Chapter II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

In this chapter review of literature pertinent to the present investigation

is presented in order to provide background material for under taking the

research study. Both critical and allied literature were reviewed and abstracts

of relevant studies are cited here as under.

Hofstetter MC, Mader U and Wysss T (2011) investigated the effects

of a seven-week outdoor circuit training program on Swiss Army recruits. An

intervention group (standard and additional training, n = 134, 21.0 + 1.1

years, 74.1 + 10.0 kg and 1.78 + 0.1 m) and a control group (standard training

only, n = 125, 20.4 + 1.2 years, 73.3 + 9.1 kg and 1.78 + 0.1 m) from the

same fusilier infantry training school were compared. Physical standard

training in the Swiss Army is specified to consist of two sessions with a total

duration of at least three hours per week. Groups of 20 to 50 recruits undergo

these trainings in a gym hall and outdoors. Standard training includes a wide

range of exercise and sport activities (strength and aerobic fitness training,

team sports, obstacle courses, physical fitness tests, and orienteering). The

additional circuit fitness training program implemented in this study was

conducted once a week for 60 minutes. It was performed outdoors and

consisted of the same exercises every week (warm-up, squats, prone bridge,

back/shoulder exercise, stair climbing, side bridge, single leg balance,

walking on a balance beam, intermitted running and active recovery).

Volunteers’ physical fitness was assessed during the first and last weeks of

basic military training (7 weeks) using a standing long jump, seated 2-kg shot

put, one-leg standing test (OLS), trunk muscle strength test (TMS), and

progressive endurance run (PER). Injury data were collected in medical

records for the 21 weeks of military training school. The intervention group

performed 1.0 session of standard training for 70.0 minutes and 1.0 session

of additional outdoor circuit training for 50.0 minutes per week. The control

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group performed 1.3 session of standard training for a total of 70.7 minutes

per week. After the seven-week basic military training, the intervention and

the control groups showed significant improvements in OLS (35.63 and

3.79%), TMS (29.84 and 11.31%), PER (15.64 and 16.37%), and total

physical fitness score (12.04 and 7.78%, p<0.05). The intervention group

showed significantly greater improvements in OLS, TMS, and total physical

fitness score than the control group (p<0.05). No significant difference in

injury incidence rate between the two study groups (intervention group : 14.2,

control group : 13.9 injuries/month/100 persons) was registered. The results

indicate that the change from a civilian daily routing to the physically more

demanding military routine led to significant improvements in physical fitness

in both study groups. The additional outdoor circuit training session per week

led to greater improvements in total physical fitness score, but did not

increase injury rates.

Miura Hajime (2005) studied the effects of long-term low-intensity

circuit training on artery stiffness in sedentary women. Twenty healthy women

divided into two groups (training group and control group). In the training

group, subjects asked to perform the resistance exercise consisted of arm

curls, bench presses, lateral pull-downs, leg presses and squats 3 days per

week for 2 months. They conducted 5 sets at 30% of their 10RM. Aerobic

capacity (ventilatory threshold [VT]), muscle strength, resting blood pressure,

and arterial stiffness index (brachial-ankle Pulse Wave Velocity [baPWV])

were evaluated before and after training period. After the low-intensity circuit

training, work rate at VT was significantly increased (108.6 + – .25.6W to

128.1 + –.24.3W). The baPWV was significantly decreased (988.7+-.80.5cm

sec’–1’ to 895.7+-.62.6cm sec’-1’). In control group, however, there were no

significant differences during same duration. These results suggested that

long-term low-intensity circuit training attenuates the large artery stiffness in

healthy women. This kind of exercise may have great potential to lower the

risks of circulatory illness in aged men.

