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Chapter Twelve Chapter Twelve Theories and Schools of Modern Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics Linguistics 12.0 Introduction Ferdinand de Saussure: father of moder n linguistics Course in General Linguistics: C. Bally, A. Se chehaye Saussure’s ideas were developed along three lines: linguistics: W. D. Whitne y, Neogrammarian tradition sociology: E. Durkheim psychology: S. Freud

Chapter Twelve Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction Ferdinand de Saussure: father of modern linguistics Course in General Linguistics:

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Page 1: Chapter Twelve Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction Ferdinand de Saussure: father of modern linguistics Course in General Linguistics:

Chapter Twelve Chapter Twelve Theories and Schools of Modern LinguisticsTheories and Schools of Modern Linguistics

• 12.0 Introduction

• Ferdinand de Saussure: father of modern linguistics

• Course in General Linguistics: C. Bally, A. Sechehaye

• Saussure’s ideas were developed along three lines: linguistics: W. D. Whitney, Neogrammarian tradition

sociology: E. Durkheim

psychology: S. Freud

Page 2: Chapter Twelve Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction Ferdinand de Saussure: father of modern linguistics Course in General Linguistics:

Language is a system of signs. A sign is the union of a form and an idea.

Saussure and Western economy of his time

Dichotomies by Saussure:LANGUE vs. PAROLESYNTAGMATIC vs. PARADIGMATICABSENCE vs. PRESENCEVIRTUAL WORLDS vs. ACTUAL WORLDS

Saussure’s influence on modern linguistics:1.2.

Page 3: Chapter Twelve Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction Ferdinand de Saussure: father of modern linguistics Course in General Linguistics:

• Functionalism • Formalism

Page 4: Chapter Twelve Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction Ferdinand de Saussure: father of modern linguistics Course in General Linguistics:

1. The functional perspective1. The functional perspective

• The Prague School

• The London School

Page 5: Chapter Twelve Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction Ferdinand de Saussure: father of modern linguistics Course in General Linguistics:

• Prague Linguistic Circle:

– Started by V. Mathesius (1882-1946) in 1926,

with such activists as R. Jacobson (1896-19

82), N. Trubetzkoy (1890-1938) and later J. Fi

rbas (1921-2000).– The Circle stood at the heart of important de

velopments in structural linguistics and semiotics in the 1930's.

1.1 The Prague School1.1 The Prague School

Page 6: Chapter Twelve Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction Ferdinand de Saussure: father of modern linguistics Course in General Linguistics:

• Three important points:– Stressed synchronic linguistics, but not rigidl

y separated from diachronic studies.– L is systemic in that no element of L can be s

atisfactorily analysed or evaluated in isolation and assessment can only be made if its relationship is established with the coexisting elements in the same language system.

– L is functional in that it is a tool for performing a number of essential functions or tasks for the community using it.

Page 7: Chapter Twelve Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction Ferdinand de Saussure: father of modern linguistics Course in General Linguistics:

Prague School PhonologyPrague School Phonology

• N. Trubetzkoy: Principle of Phonology (1939).– Phonetics & phonology: differe

nt for parole & langue.– Phoneme: an abstract unit of th

e sound system.– Distinctive features: phonologic

al oppositions.

Page 8: Chapter Twelve Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction Ferdinand de Saussure: father of modern linguistics Course in General Linguistics:

Trubetzkoy’s contributionsTrubetzkoy’s contributions• Showed distinctive functions of speech

sounds and gave an accurate definition of the phoneme.

• Defined the sphere of phonological studies.• Revealed interdependent syntagmatic and

paradigmatic relations between phonemes.• Put forward a set of methodologies for

phonological studies.• Analysis of utterances (or texts) in terms of

the information they contain.• The role of each utterance part is evaluated

for its semantic contribution to the whole.

Page 9: Chapter Twelve Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction Ferdinand de Saussure: father of modern linguistics Course in General Linguistics:

• A sentence contains a point of departure and a goal of discourse. The point of departure, called the theme, is the ground on which the speaker and the hearer meet.

