Chapter 2The Early Civilizations of South and East Asia

The Indian Subcontinent

The Indian Subcontinent

1. The ancient Harappan civilization, like that of the Mesopotamian and Egyptian, was located on a fertile flood plain. Several large rivers flow west and south out of the western Himalaya Mountains in Kashmir and the Punjab (meaning "five rivers") merging into the single river of the Indus which empties into the Arabian Sea. The Indus River brings with it soil from the highlands which is deposited on the plain. Periodic flooding means that cities and towns in the river lowlands have to be rebuilt repeatedly.

2. The civilization of the Indus River valley from about 3200 to 1600 B.C.E. extended from the Arabian Sea to the Oxus River in northern Afghanistan. To the east is the Thar Desert and to the west the Kirthar Mountain Range. Although the society was based upon agriculture, it was essentially urban in nature with trade connections that included Mesopotamia. The two principal sites were Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa on the Indus River.

3. Mohenjo-Daro (archaeological term meaning "city or mound of the dead") was located about three hundred miles up the Indus River on the right bank. The city, like Harappa, had a population of about 35,000, was over three miles in circumference and built of fired mud brick. Defending Mohenjo-Daro were towers some forty to fifty feet high. The buildings were laid out on a grid pattern with straight streets varying from nine to thirty-four feet wide (as compared to Sumer in Mesopotamia which had irregular streets). Within the city were walled neighborhoods with some houses standing three or four stories.

4. The economy of the Indus valley was based on a thriving agriculture. The main crops were wheat and barley with ancillary products of peas, lentils, sesame, and cotton. Domesticated animals included cattle, dogs, goats, sheep, fowl, elephants, and water buffalo. Manufacturing included cotton weaving, metal working, and wheel-driven pottery. The metal working included copper and bronze as well as gold from southern India and silver from Afghanistan. Trade also existed with Mesopotamia 1500 miles to the west.

5. The end of the Harappa civilization is shrouded in mystery. Collapse by about 1600 B.C.E. was apparently preceded by a period of long decay. Some have suggested there were earthquakes and floods that altered the Indus River and flooded densely populated areas. Others speculate that demands on the land including deforestation contributed to the decline. At one time, it was thought the collapse was caused by warlike invaders called Aryans from Afghanistan and Iran that attacked the upper Indus areas about 1800 B.C.E. However, archaeologists now question whether there was a cataclysmic destruction by invaders. Thus, there is no definite explanation for the collapse of the Harappan.

6. As a result of Persian conquests about 500 B.C.E., the Indus valley became a satrapy (province). Alexander the Great’s defeat of the Persians was followed by a march through the Hindu Kush into the upper Indus valley in 327-326 B.C.E. The death of Alexander (323 B.C.E.) and the ensuing confusion gave Chandragupta Maurya (332-298 B.C.E.) from the Ganges valley an opportunity to seize control over northern India, creating the Mauryan Empire. The greatest of the Mauryan rulers was Chandragupta's grandson Asoka (269-232 B.C.E.). In 274 B.C.E, Asoka rebelled against the ruler, his older brother. After four years of bloody fighting, he gained the throne in 269 B.C.E. Asoka continued his wars until 260 B.C.E. when a savage campaign conquered the last independent kingdom in northern India. The slaughter so appalled Asoka that he forswore violence and embraced Buddhism. The empire was now used to spread Buddhism throughout India and reached Tamraparni (modern Sri Lanka). Asoka used diplomatic means to win submission from most of the remaining states until his empire extended from Afghanistan to Mysore in the southern Deccan plain.

Questions:1. What was the role of geography in the forming of the Indus River civilization?2. How could the diversity of the economy contribute to a thriving civilization?3. How does Harappan civilization compare with Mesopotamia and Egypt?

The Indian Subcontinent

1. The ancient Harappan civilization, like that of the Mesopotamian and Egyptian, was located on a fertile flood plain. Several large rivers flow west and south out of the western Himalaya Mountains in Kashmir and the Punjab (meaning "five rivers") merging into the single river of the Indus which empties into the Arabian Sea. The Indus River brings with it soil from the highlands which is deposited on the plain. Periodic flooding means that cities and towns in the river lowlands have to be rebuilt repeatedly.

2. The civilization of the Indus River valley from about 3200 to 1600 B.C.E. extended from the Arabian Sea to the Oxus River in northern Afghanistan. To the east is the Thar Desert and to the west the Kirthar Mountain Range. Although the society was based upon agriculture, it was essentially urban in nature with trade connections that included Mesopotamia. The two principal sites were Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa on the Indus River.

3. Mohenjo-Daro (archaeological term meaning "city or mound of the dead") was located about three hundred miles up the Indus River on the right bank. The city, like Harappa, had a population of about 35,000, was over three miles in circumference and built of fired mud brick. Defending Mohenjo-Daro were towers some forty to fifty feet high. The buildings were laid out on a grid pattern with straight streets varying from nine to thirty-four feet wide (as compared to Sumer in Mesopotamia which had irregular streets). Within the city were walled neighborhoods with some houses standing three or four stories.

