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Change in teacher candidates'metaphorical images about classroommanagement in a social constructivistlearning environmentHanife Akar a & Ali Yildirim aa Department of Educational Sciences , Middle East TechnicalUniversity , Inonu Bulvari, 06531, Ankara, TurkeyPublished online: 10 Jul 2009.
To cite this article: Hanife Akar & Ali Yildirim (2009) Change in teacher candidates' metaphoricalimages about classroom management in a social constructivist learning environment, Teaching inHigher Education, 14:4, 401-415, DOI: 10.1080/13562510903050152
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13562510903050152
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Change in teacher candidates’ metaphorical images about classroommanagement in a social constructivist learning environment
Hanife Akar* and Ali Yildirim
Department of Educational Sciences, Middle East Technical University, Inonu Bulvari, 06531Ankara, Turkey
The purpose of this study was to understand the conceptual change teachercandidates went through in a constructivist learning environment in a classroommanagement course. Within a qualitative case study design, teacher candidates’metaphorical images about classroom management were obtained throughdocument analysis before and after they were subjected to a constructivistlearning environment. Prior to the implementation, the images depicted a‘controlling’ or ‘leading’ type of classroom management approach indicating adisciplinary vision. After the implementation, although the metaphors weremainly retained by participants, the descriptions of the images depicted more aleading type of classroom management that entailed messages of cooperation andsensitivity toward individual differences. The results showed that a constructivistlearning process may result in a change in teacher candidates’ conceptions ofclassroom management.
Keywords: metaphors; classroom management; constructivism; teacher education
Introduction
Metaphors are remarkable tools that provide rich descriptions and meanings that
reflect the culture of the individuals and the context they are in. They are possible
means to illuminate cultural, institutional, and personal constructs (Wallace 2001),
and they are used for multiple purposes in education. Metaphors or metaphorical
images can be used as kernel comparison statements that may provide evidence that
cognitive acquisition and social participation (Elmholdt 2003) may complement each
other. While some argue that metaphors shape our understanding of classroom
practices (Marshall 2001; Tobin 2001) and teaching roles (De Guerrero and Villamil
2002), others view them as a way to describe social phenomena of the time in which a
particular theory is developed (Simsek 1997).
The primary function of metaphors in learning is to stimulate active learner-
initiated thought processes, and working out the implications of these metaphors
becomes the principal process of learning (Carroll and Mack 1999). Students engage
themselves in generating, negotiating, and situating ideas and meanings related to
metaphors and their related concepts. In the case that students formulate opinions
based on what they hear, they exhibit thinking which reinforces their learning. Such
externalization may enable them to receive feedback from conversations. In return,
*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]
ISSN 1356-2517 print/ISSN 1470-1294 online
# 2009 Taylor & Francis
DOI: 10.1080/13562510903050152
http://www.informaworld.com
Teaching in Higher Education
Vol. 14, No. 4, August 2009, 401�415
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this may be internalized through active assimilation and accommodation of the
knowledge discoursed (Hung 2002).
Vygotsky (2002) views metaphors as tools that integrate social�cultural and
cognitive actions. Metaphors articulated do not only hold cultural or social
meanings, but also display possible effects of the individuals’ trajectories (De
Guerrero and Villamil 2002). Through associations and comparisons amongconcepts, a particular concept is made clearer because metaphors draw the links
between words and propositions (Prawat 1999). A social constructivist approach to
teaching and learning entails the use of language as a social and cultural tool to
promote and build on learners’ cognitive development. Use of language provides
ways of assigning meaning to what individuals encounter visually, and through the
use of language, they either broaden or enhance the interpretations of what is seen
(Weade and Ernst 2001).
Classroom management is one of the most debated issues in teacher education
(Akar 2007). Inevitably, research has produced diverse metaphorical images about
classroom management. The earlier metaphors described classroom management
from an authoritarian, disciplinary, or industrial perspective and depicted teachers
as managers or technicians (Bullough 1994; Glasser 1990; Lasley 1994; McLaughlin
1994). More perversely, schools were described as factory-type workplaces (Marshall
1990) implying that classroom management is about strictly controlled classrooms
formed by unbreakable rules. The image of earlier classroom managementmetaphors depict visions of Pink Floyds’ song and movie ‘Brick in the Wall’ in
which schools are symbolized as factories where mass production occurs. In such a
mechanical environment the teacher is responsible for the productivity of students
(Beavis and Thomas 1996), and all students are molded with similar thought
constructs.
