymesEnzymes Speed up chemical reactions that take Speed up chemical reactions that take

place in cellsplace in cells Are proteins that act as biological catalystsAre proteins that act as biological catalysts Catalyst – is a substance that speeds up Catalyst – is a substance that speeds up

the rate of a chemical reaction. They lower the rate of a chemical reaction. They lower the activation energythe activation energy

By lowering the activation energy it By lowering the activation energy it dramatically effects how quickly the dramatically effects how quickly the reaction is completedreaction is completed

Enzymes are specific; generally catalyzing Enzymes are specific; generally catalyzing only one chemical reactiononly one chemical reaction

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Enzyme – substrate complex- is enzymes that Enzyme – substrate complex- is enzymes that have binding sites where reactants can be have binding sites where reactants can be brought together to react.brought together to react. These sites reduce the energy needed for reactions to These sites reduce the energy needed for reactions to

occuroccur The reactants (the things being put in the complex) The reactants (the things being put in the complex)

are called substratesare called substrates

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CellsCells There are two types of cells.There are two types of cells.

Eukaryotes- are cells that contain nucleiEukaryotes- are cells that contain nuclei Heterotrophic or Animal cellsHeterotrophic or Animal cells Autotrophic or Plant cellsAutotrophic or Plant cells

Prokaryotes- are cells that don’t have nucleiProkaryotes- are cells that don’t have nuclei Cells are the basic unit of lifeCells are the basic unit of life

Cell Theory says- all living things are Cell Theory says- all living things are composed of cells, cells are the basic units of composed of cells, cells are the basic units of structure and function in living things, new structure and function in living things, new cells are produced from existing cells.cells are produced from existing cells.

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ProkaryotesProkaryotes

Are smaller and simpler than eukaryotesAre smaller and simpler than eukaryotes They don’t have a nucleus their genetic They don’t have a nucleus their genetic

material is contained with in the cellmaterial is contained with in the cell Even though they are very simplistic they Even though they are very simplistic they

still do a variety of things: grow, still do a variety of things: grow, reproduce, respond to the environment.reproduce, respond to the environment.

Bacteria are ProkaryotesBacteria are Prokaryotes

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EukaryotesEukaryotes

There are two types of EukaryotesThere are two types of Eukaryotes Heterotrophs or Animal cellsHeterotrophs or Animal cells Autotrophs or Plant cellsAutotrophs or Plant cells

Generally larger and more complex than Generally larger and more complex than prokaryotes.prokaryotes.

Contain dozens of internal structures and Contain dozens of internal structures and membranesmembranes

Contain a nucleus in which their genetic Contain a nucleus in which their genetic information is stored separate from the rest information is stored separate from the rest of the cell.of the cell.

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Cell StructureCell Structure Organelles- little organsOrganelles- little organs Cytoplasm- portion of the cell outside of the nucleusCytoplasm- portion of the cell outside of the nucleus Cytosol- liquid substance in the cytoplasmCytosol- liquid substance in the cytoplasm Nucleolus- where ribosomes beginNucleolus- where ribosomes begin Nucleus- controls most cell processes and contains Nucleus- controls most cell processes and contains

the hereditary information of DNAthe hereditary information of DNA Nuclear Envelope (membrane)- surrounds the Nuclear Envelope (membrane)- surrounds the

nucleusnucleus Chromatin- is a granular material in the nucleus that Chromatin- is a granular material in the nucleus that

consists of DNA bound protein.consists of DNA bound protein. Chromosomes- threadlike structures containing Chromosomes- threadlike structures containing

genetic information genetic information

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Ribosomes- small particles of RNA and protein Ribosomes- small particles of RNA and protein in the cell. They make proteinsin the cell. They make proteins

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)- is where lipids are Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)- is where lipids are assembled and proteins and other materials are assembled and proteins and other materials are packaged to be shipped out of the cellpackaged to be shipped out of the cell Rough ER- is a section of the ER covered in Rough ER- is a section of the ER covered in

ribosomes this is the section where proteins are ribosomes this is the section where proteins are changed and packagedchanged and packaged

Smooth ER- is a section of the ER not covered in Smooth ER- is a section of the ER not covered in ribosome. It has special functions like making lipids, ribosome. It has special functions like making lipids, and the detoxification of drugs. and the detoxification of drugs.