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Taskin Halil (2009) conducted a study to determine the effect of circuit

training directed toward motion and action velocity over the sprint-agility and

anaerobic endurance. A total of 32 healthy male physical education students

with a mean age of 23.93 + 1.81 years were randomly allocated into a circuit

training group (CTG; n = 16) and control group (CG; n = 16). A circuit training

consisting of 8 stations was applied to the subjects 3 days a week for 10

weeks. Circuit training program was executed with 75% of maximal motion

numbers in each station. The FIFA Medical Assessment and Research

Centre (F-MARC) test battery, which was designed by FIFA, was used for

measuring sprint-agility and anaerobic endurance. Pre-and post training

testing of participants included assessments of sprint-agility and anaerobic

endurance. Following training, there was a significant (p <0.05) difference in

sprint-agility between pre- and posttesting for the CTG (pretest = 14.76 + 0.48

seconds, posttest = 14.47 + 0.43 seconds). Also, there was a significant (p <

0.05) difference in anaerobic endurance between pre- and posttesting for the

CG (pretest = 31.53 + 0.48 seconds, posttest = 30.73 + 0.50 seconds). In

conclusion, circuit training, which is designed to be performed 3 days a week

during 10 weeks for training, improves sprint-agility and anaerobic endurance.

Kristina Neri (2008) studied the effect of a 6-week circuit weight

training program on level of physical activity enjoyment and fitness among

previously sedentary middle-aged women. Ten women, ages 31 to 51 years

old, were assessed for physical fitness (curl up test, push up test, and step

test) and given the Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale (PACES). Participants

completed 6 weeks of progressive circuit weight training, 2 days a week for

60 minutes each day. The circuit consisted of 10 stations with cardiovascular

and muscular endurance exercises. A1 (group) x 8 (time) repeated measures

ANOVA with follow-up pairwise comparisons was used to determine if there

were significant (p<0.05) differences in the PACES score. Results indicated a

significant (p < .05) increase in PACES scores from the pretest (85.80 +/-

19.95) to the posttest (102.10+/-15.19). Results were also significantly greater

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at week 1, 2 and 6. Three simple 1 (group) x 2 (time) ANOVAs were used to

determine any differences for the fitness variables. The results indicated

significantly (p < .05) greater scores for upper body and abdominal muscular

endurance, but no significant (p < .05) difference in recovery heart rate.

These results indicate a relatively brief physical activity program can increase

physical activity enjoyment and fitness levels among a sedentary middle-aged

female population.

Joshkatz Willson B.R.A. (1992) studied of the effects of a six-week,

low-intensity Nautilus circuit training program on resting blood pressure in

females. Twenty-six healthy, untrained females were studied to determine the

effects of a low-intensity Nautilus circuit training program on resting systolic

and diastolic blood pressure. Thirteen subjects who were in good health with

no personal history or family history of cardiovascular disease participated in

a six-week training program on the Nautilus circuit (14 exercises) and trained

at 30% of maximum. Measurements in blood pressure were made before,

during (three times per week) and after the study. Another group of 13

females served as controls. An attempt was made to determine if strength

increase (due to circuit training) would have an effect on reducing resting

systolic and diastolic blood pressure. The following changes occurred in the

treatment group : (1) resting systolic blood pressure dropped significantly

(from 113 to 99 mmHg) after training and (2) diastolic blood pressure dropped

significantly from (70.9 to 62.0mmHg) after training. However, there were no

differences in these decreases between the exercise and control groups. The

investigators concluded that log-intensity, resistive training should be increase

blood pressure in white, healthy females, aged 18 to 28 years.

Malathi Balakrishnan (2010) conducted a study on the impact of 4-

minute circuit training on enhancing health related fitness among students.

Random selection of classes was done from eight classes and two classes

were chose. The intact sampling method was used to group the classes to

control group (n1=27) and experimental group (n2=33). The one-way ANOVA

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test was used to make comparisons and evaluate the groups. The results

showed that there were no significant differences (p>0.05) between the two

groups and it was assumed that both groups were equal before the treatment.

During the 10 weeks of normal physical education classes, the experimental

group underwent 4-minute-circuit training after the warming-up session. Five

health-related components based on AAPHERED (American Alliance for

Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance) were used to measure in

this study. The paired t-test results showed there were significant differences

(p<0.05) in four components in the experimental group compared to two

significant differences in the components (p<0.05) in the control group. The

independent t-test result showed that the three components had a significant

difference (p<0.05) in the experimental group compared to the control group.

Hence, this study showed that 4-minute-circuit training in 80-minute’s physical

education class once a week does enhance the health-related fitness among

students in this secondary school.