4. The economy of the Indus valley was based on a thriving agriculture. The main crops were wheat and barley with ancillary products of peas, lentils, sesame, and cotton. Domesticated animals included cattle, dogs, goats, sheep, fowl, elephants, and water buffalo. Manufacturing included cotton weaving, metal working, and wheel-driven pottery. The metal working included copper and bronze as well as gold from southern India and silver from Afghanistan. Trade also existed with Mesopotamia 1500 miles to the west.

5. The end of the Harappa civilization is shrouded in mystery. Collapse by about 1600 B.C.E. was apparently preceded by a period of long decay. Some have suggested there were earthquakes and floods that altered the Indus River and flooded densely populated areas. Others speculate that demands on the land including deforestation contributed to the decline. At one time, it was thought the collapse was caused by warlike invaders called Aryans from Afghanistan and Iran that attacked the upper Indus areas about 1800 B.C.E. However, archaeologists now question whether there was a cataclysmic destruction by invaders. Thus, there is no definite explanation for the collapse of the Harappan.

6. As a result of Persian conquests about 500 B.C.E., the Indus valley became a satrapy (province). Alexander the Great’s defeat of the Persians was followed by a march through the Hindu Kush into the upper Indus valley in 327-326 B.C.E. The death of Alexander (323 B.C.E.) and the ensuing confusion gave Chandragupta Maurya (332-298 B.C.E.) from the Ganges valley an opportunity to seize control over northern India, creating the Mauryan Empire. The greatest of the Mauryan rulers was Chandragupta's grandson Asoka (269-232 B.C.E.). In 274 B.C.E, Asoka rebelled against the ruler, his older brother. After four years of bloody fighting, he gained the throne in 269 B.C.E. Asoka continued his wars until 260 B.C.E. when a savage campaign conquered the last independent kingdom in northern India. The slaughter so appalled Asoka that he forswore violence and embraced Buddhism. The empire was now used to spread Buddhism throughout India and reached Tamraparni (modern Sri Lanka). Asoka used diplomatic means to win submission from most of the remaining states until his empire extended from Afghanistan to Mysore in the southern Deccan plain.

Questions:1. What was the role of geography in the forming of the Indus River civilization?2. How could the diversity of the economy contribute to a thriving civilization?3. How does Harappan civilization compare with Mesopotamia and Egypt?

The Citadel at Mohenjo-Daro

The Indus River Civilization, 2500-1500 B.C.E. Land of India

Indus and Ganges RiversClimate

Beginning of the Indus CivilizationIndus sealsMohenjo-Daro and HarappaTradeReligion

End of Indus CivilizationBarbarians from the north

The Aryan Invasion and Early Vedic Age Rig-Veda – holy book of Hinduism Aryan (Aryas) people

DasaFour classes or castes

Brahmans (priests) Kshatriyas (warriors) Vaisyas (landlords and artisans) Sudras (serfs and servants)

Patrilineal and patriarchal societyPastoral and farming economyReligionWriting – Sanskrit

The Late Vedic Age Caste distinctions become more rigid New ideals of respect for animals Gap grows wider between the top and bottom castes Decline of the position of women Religion

Karma Transmigration of souls

Asceticism Upanishads, 800-300 B.C.E.

108 essays dealing with ethical questionsMonism

Ancient China

1. Three neolithic cultures appear to have existed in ancient China. Agricultural evidence exists on the highland plain which surrounds the Yellow River valley, in the valleys of the lower Yangtze and Huai Rivers, and on the southern coast, including the island of Taiwan. Of the three areas, the plain surrounding the Yellow River is regarded as the cradle of Chinese civilization. It is here that the land is covered with a soil called loess that is composed of fine loam and dust carried by winds from the central plateau of Asia. The color of the soil gave name to the Yellow River and Yellow Sea. The soil is easily cultivated with primitive digging sticks.

2. Chinese civilization dates from the founding of the Xia (Hsia) dynasty, 2205-1766 B.C.E. The founder of the dynasty was a ruler named Yu who introduced irrigation and the draining of floodwater by canals. The Xia dynasty was replaced by the second dynasty, the Shang, which was concentrated in northern China on the semi-arid plain surrounding the middle of the Yellow River. This agricultural society flourished from 1766 to 1172 B.C.E. It built a number of fortified cities including Zhengzhu, probably the oldest city in China, and Anyang, the last capital of the Shang. Anyang, located eighty miles north of the Yellow River, was a walled city inside which were public buildings, alters, and the residences of the aristocracy. Outside the walls were numerous tribal villages. The society was stratified, composed of an aristocracy, craftsmen, and farmers.

3. The Shang kingdom controlled only a small area of China but apparently exerted influence over a wider region through trade and military activity that utilized two-horse chariots and the bow and arrow. The Shang also developed highly sophisticated bronze metallurgy and an elaborate system of writing. In the twelfth century B.C.E., the Shang was overthrown by a new dynasty that called itself the Zhou (Chou).