• The goal of discourse, called the rheme, presents the very information that is to be imparted to the hearer.– Movement from theme to rheme reveals th

e movement of the mind itself.

Page 10: Chapter Twelve Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction Ferdinand de Saussure: father of modern linguistics Course in General Linguistics:

• Therefore, the functional sentence perspective (FSP) aims to describe how information is distributed in sentences.

• It deals particularly with the effect of the distribution of known (given) info and new info in discourse.– New info: to be transmitted to the reader or h

earer.– Sally stands on the table.

Theme Rheme

– On the table stands Sally.

Theme Rheme

Page 11: Chapter Twelve Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction Ferdinand de Saussure: father of modern linguistics Course in General Linguistics:

Three levels of a sentenceThree levels of a sentence

• Grammatical Sentence Pattern (GSP)• Semantic Sentence Pattern (SSP)• Communicative Sentence Pattern (CSP)

• John has written a novel.Subject Verb Object (GSP)Agent Action Goal (SSP)Theme Transition Rheme (CSP)

Page 12: Chapter Twelve Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction Ferdinand de Saussure: father of modern linguistics Course in General Linguistics:

Communicative dynamism (CD)Communicative dynamism (CD)

• J. Firbas

• Linguistic communication is dynamic, not static.– CD measures the amount of info

an element carries in a sentence. The degree of CD is the effect contributed by a linguistic element. For example,

Page 13: Chapter Twelve Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction Ferdinand de Saussure: father of modern linguistics Course in General Linguistics:

• He was cross.– CD: The lowest

degree of CD is carried by he, and the highest degree of CD is carried by cross, with the degree carried by was ranking between them.

Page 14: Chapter Twelve Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction Ferdinand de Saussure: father of modern linguistics Course in General Linguistics:

• Normally the subject carries a lower degree of CD than the verb and/or the object and/or adverbial provided either the verb or the object and/or adverbial are contextually independent. – This is because a known or unknown agent

expressed by the subject appears to be communicatively less important than an unknown action expressed by the finite verb and/or an unknown goal (object or adverbial of place) at or towards which the action is directed.

Page 15: Chapter Twelve Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction Ferdinand de Saussure: father of modern linguistics Course in General Linguistics:

• For example,– A man broke into the house

and stole all the money.

• The ultimate purpose of the communication is to state the action and/or its goal, not the agent.

Page 16: Chapter Twelve Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction Ferdinand de Saussure: father of modern linguistics Course in General Linguistics:

• However, if the subject is followed by a verb expressing “existence or appearance on the scene” and is contextually independent, then it will carry the highest degree of CD, because an unknown person or thing appearing on the scene is communicatively more important than the act of appearing and the scene itself, e.g.– An old man appeared in the waiting room a

t five o’clock.

Page 17: Chapter Twelve Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction Ferdinand de Saussure: father of modern linguistics Course in General Linguistics:

• If the subject is contextually dependent, a contextually independent adverbial of time or place becomes an important local and temporal specification, carrying greater degree of CD than both the subject and the finite verb, as in– The old man was sitting in

the waiting room.

Page 18: Chapter Twelve Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction Ferdinand de Saussure: father of modern linguistics Course in General Linguistics:

1.2 The London School1.2 The London School

• B. Malinowski (1884-1942), professor of anthropology (1927).

• J. R. Firth (1890-1960), the first professor of linguistics in the UK (1944).

• M. A. K. Halliday (1925- ), student of Firth.– All three stressed the importance

of context of situation and the system aspect of L.

Page 19: Chapter Twelve Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction Ferdinand de Saussure: father of modern linguistics Course in General Linguistics:

Malinowski’s theoriesMalinowski’s theories

• Language “is to be regarded as a mode of action, rather than as a counterpart of thought”.

• The meaning of an utterance comes from its relation to the situational context in which it occurs.