Later metaphors depict more learner-oriented models (Randolph and Evertson
1994) that portrayed teachers with leadership qualities (McLaughlin 1994; Weinstein
et al. 1994). The shift from obedience to taking responsibility in student roles
(McLaughlin 1994) is highlighted in constructivist learning depicting teaching with
the metaphor ‘midwife’. The midwife’s concern is to preserve the student’s fragile
newborn thought. Teachers as midwives focus on the students’ knowledge rather
than their own and contribute to that knowledge (Belenky et al. 1987, cited in
Oldfather, Bonds, and Bray 1994). Context-based (Ben-Peretz, Mendelson, and
Kron 2003) and experience-based (Martinez, Salueda, and Huber 2001) images of
classroom management highlighted in the literature are closely connected to the
approaches explained above.For instance, Ben-Peretz, Mendelson, and Kron (2003) found that metaphorical
images selected by teachers were context related. Most of the teachers with high-
achieving students chose ‘the conductor’ metaphor since it reflects ‘giftedness’,
‘harmony’, and ‘togetherness’, and provides teachers with a leadership image. On the
other hand, most of the teachers with low-achieving students preferred the caring
image of ‘the animal keeper’ metaphor. So, the teacher holds the tamer, or the
molder type of image. In line with the results of this study, Randolph and Evertson
(1994) argue that classroom events shape the thinking process by providing
frameworks for what is possible in these settings. By trying to match images of
learning and images of classroom management, the authors suggest that ‘the work-
oriented classroom’ and ‘learning-oriented classroom’ differ in the way they are
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managed. They strongly believe that teacher education programs cannot divorce the
discussion of classroom management from the one with content instruction because
they see them as interwoven. This suggests that images of classroom management in
such settings might represent more images of learning rather than controlling.Classroom management is also one of the most debated issues in the Turkish
school system. Classroom management is associated with discipline, and over-
crowded class sizes are considered as a main source of misbehaviors. The most
frequent misbehaviors reported in Turkish schools are noise, not waiting for turn-
taking, complaining about peers, inattentiveness, and off-task behavior (Akkok,
Askar, and Sucuoglu 1995; Atıcı and Merry 2001). Comparing English and Turkish
school settings, Turnuklu and Galton (2001) found that the differences in the type
and amount of misbehaviors resulted from the physical structure and the conditionsof classrooms. For instance, Turkish classrooms are traditionally furnished and
consist of rows and aisles. Misbehaviors are triggered dependent on whether the
students sit in the front or near the wall or window side of the classroom.
Saban’s (2004) study found that more than 60% of primary school teacher
candidates perceived their role as one who transmits knowledge or molds the
students’ mind and behavior, and the rest perceive ideal teachers as the ones that
entertain students while teaching them, and guide them in the learning process. The
actual classroom environment in the Turkish context is described from anauthoritarian, teacher-dominant perspective, while the ideal (or envisioned) one
contains images of softness, care, and entertainment indicating student-centered
orientations.
Although the literature suggests constructivist applications in teacher education
(Edwards 2007), the impact of this approach on improving students’ perceptions of
teacher education related areas, such as classroom management, has not been clearly
evidenced. This study is an attempt to investigate the changes a constructivist
approach to teaching classroom management may cause in students’ perceptions ofclassroom management. The specific research question we attempted to answer was:
‘What conceptual change does a social constructivist learning environment promote
in teacher candidates’ metaphorical images of classroom management?’
Method
This case study examined two junior classrooms in a pre-service teacher education
program at a public university in Ankara. The participants were third-year teachercandidates (n�50) attending the English Foreign Language Department. Although
there were a total of 76 students in these classrooms, 26 were not included due to
being absent in metaphor collection sessions and unwillingness to participate in the
study. As a result, the sample consisted of 37 female and 13 male students who
mostly came from lower and middle-class families.
The case: classroom management course (CMC)
Case studies have proven useful in the context of studying educational innovations
and even affect practice (Merriam 1992). In this study, constructivist curriculum
implementation was conducted in a classroom management course (CMC) to
understand how the instructional process may impact on students’ conceptional
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change. CMC is a four-hour compulsory undergraduate course aiming at improving
participants’ understanding of classroom management concepts and developing
skills in establishing and maintaining an environment for learning in class settings.
The course consists of two hours theoretical bases and two hours of practice perweek for 14 weeks. The first and final weeks were used for data collection, and one
week was holiday.
The authors designed CMC based on a social constructivist learning approach
where previous knowledge and experiences are integrated with new concepts and
principles of classroom management through dialog, collaboration, research, peer-
teaching, peer-evaluation, authenticity, and a problem-solving approach (Tenenbaum
et al. 2001). Practice hours involved watching videos on classroom management issues,
solving problem-based cases, conducting role plays and simulations, dealing withreflective writing tasks, and conducting debates based on theories or research articles
read, and dealing with peer-teaching and peer-evaluation tasks for group work
activities overall.