Wilmore et al (1978) showed that, after a course of circuit training,

women improved VO2 max by 4%, whereas men showed no improvement.

However, the VO2 max of the women pre-training was much lower than the

men’s: 35.5ml/kg/min as opposed to 47 ml/kg/min. This suggests that a

higher level of initial fitness may mean a higher intensity of aerobic effort is

needed for further improvement. Thus the moderate gain in aerobic fitness

shown in the studies, around 5% uplift in VO2 max, may not occur in fitter

individuals.

Gettmen2 et al (1982) showed that after eight weeks of circuit training

a group of men improved their VO2max by 3%. They then completed eight

weeks of continuous running training, whereupon their VO2max went up by a

further 8%, proving once again that traditional aerobic training is more

effective. However, half the group than carried on with the showed that after

eight weeks of circuit training a group of men improved their VO2 max by 3%.

They then completed eight weeks of continuous running training, whereupon

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their VO2 max went up by a further 8%, proving once again that traditional

aerobic running for a further eight weeks while half went back to circuit

training. At the end, both groups had maintained the VO2 max improvements

gained from the original running training. This means that circuit training could

be a useful way for athletes to stay in shape when they are injured. A circuit

of weights exercises that do not stress the injury, with short rest periods, can

be used to maintain aerobic fitness.

Brown (1962) had conducted the study on the effect of circuit training

on the physical fitness on Grade V girls. Two classes were tested on the

AAHPER fitness test before and after eight week of regular physical

education classes. The experimental class, chosen a 10 minutes circuit

training programme before each class. The circuit-training group shoed a

significant gain on all tests except the 50yard dash.

Simmons (1976) studied the effect of circuit training upon Cardio-

vascular condition and motor performance. 15 male students in required

physical education course in circuit training showed statistically significant

mean improvement in nine to fourteen cardio-vascular variables and in all 13

motor fitness variables. The training was done twice in a week in 30 minutes

period and lasted 12 weeks.

Shaw (1984) conducted a study on comparison of three modes of

testing for improved Vo2 max and strength after the nautilus circuit-training

programme. Measured by either arm cranking, leg cranking or arm-leg

cranking the training protocol was conducted 3 times a week for 8 weeks.

Testing was performed on a Schwinn Airdyne cycle ergometer. Differences

were detected between arm cranking, arm-leg cranking tests, in both groups

however there was no significant effect of circuit training on strength and Vo2

max as measured by any of the three modes. It is possible that a long training

period or an increase number of sets in the daily programme may result in

development on strength and Vo2 max in novice subjects.

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Benerak (1983) is conducted a study on the training effect of an upper

body circuit-training programme on heart rate and oxygen uptake. Training

programme extended to eight weeks. Subjects include 8 college students (5

men, 3 women) with a control group of 4 man and 4 women. Training

consisted of 8 exercises one circuit a day. Subjects exercised at a percentage

of their body weight for a specific number of repetitions as developed by

Vitace (1973). Control and experimental groups were pre and post tested

using physical work capacity test on bicycle ergometer. Result showed that

following the training period, the experimental group showed no significant

decrease in resting heart rate but significant increase was in Vo2 max of the

group.

Foley (1986) conducted a study on the effect of circuit training

programme on predicted oxygen uptake of pre pubescent children. A

continuous sub max bicycle ergometer tests for prediction of maximal oxygen

uptake was used to determine the effect of 8 weeks of training on 15

volunteers students age 10-11 years. Subjects for the study were randomly

selected from an elementary school V Grade class. The experimental group

trained three times per week for 8 weeks in a circuit training programme at a

target rate of 70% of age predicted Vo2 max for 30 minutes per section acting

as a control group, 12 students participated in ogranised game and sport

activities for equivalent periods of time. A pre test and post test design

utilizing ANCOVA revealed no significant difference at the 0.05 level between

groups. It was concluded that although improvement is evident in the

experimental group it was equated whether the results were attributable to the

training programme.