Page 20: Chapter Twelve Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction Ferdinand de Saussure: father of modern linguistics Course in General Linguistics:

• Three types of situational context:– situations in which speech interrelates wit

h bodily activity;– narrative situations;– situations in which speech is used to fill a

speech vacuum—phatic communion.

Page 21: Chapter Twelve Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction Ferdinand de Saussure: father of modern linguistics Course in General Linguistics:

Firth’s theoriesFirth’s theories

• Regarded L as a social process, a means of social life. – In order to live, human beings

have to learn and learning L is a means of participation in social activities.

– L is a means of doing things and of making others do things, a means of acting and living.

Page 22: Chapter Twelve Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction Ferdinand de Saussure: father of modern linguistics Course in General Linguistics:

• L is both inborn and acquired.• The object of linguistic study is L in use.• The goal of linguistic inquiry is to analyse

meaningful elements of L in order to establish corresponding relations between linguistic and non-linguistic elements.

• The method of linguistic study is to decide on the composite elements of L, explain their relations on various levels, and ultimately explicate the internal relations between these elements and human activities in the environment of language use.

Page 23: Chapter Twelve Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction Ferdinand de Saussure: father of modern linguistics Course in General Linguistics:

• Firth attempted to integrate linguistic studies with sociological studies: – because human beings are inseparable

from cultural values, and L is an important part of cultural values, linguistics can help reveal the social nature of human beings.

• Meaning is use, thus defining meaning as the relationship between an element at any level and its context on that level.

Page 24: Chapter Twelve Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction Ferdinand de Saussure: father of modern linguistics Course in General Linguistics:

• Therefore the meaning of any sentence consists of five parts:

– the relationship of each phoneme to its phonetic context;

– the relationship of each lexical item to the others in the sentence;

– the morphological relations of each word;– the sentence type of which the given

sentence is an example;– the relationship of the sentence to its

context of situation.

Page 25: Chapter Twelve Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction Ferdinand de Saussure: father of modern linguistics Course in General Linguistics:

• In analysing typical context of situation, one has to carry out the analysis on four levels:

• Internal relations of the text:– syntagmatic relations in structure– paradigmatic relations in system

• Internal relations of the context of situation:– relations between text and non-linguistic ele

ments– analytical relations between elements of the t

ext and elements within the situation

Page 26: Chapter Twelve Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction Ferdinand de Saussure: father of modern linguistics Course in General Linguistics:

• A model covering both the situational context and the linguistic context of a text:

• The relevant features of the participants: persons, personalities

– verbal action of participants– non-verbal action of participants

• The relevant topics, inc. objects, events, and non-linguistic, non-human events.

• The effects of the verbal action.

Page 27: Chapter Twelve Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction Ferdinand de Saussure: father of modern linguistics Course in General Linguistics:

• Prosodic analysis: prosodic phonology– Since any human utterance is continuous spe

ech flow made up of at least one syllable, it cannot be cut into independent units. Mere phonetic and phonological descriptions are insufficient.

– It is not phonemes that make up the paradigmatic relations, but Phonematic Units, the features of which are fewer than those of phonemes and are called prosodic units.

Page 28: Chapter Twelve Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction Ferdinand de Saussure: father of modern linguistics Course in General Linguistics:

• He did not define prosodic units, but his discussion indicates that they include such features as stress, length, nasalisation, palatalisation, and aspiration.

• In any case, these features cannot be found in one phonematic unit alone.

Page 29: Chapter Twelve Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction Ferdinand de Saussure: father of modern linguistics Course in General Linguistics:

Systemic-functional grammarSystemic-functional grammar

• M A K Halliday (1925- ).

• Two components and inseparable parts: – systemic grammar: internal

relations in L as a system network, meaning potential.

– functional grammar: L as a means of social interaction, uses or functions of language form.

Page 30: Chapter Twelve Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction Ferdinand de Saussure: father of modern linguistics Course in General Linguistics:

Systemic grammarSystemic grammar

finite…

clause

nonfinite…

nominal-group…

group adjectival-adverbial-group…

prep-phrase…

word …

Page 31: Chapter Twelve Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction Ferdinand de Saussure: father of modern linguistics Course in General Linguistics:

Functional grammarFunctional grammar

• Ideational function (experiential & logical): to convey new info, communicate a content unknown to the hearer

• Interpersonal function: to express social and personal relations

• Textual function: to make any stretch of spoken or written discourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living passage different from a random list of sentences.