The theoretical hours consisted of recitation, discussions, small group discus-
sions, and reflections based on the literature and research based on classroom
management and the teacher candidates’ personal experiences. Although an
instructional plan was prepared as a blueprint, regarding the needs and interests
of teacher candidates and the nature of the constructivist learning environment,worksheets, activities, and tasks were flexibly used or new ones were added in
implementation.
The implementers of the study, both female, were the first author of this paper
and a volunteer instructor with 11 and eight years of undergraduate teaching
experience, respectively. The instructors met every week for one to two hours to
discuss their conducts in CMC. Also, after each four-hour session, both instructors
reflected on the sessions and the activities they used for further planning and
improvement to validate that the sessions were conducted based on the weeklyinstructional plans. In addition, participant observations were conducted with an
external observer experienced in constructivist approach for four weeks, and four
sessions of two-hour practicing sessions were video taped in each class to validate the
social constructivist curriculum implementation. External observation was used to
establish consistency of implementation in the two classrooms as well as to check the
teaching and learning process in line with the principles of constructivism as
originally planned to enhance the internal validity of the implementation.
Data collection
A Metaphor Form was used as the instrument to collect data prior to and after the
social constructivist implementation as a reflective activity. To understand the
conceptual knowledge the teacher candidates held regarding classroom management,
they were asked the following questions prior to the implementation: ‘What
metaphors or images come to your mind when you think about classroom
management? Why do you associate that particular metaphor with classroommanagement?’ The purpose of this question was to understand the teacher
candidates’ prior metaphorical images of classroom management so that we could
explore and compare if conceptual change occurs in the learning environment the
participants were subjected to.
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The participants wrote down their thoughts in a reflective diary first, and
reflected on their images of classroom management in small groups. Then, the
groups reported and discussed their findings with the entire class. Next, the teacher
candidates were subjected to social constructivist curriculum implementation inCMC for 11 weeks, and were asked the same questions after the implementation. The
teacher candidates were required to submit a report that included a reflective
discussion of comparing and/or contrasting their pre- and post-metaphorical images.
Data analysis
The pre- and post-metaphorical images reported by students were coded and
categorized to understand their portrayal of classroom management. This processhelped the researchers understand the themes in the metaphors and their descrip-
tions, and examine if conceptual change occurred from earlier to final images of
classroom management.
Before the coding of images and perceptions that led to categories, the authors
frequently discussed and negotiated about the codes and the categories, and had to
frequently go back and check for the raw data before naming the categories. Yin
(2003) suggests that pattern matching is the most desirable condition for inter-
validity in case study analysis. It requires that the predicted pattern of specificvariables is defined prior to data collection (116). The authors based on available
literature on metaphors of classroom management analyzed participants’ descrip-
tions of metaphors, and the categorizing patterns were described after all data were
analyzed and verified with a field professor specialized in curriculum and instruction.
After all five categories were verified and all metaphors depicting a similar image
were clustered together, and called as images that depict ‘controlling and leadership’,
‘caring’, ‘diversity’, ‘goal-oriented aspects’, and ‘chaotic and unpredictable contexts’.
These categories were reported in tables, and cross checked by an external researcher.Finally, the metaphorical images were described and compared in order to determine
whether ‘conceptual change’ was observed. In reporting the results, it is important to
highlight that the meanings of these metaphors came from students’ explanations
rather than researchers’ interpretations. In other words, extracts from teacher
candidates’ written descriptions were pulled out, coded, and presented (see all tables).
The reliability of the coding was verified by an external audit with sufficient
previous experience in qualitative research and in teaching CMC. The external audit
examined the data collected and the analysis process for accuracy and consistency(Creswell 1998). More specifically, the external audit looked at all the metaphorical
images from a holistic perspective and discussed with the authors why she agreed or
disagreed with the themes constructed, e.g. in relating the metaphors flower and
garden to diversity images. The most difficult part was finding a suitable concept for
the themes that brought together the images of bridge, catalyst, and chain under one
roof. The authors negotiated with the audit based on the reported data, and
concluded that this theme be called goal-oriented classroom management. Also, the
audit randomly picked the reports of 10 teacher candidates in the first raw datareports. Next, she took the final reports of the same 10 samples, and cross checked
the images and descriptions provided by teacher candidates in the thematic tables.
Consequently, the audit concluded that the data analysis and reporting was
consistent with the raw data.