Golgi Apparatus- is where things are modified, Golgi Apparatus- is where things are modified, sorted, and packaged. To either be used in the sorted, and packaged. To either be used in the cell or get sent outside the cell.cell or get sent outside the cell.

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Lysosomes- they are filled with enzymes. Their Lysosomes- they are filled with enzymes. Their function is the breakdown or digestion of lipids, function is the breakdown or digestion of lipids, carbohydrates, and proteins to make them into carbohydrates, and proteins to make them into something useful in the cell. They also digest old something useful in the cell. They also digest old worn out organelles they get rid of the junk.worn out organelles they get rid of the junk.

Mitochondria- the “power house”. This is where Mitochondria- the “power house”. This is where ATP is made, and energy is stored.ATP is made, and energy is stored.

Chloroplasts- are in plants and they capture the Chloroplasts- are in plants and they capture the energy of the sun (sunlight) and make it into energy of the sun (sunlight) and make it into chemical energy through photosynthesis chemical energy through photosynthesis Both mitochondria and chloroplasts contain their own Both mitochondria and chloroplasts contain their own

DNADNA Cilia- helps with movement of the cell or moving Cilia- helps with movement of the cell or moving

things across the cellthings across the cell Microfilament-part of the cytoskeleton as well as Microfilament-part of the cytoskeleton as well as

cilia and flagella. Helps with shape and supportcilia and flagella. Helps with shape and support

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Cytoskeleton- help support the cell. It is made of Cytoskeleton- help support the cell. It is made of protein filaments that help maintain its shape protein filaments that help maintain its shape and they also help with movementand they also help with movement

Centrioles- are located by the nucleus and help Centrioles- are located by the nucleus and help with cell division. They are only in animal cells.with cell division. They are only in animal cells.

Vacuoles- store material such as water, salt, Vacuoles- store material such as water, salt, proteins, and carbohydrates. In plant cells they proteins, and carbohydrates. In plant cells they have a central vacuole that hold water and helps have a central vacuole that hold water and helps with supportwith support..

Peroxisomes- contain enzymes that produce Peroxisomes- contain enzymes that produce hydrogen peroxide.hydrogen peroxide.

Microtubules-contains the motor protein that Microtubules-contains the motor protein that contracts to help the cell movecontracts to help the cell move

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Plant CellsPlant Cells

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Animal Cells

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Cell BoundariesCell Boundaries

Cell Membrane/plasma membrane- thin Cell Membrane/plasma membrane- thin flexible barrier that surrounds all cells. This flexible barrier that surrounds all cells. This separates the inside of the cell with the separates the inside of the cell with the outside worldoutside world Regulates what enters and exits the cell Regulates what enters and exits the cell Provides protection and supportProvides protection and support Composed of a lipid bilayerComposed of a lipid bilayer In the bilayer there are protein channels/ In the bilayer there are protein channels/

pumps, carbohydrate markerspumps, carbohydrate markers

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Cell Wall- Is only in some cells (mostly Cell Wall- Is only in some cells (mostly plants, and prokaryotes) and it is a strong plants, and prokaryotes) and it is a strong layer that helps keep the cells structurelayer that helps keep the cells structure They the cell wall is on the outside of the cell They the cell wall is on the outside of the cell

membranemembrane Most are porous enough to let water HMost are porous enough to let water H22O, O,

oxygen Ooxygen O22, and carbon dioxide CO, and carbon dioxide CO22

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DiffusionDiffusion

Diffusion- the movement of a substance Diffusion- the movement of a substance from an area of high concentration to lowfrom an area of high concentration to low

Osmosis- deals with water diffusionOsmosis- deals with water diffusion Facilitated Diffusion- the use of channels Facilitated Diffusion- the use of channels

in helping larger molecules to diffusein helping larger molecules to diffuse Active transport- when energy is needed Active transport- when energy is needed

to move something across the membraneto move something across the membrane

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Cell DivisionCell Division You have 46 chromosomes. 23 pairsYou have 46 chromosomes. 23 pairs Sister ChromotidesSister Chromotides Centromere- the middle of theCentromere- the middle of the

chromotides where the spindle chromotides where the spindle

fibers hook for cell division fibers hook for cell division Daughter Cells- they are the end product of cell Daughter Cells- they are the end product of cell

divisiondivision Haploid cells have 23 chromosomesHaploid cells have 23 chromosomes Diploid cells have 46 chromosomesDiploid cells have 46 chromosomes

Centromere

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Cell divisionCell division Mitosis- has 5 phases.Mitosis- has 5 phases.