Page 32: Chapter Twelve Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction Ferdinand de Saussure: father of modern linguistics Course in General Linguistics:
Page 33: Chapter Twelve Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction Ferdinand de Saussure: father of modern linguistics Course in General Linguistics:

2. Generative Grammar2. Generative Grammar

• NOAM CHOMSKY (1928- ), institute professor at MIT. Linguist, philosopher, and political activist.

Page 34: Chapter Twelve Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction Ferdinand de Saussure: father of modern linguistics Course in General Linguistics:

• The Logical Structure of Linguistic Theory (1955/1975)

• Syntactic Structures (1957)• Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (1965)• Cartesian Linguistics (1966)• The Sound Pattern of English (1968)• Language and Mind (1968/1972/2006)• Reflections on Language (1975)• Rules and Representations (1980)• Lectures on Government and Binding (1981)• Knowledge of Language (1986)• Barriers (1986)• Language and Problems of Knowledge (1988)• Language and Thought (1993)• The Minimalist Program (1995)• New Horizons in the Study of Language and Mind

(2000)• On Nature and Language (2002)

Page 35: Chapter Twelve Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction Ferdinand de Saussure: father of modern linguistics Course in General Linguistics:

2.1 Early theories (1957)2.1 Early theories (1957)

• Innateness hypothesis– Language acquisition mechanism– Competence and performance

• Transformations: generating an infinite set of sentences from a finite set of elements– Deep structure and surface structure– Phrase structure rules– Transformations

Page 36: Chapter Twelve Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction Ferdinand de Saussure: father of modern linguistics Course in General Linguistics:

Phrase structure rulesPhrase structure rules

• S NP VP

• VP V NP

• NP Det N

• V act, beat, catch, dive, …

• N man, boy, book, flower, ...

Page 37: Chapter Twelve Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction Ferdinand de Saussure: father of modern linguistics Course in General Linguistics:
Page 38: Chapter Twelve Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction Ferdinand de Saussure: father of modern linguistics Course in General Linguistics:

Transformational rulesTransformational rules

• NP1 + Aux + V + NP2

• John + will + write + a story

• NP2 + Aux + be + en + V + by + NP1

• a story + will + be + en + write + by + John

Page 39: Chapter Twelve Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction Ferdinand de Saussure: father of modern linguistics Course in General Linguistics:

2.2 The standard theory (1965)2.2 The standard theory (1965)

• Colorless green ideas sleep furiously. Subcategorization– N [+N, Common]– [+Common] [Count]– [+Count] [Animate]– [-Common] [Animate]– [+Animate] [Human]– [-Count] [Abstract]

Page 40: Chapter Twelve Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction Ferdinand de Saussure: father of modern linguistics Course in General Linguistics:

• sincerity– [+N, +Common, -Count,

+Abstract]

• boy– [+N, +Common, +Count,

+Animate, +Human]

Page 41: Chapter Twelve Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction Ferdinand de Saussure: father of modern linguistics Course in General Linguistics:
Page 42: Chapter Twelve Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction Ferdinand de Saussure: father of modern linguistics Course in General Linguistics:

2.3 Extended standard theory2.3 Extended standard theory

Page 43: Chapter Twelve Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction Ferdinand de Saussure: father of modern linguistics Course in General Linguistics:
Page 44: Chapter Twelve Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction Ferdinand de Saussure: father of modern linguistics Course in General Linguistics:

• Trace theory: a phonetically null element to occupy the position from which a syntactic element has been moved.– I really love Mary – Mary I really love t

Page 45: Chapter Twelve Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction Ferdinand de Saussure: father of modern linguistics Course in General Linguistics:

• Indexing:

– Whoi said Mary kissed himi?

