Chapter 3 Foundations of Planning 規畫的基礎 PART II: Planning

Chapter 3

Foundations of Planning

規畫的基礎

PART II: Planning

3–2 Management─ Foundations of Planning 吳明泉博士 2006

Learning Objectives

1. Define planning.

2. Benefits vs. drawbacks of planning.

3. Types of Planning

4. Management by objectives

5. Outline the steps in the strategic management process.

6. Four grand strategies.

7. SWOT analysis.

8. Competitive advantage


Planning Defined• Defining the organization’s objectives or goals定義組織之目標及標的

• Establishing an overall strategy for achieving those goals建立整體策略

• Developing a comprehensive hierarchy of plans to integrate and coordinate activities發展全面性的計畫以整合及協調活動

• Planning is concerned with ends (what is to be done) as well as with means (how it is to be done).


Reasons for Planning


Criticisms Of Formal Planning• Planning may create rigidity.

• Plans can’t be developed for a dynamic environment.

• Formal plans can’t replace intuition and creativity.

• Planning focuses managers’ attention on today’s competition, not on tomorrow’s survival.

• Formal planning reinforces success, which may lead to failure.


對於正式計畫的批評 •計畫會造成僵化。 •在動態的環境下無法發展計畫。•正式計畫無法替代直覺與創造力。 •計畫使管理者注意於今日的競爭，而非明日的生存。 •正式的計畫增強成功，也可能導致失敗。


Planning and Performance• Formal planning generally means higher profits, higher return on assets, and other positive financial results.

• Planning process quality and implementation probably contribute more to high performance than does the extent of planning.

• When external environment restrictions allowed managers few viable alternatives, planning did not lead to higher performance.


規劃與績效的關係•第一，正式規劃會與高利潤、高資產報酬率及其它正面的財務結果一起出現。•第二，規劃程序的品質與適宜的計畫執行或許較規劃的幅度範圍對高績效的貢獻更大。•最後，在那些正式規劃未能導致高績效的研究中，環境因素是典型的癥結所在。


Types of Plans

Exhibit 3.2

BREADTH TIME SPECIFICITY FREQUENCY OF USE FRAME OF USE

Strategic Long term Directional Single use

Tactical Short term Specific Standing

• 使用廣度‧ 策略性‧ 作業性

時間幅度• 長期• 短期

明確度• 方向性• 特定性

使用頻率 ‧單次使用 ‧常設計畫


Planning: Focus and Time • Strategic plans

Plans that are organization-wide, establish overall objectives, and position an organization in terms of its environment應用於整體組織，建立組織整體目標，探尋組織在所處環境中之定位的計畫

• Tactical plansPlans that specify the details of how an

organization’s overall objectives are to be achieved對於所有整體目標如何達成的細節計畫

• Short-term plans ＜ 1yr• Long-term plans ＞ 5yrs


Strategic Planning• Strategic plans

Apply broadly to the entire organization.Establish the organization’s overall

objectives.Seek to position the organization in terms of

its environment. Provide direction to drive an organization’s

efforts to achieve its goals.Serve as the basis for the tactical plans.Cover extended periods of time.Are less specific in their details.


Tactical Planning• Tactical plans (operational plans)

Apply to specific parts of the organization.

Are derived from strategic objectives.

Specify the details of how the overall objectives are to be achieved.

Cover shorter periods of time.

Must be updated continuously to meet current challenges.


Directional versus Specific Plans

Exhibit 3.3


Specific and Directional Plans• Specific plans

Plans that have clearly defined objectives and leave no room for misinterpretation.“What, when, where, how much, and by whom”

(process-focus)

• Directional plansFlexible plans that set out general

guidelines.“Go from here to there” (outcome-focus)


Single-Use and Standing Plans• Single-use plans單一用途計畫

A plan that is used to meet the needs of a particular or unique situationSingle-day sales advertisement

• Standing plan經常性計畫A plan that is ongoing and provides

guidance for repeatedly performed actions in an organizationCustomer satisfaction policy


Management by Objectives (MBO) 目標管理

• Specific performance objectives are jointly determined by subordinates and their supervisors, progress is periodically reviewed, and rewards are allocated on the basis of that progress.

• Cascading of Objectives • Focuses operational efforts on organizationally important results.

• Motivates rather than controls.


Cascading of Objectives 階層化目標

Exhibit 3.4


Elements of MBO• Goal specificity

• Participative decision making

• Explicit time period for performance

• Performance feedback•目標詳盡•參與性決策•明確期限•績效回饋


Setting Employee Objectives• Identify an employee’s key job tasks.

• Establish specific and challenging goals for each key task.

• Allow the employee to actively participate.

• Prioritize goals.

• Build in feedback mechanisms to assess goal progress.

• Link rewards to goal attainment.


如何設定員工的目標？ •定義員工主要工作任務。 •針對每項主要任務建立詳盡且具挑戰性的目標。 •讓員工主動參與。•排定目標優先順序。 •建立評估目標進度的回饋機制。•目標達成與獎勵關聯。


目標設定原則─ SMART

明確 Specific

可衡量 Measurable

可達成 Achievable

成果導向 Result-oriented

期限 Timely


GoalGoalDifficultyDifficulty

GoalGoalDifficultyDifficulty

Is There a Downside to Is There a Downside to MBO?MBO?