11stst phase is Interphase. Also known as G phase is Interphase. Also known as G11, S, , S,

GG2. 2.

GG11 phase – This is where cell growth phase – This is where cell growth

occursoccursS phase- this is where DNA replicates itselfS phase- this is where DNA replicates itself

GG22 phase- is when the cell prepares to start phase- is when the cell prepares to start

mitosismitosis 22ndnd phase is Prophase- this is when phase is Prophase- this is when

chromosomes become visible, centrioles chromosomes become visible, centrioles move to the poles, the nuclear envelope move to the poles, the nuclear envelope breaks down, spindle fibers startbreaks down, spindle fibers start

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33rdrd phase Metaphase- chromosomes line phase Metaphase- chromosomes line up across the midline, spindle fibers attach up across the midline, spindle fibers attach to the centromere. to the centromere.

44thth phase Anaphase- centromeres split phase Anaphase- centromeres split and the sister chromotides separate to and the sister chromotides separate to become individual chromosomes, and become individual chromosomes, and move towards the centriolsmove towards the centriols

55thth phase Telephase- chromosomes phase Telephase- chromosomes gather to the poles, the nuclear envelope gather to the poles, the nuclear envelope begins to reappear, the chromosomes begins to reappear, the chromosomes begin to uncoil, the cells begin to separate. begin to uncoil, the cells begin to separate.

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Centromere

Centriols

Sister Chromotides

Chromosome

Spindle fibers

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Cytokinesis- this is when the cytoplasm Cytokinesis- this is when the cytoplasm pinches in half and each daughter cell has pinches in half and each daughter cell has an identical set of chromosomes.an identical set of chromosomes.

The reasons that cells divide.The reasons that cells divide. The larger the cell the more demands the cell The larger the cell the more demands the cell

places on its DNA. places on its DNA. The second reason is it has a harder time The second reason is it has a harder time

moving enough nutrients and wastes across moving enough nutrients and wastes across the membrane.the membrane.

DNA doesn’t copy itself except for during DNA doesn’t copy itself except for during cell divisioncell division

Page 41: Chemistry.  Electron- negatively charged particle  Proton- positively charged particle  Neutron- neutral particle, no charge

MeiosisMeiosis

This is how sex cells are madeThis is how sex cells are made It has the same phases as Mitosis does. It It has the same phases as Mitosis does. It

just goes through twice. just goes through twice. The first time the sister chromotides move The first time the sister chromotides move

to one side or the otherto one side or the other And then divide into 2 cellsAnd then divide into 2 cells Then it starts the process over again but Then it starts the process over again but

this time the sister chromotides split this time the sister chromotides split

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Crossover

First part of meiosis. Crossover happens.The sister chromotides move to the sides of the cell. And split into 2 diploid cells

Second part of meiosis. The sister chromotides split into chromosomes and into 4 haploid daughter cells

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RegulatorsRegulators

These help tell cells when to divide and These help tell cells when to divide and when to stop or to not divide at all.when to stop or to not divide at all.

These are proteins that regulate cell These are proteins that regulate cell division. They are called Cyclins.division. They are called Cyclins.

There are 2 types of regulators internal There are 2 types of regulators internal and external growth factors.and external growth factors.