– whoi [S ti said Mary kissed himi]

– *Whoi did hei say Mary kissed?

– *whoi [S hei said Mary kissed ti]

– Johni said Mary kissed himi

– *hei said Mary kissed Johni

Page 46: Chapter Twelve Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction Ferdinand de Saussure: father of modern linguistics Course in General Linguistics:
Page 47: Chapter Twelve Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction Ferdinand de Saussure: father of modern linguistics Course in General Linguistics:
Page 48: Chapter Twelve Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction Ferdinand de Saussure: father of modern linguistics Course in General Linguistics:

2.4 GB/PP theory (1981)2.4 GB/PP theory (1981)

• Government and Binding Theory (early)

• or

• Principles and parameters Theory (later)

• 1980s

Page 49: Chapter Twelve Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction Ferdinand de Saussure: father of modern linguistics Course in General Linguistics:
Page 50: Chapter Twelve Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction Ferdinand de Saussure: father of modern linguistics Course in General Linguistics:

PrinciplesPrinciples

• X-bar theory• Government theory• Binding theory• Case theory-theory• Bounding theory• Control theory

Page 51: Chapter Twelve Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction Ferdinand de Saussure: father of modern linguistics Course in General Linguistics:

GovernmentGovernment

• speak the language (speak governs the language)

• speak about the language (about governs the language, speak governs about the language)

Page 52: Chapter Twelve Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction Ferdinand de Saussure: father of modern linguistics Course in General Linguistics:

C-commandC-command

Page 53: Chapter Twelve Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction Ferdinand de Saussure: father of modern linguistics Course in General Linguistics:
Page 54: Chapter Twelve Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction Ferdinand de Saussure: father of modern linguistics Course in General Linguistics:

BindingBinding

• The logical relation between a quantifier and a variable.

• Binding Theory:– A. An anaphor is bound in its governing

category.– B. A pronominal is free in its governing

category.– C. An r-expression is free.

Page 55: Chapter Twelve Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction Ferdinand de Saussure: father of modern linguistics Course in General Linguistics:

• Anaphora– ‘oneself’ and ‘each other’

– John1 likes himself1.

– They1 hit each other1.

– John1 doesn’t like Bill’s2 criticism of himself2.

– John1 likes him2.

– Bill1 says John2 likes him1.

– Bill1 says John2 likes the man3.

Page 56: Chapter Twelve Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction Ferdinand de Saussure: father of modern linguistics Course in General Linguistics:

ParametersParameters

• The null subject parameter

• Head parameter

• Wh-parameter

Page 57: Chapter Twelve Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction Ferdinand de Saussure: father of modern linguistics Course in General Linguistics:

2.5 The Minimalist Program2.5 The Minimalist Program

Page 58: Chapter Twelve Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction Ferdinand de Saussure: father of modern linguistics Course in General Linguistics:

(1) He has become very fond of Mary.TP

T′

VP

AP

A′

PP

PRN

T

V

ADV

A

P NMaryof

fond

very

become

has

He

MergeMerge

Page 59: Chapter Twelve Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction Ferdinand de Saussure: father of modern linguistics Course in General Linguistics:

(2) You will marry me. (2a) Will you marry me?

CP

TP

T′

VP

C

PRN

T

CP

TP

T′

VP

C

PRN

Tyou

will

marryV N

me

Ø

V Nmemarry

will

you

QWill+

MoveMove

Page 60: Chapter Twelve Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction Ferdinand de Saussure: father of modern linguistics Course in General Linguistics:

(3) I care not for her.(3) I care not for her. (Shakespearean English)(Shakespearean English)

CP

TP

T′

VP

C

PRN

T

I

care

not

PRNme

Ø

PP

V′ADV

Vcare

Pfor

Page 61: Chapter Twelve Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction Ferdinand de Saussure: father of modern linguistics Course in General Linguistics:

(3a) Know you not the cause?

CP

TP

T′

VP

V′

DPV

ADV

T

PRN

CKnow

you

know

not

know the cause

(2)

(1)