Smith (1980) studied the effect of circuit training on the performance

skill of beginners and advanced beginner swimmers. Subjects were 52 male

and female students of North Carolina Central University. The variables

measured for beginner swimmers were breath holding, prone glide, arm

stroke and crawl stroke, and advanced beginner swimmers, treading water,

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front, crawl, and back stroke students were randomly divided in to 2 equal

groups. The experimental group engaged in 6 weeks of circuit training and

swimming, while the control group engaged in 6 weeks of swimming. It was

found that circuit training had a significant effect on the performance skills of

the experimental beginner swimmers.

James (1964) compared the effect of circuit training and isometric

exercises on tread mill performance. 3 groups of college students were

equated on the basis of the Balke Treadmill test. All three groups attended

required Physical Education classes in which badminton was the activity twice

a week for 5 weeks. In addition Group A did circuit training Group B did

isometric exercises three times a week, and Group C acted as a control

group. Ten minutes of circuit training or isometric exercise in addition of

badminton was no more effective in improving treadmill performance time

than badminton alone. Circuit training caused a greater improvement in

treadmill performance than isometric exercise.

Eric (1964) compared the relative effectiveness of interval circuit

training compared with three other methods of fitness training in a school

Physical Education programme. 4 groups of junior high school boys were

matched on initial scores of the Larson Dynamic muscular strength and

modified Harward step tests plus Mccoloy’s classification index. Each

followed a different training pattern for eight-class periods spread over two

months. The interval circuit running group showed significant improvement in

combined Harward and Larson tests scores over circuit training and

conventional Physical Education groups. There were no other differences

shown between groups.

Edward (1970) conducted a study on the effect of circuit training,

weight lifting and interval training on circulo-respiratory endurance. Fifty one

college males from developmental Physical Education classes at the

University, of New Mexico were randomly assigned to one of the three-

exercise programme. The subjects trained for ten weeks period at their

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respective exercise programme. Pre-test and Post-test measures of circulo-

respiratory endurance were administered under same experimental condition.

The ANOVA showed no significant differences between the three exercise

programme in the measures of circulo-respiratory endurance.

Randall (1970) conducted a study in which students were distributed

among 3 groups, one group (N=30) used interval running second group

(N=30) had circuit training in addition to interval running and 3 rd group (N=20)

acted as the control. The training programme were designed to improve the

ability of subjects to run a half mile by a improving their conditioning and

teaching a sense of pace. The experiment was conducted over an 8 weeks

period. The interval-running group and circuit training groups were

significantly faster than the control group. No significant difference was found

between the interval running group and the circuit-training group.

Olsen (1980) investigated the effects of a set circuit-training

programme on strength and muscular endurance of college age men 42

college males participated in the study. Pre-test and Post-tests for strength

and absolute muscular endurance and relative muscular endurance were

given for the bench press and leg press. Treatment consisted of 2 workout

sessions per week for 7 weeks. Test, re test procedures and pretest and

posttest mean changes were analysed using Pearson Correlation and

dependent t- analyses. Absolute muscular endurance in the bench press and

leg press, and relative muscular endurance in the bench press were

significant, non-significant changes were found for the test of relative

muscular endurance in the leg press.

Tremblay (1968) conducted a study on the effect of the upper body

specific circuit training on Grade V children. 57 healthy male and female

subjects from 2 Grade V classes made up to the study population. One class

control group 12 males and 13 females and another class of experimental

group 18 males and 11 females. Testing and intervention took place during

regularly scheduled Physical Education classes where occurred 3 time per

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week. They were given with 3.5 minutes of upper body circuit training in each

physical education class. This procedure was continued for seven weeks. The

result proved that there was a difference between control, experimental group

in strength, strength endurance, and power. There were no difference found

between groups or between sexes for any of anthropometric variables.

Naghibzadesh (1987) investigated a study to determine if circuit

training could be an effective method to improve aerobic capacity as well as

strength. 47 female volunteers were assigned to circuit training, jogging and

control groups. each subject was tested prior and at the end of eight weeks

training period on Vo2 max and IRM bench press and leg press. Based on

results of this investigation there was a 12% and 9.6% increase in Vo2 max

for the circuit training and jogging group respectively. The circuit-training

group improved 28.1% in leg press and 20.1% in bench press. There was no

significant increase for the jogging group in strength parameters however

there was a positive change in leg press. The control group did not change

significantly in any variable.