GoalGoalSpecificitySpecificity

GoalGoalSpecificitySpecificity

Top Top ManagementManagement

Top Top ManagementManagement ParticipationParticipation ParticipationParticipation


Strategic Management Process策略管理程序

A nine-step process that involves strategic planning, implementation ( 執行） , and evaluation （評估）

Exhibit 3.5



The Organization’s Current Identity• Mission 任務 statement

Defines the present purpose of the organization.

• ObjectivesSpecific measures (milestones) for

achievement, progress, and performance.

• Strategic planA document that explains the business

founders’ vision and describes the strategy and operations of that business.


Analyze the Environment• Environmental scanning 環境審視

Screening large amounts of information to detect emerging trends and create a set of scenarios

• Competitive intelligence 競爭情報Accurate information about competitors

that allows managers to anticipate competitors’ actions rather than merely react to them


SWOT: Identifying Organizational Opportunities

Analysis of an organization’s strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats in order to identify a strategic niche that the organization can exploit.分析將組織之強勢、弱勢、機會及威脅等綜合在一起，以期找出組織可以發展的利基。

Exhibit 3.6


SWOT Analysis• Strengths (strategic)

Internal resources that are available or things that an organization does well. Core competency: a unique skill or resource that

represents a competitive edge. 核心能力• Weaknesses

Resources that an organization lacks or activities that it does not do well.

• Opportunities (strategic)Positive external environmental factors.

• ThreatsNegative external environmental factors.


如何分析威脅 Threat


Grand Strategies• Growth 成長 strategy

A strategy in which an organization attempts to increase the level of its operations.

• Stability 穩定 strategyA strategy that is characterized by an absence of

significant change.

• Retrenchment 縮減 strategyA strategy characteristic of a company that is

reducing its size, usually in an environment of decline.

• Combination 組合 strategyThe simultaneous pursuit by an organization of two or

more of growth, stability, and retrenchment strategies.


SWOT分析分組練習試想以下三例：• 吾家有女初長成，急想物色一如意郎君作朋友。

• 吾家有男情初開，急想交一女友伴讀，完成大學學業。

• 吾家小榮（蓉）即將畢業於長榮資管系，投入職場。

如何幫他（她）作 SWOT分析，以訂出較好的策略。


Growth Strategies• Direct Expansion 擴張

Involves increasing a company’s size, revenues, operation, or workforce.

• Merger 合併Occurs when two companies, usually of

similar size, combine their resources to form a new company.

• Acquisition 併購Occurs when a larger company buys a

smaller one and incorporates the acquired company’s operations into its own.


Competitive Strategies 競爭策略• Strategies that position an organization in such a way that it will have a distinct advantage over its competition:Cost-leadership strategy成本導向

Becoming the lowest-cost producer in an industry.

Differentiation strategy差異化Attempting to be unique in an industry within a

broad market.

Focus strategy 聚焦Attempting to establish an advantage (such as cost

or differentiation) in a narrow market segment.


Sustaining 延續 a Competitive Advantage• Competitive advantage counts for little if it cannot be sustained over the long-term.Factors reducing competitive advantage

Evolutionary changes in the industryTechnological changesCustomer preferences Imitation by competitors

Defending competitive advantagePatents, copyrights, trademarks, regulations, and

tariffsCompeting on priceLong-term contracts with suppliers (and customers)


Evaluating Strategy

StrategyStrategyFormulationFormulation

StrategyStrategyFormulationFormulation

EvaluationEvaluation EvaluationEvaluation

ImplementationImplementationand Executionand Execution

ImplementationImplementationand Executionand Execution


Quality as a Strategic Weapon• Benchmarking 標竿管理

The search for the best practices among competitors or noncompetitors that lead to their superior performance.

• ISO 9000 seriesStandards designed by the International

Organization for Standardization (ISO) that reflect a process whereby independent auditors attest that a company’s factory, laboratory, or office has met quality management requirements.


Six Sigma 六個標準差• A philosophy and measurement process developed in the 1980s at Motorola.

• To design, measure, analyze, and control the input side of a production process to achieve the goal of no more than 3.4 defects per million parts or procedures.

• A philosophy and measurement process that attempts to design in quality as a product is being made.


Six Sigma 12-Process Steps• Select the critical-to-quality characteristics.

• Define the required performance standards.

• Validate measurement system, methods, and procedures.

• Establish the current processes’ capability.

• Define upper and lower performance limits.

• Identify sources of variation.

• Screen potential causes of variation to identify the vital few variables needing control.

• Discover variation relationship for the vital variables.

• Establish operating tolerances on each of the vital variables.

• Validate the measurement system’s ability to produce repeatable data.

• Determine the capability of the process to control the vital variables.

• Implement statistical process control on the vital variables.


Identifying A Competitive Advantage• Environmental sources of entrepreneurial opportunityThe unexpectedThe incongruousThe process needIndustry and market structuresDemographicsChanges in perceptionNew knowledge


Homework 2: SWOT 分析與策略規畫• 選擇一組織作為個案研究之對象。 • 簡介該組織，並指出（或定義）該組織

之任務（ Mission Statement) 、目標及策略。

• 為該組織完成一 SWOT 分析。 • 根據該分析，提出（或修正）該組織的

競爭策略為何？ • 討論這些策略與教科書所提的策略有那

些異同？ • 繳交時間：第七週上課

Documents

Chapter 3 Foundations of Planning 規畫的基礎 PART II: Planning