Cancer is uncontrolled cell growth. Cancer is uncontrolled cell growth. Because it doesn’t respond to internal Because it doesn’t respond to internal growth factors or external growth factorsgrowth factors or external growth factors

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InternalInternal growth factors- are proteins that respond to growth factors- are proteins that respond to events inside the cell. events inside the cell. Like they don’t let it divide till all the Like they don’t let it divide till all the

chromosomes have been copiedchromosomes have been copied Don’t let it go into anaphase until the spindle Don’t let it go into anaphase until the spindle

fibers are attached fibers are attached External growth factors- proteins that respond to External growth factors- proteins that respond to

events outside the cell.events outside the cell. Tell it to speed up or slow down the cell cycleTell it to speed up or slow down the cell cycle Growth factors stimulate cell growth and division Growth factors stimulate cell growth and division

of cells.of cells. Another are molecules found on the surface of Another are molecules found on the surface of

neighboring cells that tell the cell to slow down or neighboring cells that tell the cell to slow down or stop dividingstop dividing

These prevent excessive cell growthThese prevent excessive cell growth

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PhotosynthesisPhotosynthesis

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6CO2 + 6H2O Light C6H12O6 + 6O2

This is the chemical reaction of photosynthesis.

It takes CO2 and H2O adds sunlight and gets sugar and oxygen from it.

Thylakoid- this is where light is collected Stacks of Thylakoids are called grana

Clusters of pigments and proteins in the Thylakoids make

up a photosystem

Stroma

Inner Thylakoid

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Electron Carriers

NADP+ - accepts and holds 2 high-energy electrons along with a hydrogen ion (H+) This converts NADP+ into NADPH This is one way that the energy of sunlight

can be trapped in chemical form This NADPH can carry these electrons to

other places in the cell that need energy These electrons help build a variety of

molecules the cell needs to survive. Like they make glucose and carbohydrates.

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• ADP is another type of carrier molecule.

• It carriers an extra phosphate turning ADP into ATP

• ADP is partially chargedADP

ATPExtra phosphate

H

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Parts of Photosynthesis

1. Light Dependant Reactions- requires light for this to take place This produces oxygen gas and converts ADP

and NADP+ into the energy carriers ATP and NADPH

Photosystem 2 –needs light Light is absorbed and used to break water

molecules into energized electrons, hydrogen ions (H+) and oxygen

This reaction is the source of nearly all of the oxygen on Earth’s atmosphere

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Electron Transport Chain (ETC) High energy electron (e-) from photosystem 2

move through the ETC to Photosystem 1 Energy from the electrons is used by

molecules in the ETC to move H+ ions from the Stroma into the inner thylakoid space

Photosystem 1- needs light Electrons released by Photosystem 2 are

energized again in Photosystem 1 Enzymes in the membrane use the electrons

to form NADPH NADPH is used to make sugar in the Calvin

Cycle

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Light Light

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Calvin Cycle

Light Independent Reaction Uses ATP and NADPH from the light

dependent reactions to produce high energy sugars

Doesn’t need light to work This cycle is also done inside the

chloroplast

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Cellular RespirationCellular Respiration

Happens in the mitochondria Happens in the mitochondria Is the process that releases energy by breaking Is the process that releases energy by breaking

down glucose (sugar) and other food molecules on down glucose (sugar) and other food molecules on the presence of oxygen the presence of oxygen

The equation is 6OThe equation is 6O22 + C + C66HH1212OO6 6 = 6 CO= 6 CO22 + 6H + 6H22OO First step is glycolysis First step is glycolysis In the presence of oxygen it then goes to the Krebs In the presence of oxygen it then goes to the Krebs

cycle and then to the ETC (ATP)cycle and then to the ETC (ATP) If there is no oxygen present it will lead to a pathway If there is no oxygen present it will lead to a pathway

called fermentation (alcohol and lactic acid)called fermentation (alcohol and lactic acid)

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Sexual and Asexual reproductionSexual and Asexual reproduction Asexual reproduction- is the process by Asexual reproduction- is the process by

which a single parent reproduces by itself.which a single parent reproduces by itself. Plants sometimes, bacteriaPlants sometimes, bacteria Pros- don’t have to find a mate, faster,Pros- don’t have to find a mate, faster, Cons- no genetic variationCons- no genetic variation

Sexual reproduction- is the process by Sexual reproduction- is the process by which cells from 2 different parents unite which cells from 2 different parents unite to produce the first cell of a new organismto produce the first cell of a new organism Pros- more genetic variation, Pros- more genetic variation, Cons- genetic variation, finding a mateCons- genetic variation, finding a mate