Scott (1982) conducted a study on comparison of a circuit strength

training programme and a sport activity programme as measured by

performance on the AAHPERD yough fitness test. 54 male subjects were

participated in the study (11-14 years of age) circuit training group

participated in a combination of weight training and sport activities. While

sports activity group participated in a straight sports activity programme. The

result proved the circuit training group improved in pull-ups, shuttle run,

standing broad jump and 50 yard dash the sports activity group improved in

sit-ups, shuttle run, standing broad jump and 50 yard dash.

Charles (1967) conducted a study on the effect of circuit training

exercises upon leg strength, free running speed and explosive power. He has

taken an experimental group of 20 fresh male volunteers who were selected

randomly from trampoline and handball classes. The experimental group went

for a 5 week, circuit training programme of 8 stations with four sessions per

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week. The groups were tested before and after the programme. The

experimental group made significantly greater improvement in leg strength

and explosive power but not in running speed.

Wooden (1981) conducted a study on the effect of a circuit training

programme on body composition, muscular endurance and muscular strength

in untrained females. Seventeen untrained females volunteered for either the

experimental group (N=13) and the control group (N=4). All subjects were pre

and post-tested. The experimental group participated in circuit training

programme. The result proved that there was no significant difference in total

body weight change between groups, but there was a significant difference in

change for body density, percentage of body fat, lean body weight, muscular

endurance and muscular strength between groups as a result of the circuit

training programme.

Tompkins (1994) studied the effect of circuit breaker programme on

middle school boys. According to him this programme is one of the best

programme to develop the power ability in school students. Results showed a

significant improvement on leg, shoulder and arm power of middle school

level boys.

Macbeth (1973) studied the effects of interval and continuous step

training on attitudes, cardiovascular fitness, and Tennis skills of beginning

Tennis students. This study was compared by ANOVA. Sixty five students

were placed into two experimental groups and one control group, with the

experimental groups receiving a 10 minutes training session twice a week for

10 weeks. Participation in the step training programmes did not affect the

student’s attitude towards Physical Education or Tennis skills. The

programme were successful in bringing about an increase in cardiovascular

fitness of students.

Ronnie (1971) compared the effects of different methods of training

and detraining of the strength and speed of college men. Male students

enrolled in 4 Tennis classes were tested on 4 items of Clarke-Schopf strength

25

test. Students were randomly assigned to 3 groups, Group ‘A’ ran one mile

and Group ‘B’ ran 440 yards dashing, Group ‘C’ participated in Tennis. After 6

weeks training period students did not train for two and half weeks. No

significant differences were found for trunk extension, knee extension and

ankle plantar flexion. Significant differences were found in two items. Group C

significantly improved their shoulder extension.

Wilson (1993) study was performed to determine which of three

theoretically optimal resistance-training modalities in the greatest

enhancement in the performance of a series of dynamic athletic activities.

The three training modalities include : (1) traditional weight training, (2)

plyometirc training, (3) explosive weight training, at the load the maximised

mechanical power out put. 64 previously trained subjects were randomly

allocated to four groups that include the above 3 training modalities and a

control group. The experimental groups trained for 10 weeks performing

either heavy squat lifts, depth jumps or weighted squat jumps. All subjects

were tested prior to training, after 5 weeks of training and the competition of

the training period. The test items included (1) 30 mts spirnt (2) vertical jumps

performance with and with out counter movement (3) maximal cycle test (4)

iso-kinetic leg extension test, and (5) isometric test. The experimental group

which trained with the load maximised mechanical power achieved the best

overall results in enhancing dynamic athletic performance recording

statistically significant (P<0.05) improvements on most test items and

showing statistically superior results from the two other training modalities on

the jumping and the iso kinetic test.

Dutko (1993) conducted a study, the purpose of which was to

compare two progressive strength training protocols, a plyometric exercise

protocol and two flexibility protocols of the quadriceps and hamstring

muscular complex of high school weight training students. Sixty men of 16-18

years age volunteered for a 6 weeks, 3 days a week, quadriceps, hamstrings

muscular complex strength and flexibility study. All training protocols,

26

significantly increased left quadriceps, and left hamstrings strength. However,

the flexibility protocol static stretching was more effective in producing

strength of the hamstrings.