4. The Zhou (Chou) lasted from 1172 to 221 B.C.E. In the west, the Zhou kept their capital in the Wei River valley while establishing an eastern capital at Luoyang along the southern bend of the Yellow River. In 771 B.C.E. the Wei valley was overrun by invaders and the Zhou transferred themselves to Luoyang. Continuing the practice of the Shang, the kingdom was divided into principalities governed by officials appointed by the king. Although officials were subordinate to the authority of the king, increasingly they acted independently (some even calling themselves kings). By the eighth century B.C.E., eleven states had emerged. Smaller states sought to defend themselves against the aggression of the large states by forming alliances. The earliest of these associations was formed in 681 B.C.E. against the Qu (Ch'u) on the middle Yangtze River. The defensive alliances eventually broke down and the stronger states conquered the weaker ones.

5. The period of the Warring States (401-256 B.C.E.) followed the disintegration of the alliances and the challenging of the Zhou authority. Powerful states emerged including the previously mentioned Qu. The state of Wu dominated the lower Yangtze by the sixth century B.C.E. Yueh controlled the southeastern coast while Qi established dominance over the Shantung peninsula in the seventh and sixth centuries B.C.E. Qin became the key state in the civil war as it defeated its enemies through military action and diplomacy. In 221 B.C.E. the new Qin dynasty was established.

Questions:1. How does the development of civilization in China compare to that of Mesopotamia and India? 2. What was the future consequence for China of the period of strife among the various states?

Ancient China

1. Three neolithic cultures appear to have existed in ancient China. Agricultural evidence exists on the highland plain which surrounds the Yellow River valley, in the valleys of the lower Yangtze and Huai Rivers, and on the southern coast, including the island of Taiwan. Of the three areas, the plain surrounding the Yellow River is regarded as the cradle of Chinese civilization. It is here that the land is covered with a soil called loess that is composed of fine loam and dust carried by winds from the central plateau of Asia. The color of the soil gave name to the Yellow River and Yellow Sea. The soil is easily cultivated with primitive digging sticks.

2. Chinese civilization dates from the founding of the Xia (Hsia) dynasty, 2205-1766 B.C.E. The founder of the dynasty was a ruler named Yu who introduced irrigation and the draining of floodwater by canals. The Xia dynasty was replaced by the second dynasty, the Shang, which was concentrated in northern China on the semi-arid plain surrounding the middle of the Yellow River. This agricultural society flourished from 1766 to 1172 B.C.E. It built a number of fortified cities including Zhengzhu, probably the oldest city in China, and Anyang, the last capital of the Shang. Anyang, located eighty miles north of the Yellow River, was a walled city inside which were public buildings, alters, and the residences of the aristocracy. Outside the walls were numerous tribal villages. The society was stratified, composed of an aristocracy, craftsmen, and farmers.

3. The Shang kingdom controlled only a small area of China but apparently exerted influence over a wider region through trade and military activity that utilized two-horse chariots and the bow and arrow. The Shang also developed highly sophisticated bronze metallurgy and an elaborate system of writing. In the twelfth century B.C.E., the Shang was overthrown by a new dynasty that called itself the Zhou (Chou).

4. The Zhou (Chou) lasted from 1172 to 221 B.C.E. In the west, the Zhou kept their capital in the Wei River valley while establishing an eastern capital at Luoyang along the southern bend of the Yellow River. In 771 B.C.E. the Wei valley was overrun by invaders and the Zhou transferred themselves to Luoyang. Continuing the practice of the Shang, the kingdom was divided into principalities governed by officials appointed by the king. Although officials were subordinate to the authority of the king, increasingly they acted independently (some even calling themselves kings). By the eighth century B.C.E., eleven states had emerged. Smaller states sought to defend themselves against the aggression of the large states by forming alliances. The earliest of these associations was formed in 681 B.C.E. against the Qu (Ch'u) on the middle Yangtze River. The defensive alliances eventually broke down and the stronger states conquered the weaker ones.

5. The period of the Warring States (401-256 B.C.E.) followed the disintegration of the alliances and the challenging of the Zhou authority. Powerful states emerged including the previously mentioned Qu. The state of Wu dominated the lower Yangtze by the sixth century B.C.E. Yueh controlled the southeastern coast while Qi established dominance over the Shantung peninsula in the seventh and sixth centuries B.C.E. Qin became the key state in the civil war as it defeated its enemies through military action and diplomacy. In 221 B.C.E. the new Qin dynasty was established.

Questions:1. How does the development of civilization in China compare to that of Mesopotamia and India? 2. What was the future consequence for China of the period of strife among the various states?

Ancient China

China from the Neolithic Age to the Shang Dynasty Land Hsia dynasty, c. 2205-1766 B.C.E. Shang dynasty, 1766-1122 B.C.E.

Anyang and AoOracle bones

GovernmentMandate of Heaven

Society and EconomyPredominantly agricultural

Science, Arts, and CraftsBronze ritual vessels and jade

Pictographic script

Chou Dynasty King Wen, King Wu, and Duke of Chou

Chinese feudalismCity buildersRank and position inheritedFarmers were serfs, units of 8 familiesAgricultural revolution, 6th century B.C.E.Religion

Eastern Chou, 770-256 B.C.E.MilitaryAgricultural improvements

controlling floods and irrigation fertilization and crop rotation iron farm implements