Quarles (1968) conducted a study to compare the increase in leg

power of a rope-jumping group of subjects with a stair running group of

subjects. He selected college men for his study. All subjects trained thrice a

week for 6 weeks in their specific area. A Pre-test and post-test were

conducted before and after the training. Result found that the stair running

group showed a significant gain in leg power while the rope-jumping group

did not show any significant gain.

Santo and Del (1976) conducted a study to find the effect of physical

conditioning programme on selected physiological components of college

men. The subjects were 76 men from a junior college. They were divided into

four different groups who participated in a different physical conditioning

progammes. One was a control group, which has no formal physical

conditioned programme. the experimental groups improved significantly in

cardiovascular fitness in comparison to the control group.

Choleking (1963) studied the effect two training programmes on

selected physiological variables on college women. The physiological

reactions measured were the pules rate, respiration rate, respiration

amplitude, minute volume of respiration and oxygen consumption. The

cardiovascular reaction was measured by counting the pulse rate. All

variables improved during the four-week training period regardless of training

programme prescribed. Both training programmes were of sufficient duration

and intensity to effect changes in post exercise scores.

Namara (1978) investigated the effects of three conditioning

programme selected Physical and physiological parameters of college

students. Cardiovascular endurance was one of the physical parameters in

physical fitness training programme at Boaston Unviersity Army’s physical

training programme, weight training programme and calistthenics groups

27

were given treatment for ten weeks, three days in a week for a total of 23

hours. Pre-test and post-test measures were collected separate group

sessions. It is of interest to note that female improved as much on all training

methods as did the marks for all variables, although there were no statistically

significant difference among the training methods.

Bangerter (1965) investigated to determine what relative contribution

each of the three components of the lower extremities made to the vertical

jump. A jump reach from of the vertical jump, with a reliability coefficient of

0.925 was of the three components of leg isolation and weekly workloads for

progressive resistance exercise programme were used to validate strength

gains.

Sayed (1973) studied on 9th grade boys (N=149) who were assigned to

four treatment groups (circuit training, weight training, swedish exercise, and

non-conditioning control). The conditioning programmes were administred

during the 1st 10 minutes of each of 20 physical education class periods (3

times a week over 7 weeks). Activity for the rest of each class period

consisted of volleyball, wrestling, and street hockey. ANOVA revealed within

group improvements and differences among the groups. There was no

difference in cumulative performance and no difference in cumulative

standard scores. The post “no conditioning” test revealed a decrease in pull-

ups performance.

McCann (1968) studied on 49 women physical education majors who

were enrolled in 2 track and field classes. These women participated in 2

separate conditioning programmes twice a week for 7 weeks in addition to

their regular class-work. The Harvard Step Test was given before and after

the 7 week experimental period. It was concluded that a traditional method of

conditioning produced a significant increase in endurance as measured by

the Harvard Step Test.

Harper Billinge and Mathew (1969) conducted a study of the Effect of

two physical conditioning programmes on cardio-respiratory fitness of 25

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college men. The subjects were placed into three groups on the basis of

maximum oxygen consumption, one group participated in a modified army

conditioning programme and second group in interval training involving

running. The third group (control) participated in recreational activities. The

group met five days per week for seven weeks. Cardio-respiratory efficiency

was measured with the help of the Harvard Step Test. The results showed

that both interval training and army trained groups improved significantly in

their cardio-respiratory efficiency. The control group did not improve

significantly.

Berger (1973) in his study has mentioned that a decision with regard

to the type of conditioning exercise to be included in a training programme is

based on the understanding of the primary physiological system and undergo

stress during a game, and the kind of activities which best provide this type of

stress during practice, the body adopts itself to the type of stress placed upon

it. This physiological adaptation is necessary for physical conditioning to

occur. The adaptation made by playing basketball is the best condition for the

sport. Likewise, the running of a cross country athlete results in physiological

adaptation which is the best way for improving condition in that sport. No

matter what the component of conditioning strength, endurance, flexibility or

power, specificity of training applies. The best training to improve best

performance is to practice the movements at the same rate and intensity as

during an actual game situation.

Stothart (1966) conducted a study on the specificity concept related to

muscular endurance. He tested the maximum isometirc strength at 130

degree and 160 degree angles of knee extension for 42 university men who

averaged 19 years in age, 69.9 inches in height and 159.4 lb. in weight.

Muscular endurance of right quadriceps was tested at each angle with load of

30 per cent and 45 per cent of the maximum strength, with one week between

the test. The correlation between isometric strength and muscular endurance

were low and negative. Component analysis and inter-correlation of muscular

29

endurance measures showed that although endurance component was

common to all measures specific to the angle of testing, yet endurance was

not specific to the load. Correlation between the knee angle lengths were

moderate, but using these in partial correlation left the original endurance

correlations relatively unaltered.

Arther Jones (1977) had stated, “Do not be misled...... and you might

be on the subject of specificity....either you have it, or you do not. A

movement is either utterly specific or it is not specific at all.”

“This being true, it obviously states that the only possible specific

training for basketball is the act of playing basketball... the only specific

training for swimming is swimming itself, and so on.”

He further advised that “to build your skills or even to retain your skills

you must practice an activity with total specificity” exactly in the same

manner, with the same tool.

Strength, in general, contributes to any activity, but the applied

demonstration of strength is specific, and learning to apply strength properly

in any activity, requires skill.

Moorehouse and Miller (1963) when defining anatomical fitness, went

to the extent of saying, “In order to be fit, the individual must possess all of

the body parts essential to the performance of the task and must possess the

appropriate body size and shape for the task...... slight individual difference in

point of attachment of tendons to bones and difference in lengths of bones

results in different machanical leverage advantages or disadvantages for

various events. Thus, one person is fit for weight lifting, another for sprint

running and yet another for jumping. If a person enters a competition for

which he is anatomically unfit, he does so, with a distinct disadvantage

compared to this opponent possessing anatomical features more fit to the

event.”

The further said that physiological fitness was specific to the activity.

Since different activities make different demands upon the organism with

30

respect to neurological, respiratory, circulatory, metabolic, and temperature

regulating functions, the physiological systems of the body must be fit to

function well enough to support the activity that the individual was performing.

Wilmore (1984) while discussing modes of testing, said “there is an

increasing awareness of the importance of selecting the appropriate test

mode when testing athletes in various sports, i.e. a mode which must closely

approximate the actual sport activity.”

The concept of specificity can also be applied to the test protocol.

When subjects are trained by hill running, the increase in VO2 max is greater

than when using a trademill protocol which increase power by increase in

grade compared to a protocol which increase – power by increase in speed.

Thus due care should be taken to march the protocol for the testing mode or

device, as closely as possible, to the conditions under which the individual

trains.

Considine (1967) conducted a study on task specificity. He concluded

from his study that the data collected from groups of athletes and non-

athletes indicated that reflex time was significantly faster than reaction time of

non-athletes. A low positive but non-significant correlation between reflex time

and reaction time, suggested task specificity.

Fink (1960) conducted a study on the specificity of conditioning in

swimming and running. He tested fresh men swimmers and fresh men –

varsity runners during the first week of practice and retested them after six

weeks. After brief warming-up, the subjects ran at maximum speed for 30

seconds on one day and swam for 30 seconds the following day. The pulse

rate stem-down method was employed to determine how quickly the cardio-

vascular system recuperated. The experimental results supported the

principles of specificity of training that gain in general endurance and cardio-

vascular efficiency acquired in training for one sport made only a light

contribution to performance in the other sport.

31

Bergeron (1967) studied the effects of state static training at various

positions and dynamic strength training through a full range motion on

strength, speed of movement, and power. The 96 male subjects were

randomly assigned to three experimental groups that trained either

isotonically with the supine press through a full range of motion or

isometrically at the extended position in the supine press and a control group.

All three experimental groups showed significant gains in static strength at

both positions of measurement, in speed of movement, and in the two tests of

power. The control groups did not make any significant gains. No difference

was found among the three experimental groups.

32

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