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Results
Findings show that teacher candidates mostly hold a traditional view of classroom
management that depicted a controlling, ruling, and empowering image of classroom
management as an entry behavior. However, after the implementation, most of the
teacher candidates reported the same metaphors, but converted their description into
images that show awareness of individual differences and use of leadership skills to
enhance collaboration and success. In other words, the control-oriented images were
converted into learning-oriented images. It is interesting to note that although
participants had freedom in their choices, they mostly elaborated their thoughts
around the same metaphors but attributed different meanings to them.
Images of leadership and control
Metaphors such as ‘coach’ and ‘orchestra conductor’ were used to describe a
control-oriented image of classroom management prior to the implementation.
Teachers were described as persons who manipulate students, and possess power and
authority. For instance, the image ‘team coach’ possesses all the expertise, and power
to control his or her players and lead them to success. While ‘the orchestra
conductor’ is the person in power to bring harmony and preciseness in the group,there is no interaction among the players. Rules are set strictly and players or
learners need to obey those to enhance harmony. Thus, success is in line with
harmony, obedience, or discipline. Classroom management is described from a
disciplinary teacher centered perspective (see Table 1). Similar metaphorical images
described are ‘coach’, ‘brain’, ‘shepherd’, ‘orchestra conductor’, ‘football game’, and
‘teacher as a lion’.
On the contrary, the same metaphors were attached with different understandings
at the end of the implementation. For instance, ‘the coach’ or ‘conductor’ is not
perceived as the authority as in the early descriptions, rather it is perceived as the
leader who is aware of individual differences and needs, and through successful
collaborative work both parties enhance a mutual goal. The teacher is the motivatorand facilitator. She or he provides cooperation among all members so that they can
be successful in enhancing their goals. The roles among players are divided justly and
everybody is considered as an active participant in the learning process. The
students’ needs, interests, and skills are of main concern to be successful. Knowledge
about classroom management pedagogy and experience in teaching are the assets
required to become a successful teacher.
Images of care
The second theme of metaphors depicted caring images, such as ‘mothering’, ‘plus’,
‘window’, and ‘peace’. Table 2 shows that although the metaphors are about caring
images, they indicate teacher-centeredness. The teacher is perceived like a mother
who is in charge, and knows what is best for the child. The teacher seems to take all
responsibility to take care and protect the students. Although students are likely to
be the focus, the teacher is completely responsible to build a peaceful environment
distant from any disruptions or threats. Quietness or peace in the class seems to be
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more prominent than the instructional process. However, after the implementation,
those control-based peaceful contexts have converted into images that reflect variety
and diversity for classroom learning. Thus, ‘order’ is not silence per se, rather it
entails active learning, joyful learning, increased student�teacher interaction, and
respect toward all kinds of differences have become the se qua non’s of the caring
images after the implementation. ‘Caring’ also includes positive attitude toward
the learners and classroom and this attitude of teacher candidates is retained.
For example, the image ‘plus’ reflects a positive image prior to and after the
implementation.
Table 1. Controlling and leadership images.
Early
images f (n�27) Codes Post-images f (n�24) Codes
Orchestra
conductor
7 Well-planned
Director
Ruler
Obedience
Well-organized
Orchestra
conductor
7 Enhancing course goals
Cooperative
Time allocator
Individual differences
Attractive learning
Safe environment
Football
match
3 Knowledgeable
about rules
Football
match
5 Cooperation
Monitor
Team coach 3 Leads
Problem solver
Coach 4 Motivator
Facilitator
Cooperation
Organizational skills
Individual differences
Tree 3 Knowledge
transmitter
Tree 2 Combination of different
skills
Theatre play 2 Director
Specific roles
Navigating
(replaced with
mothering)
1 Good teaching skills
Minimizing disruptions
Handling problems
Director 2 Rule setter Governing
country
1 Planning for individual
differences
Readiness for disruptions
Lion 2 Manager
Ruler
Horse-cart 1 Balancing authority and
laissez-faire approach
Leader 1 Organized
manager
Boss 1 Students as coworkers
Cooperation in decision
making
Shepherd 1 Ruler
Administrator
Shepherd 1 Safe
Fruitful environment
Cooperation
Brain 1 Controller Driving 1 Experience
Knowledgeable about
different strategies, skills,
and rules
Driving 1 Knowing rules
Mothering 1 Good behavior
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Images of diversity
The next cluster of metaphors is related to images of diversity. The concepts are
‘flower garden,’ ‘greengrocer,’ ‘country,’ ‘shopping center,’ and ‘cook’ (see Table 3).
The metaphors depicted images that contained certain qualities such as ‘goodness
and badness’ or ‘organized and disorganized’ contexts. The teacher as the expert
knows how to separate the good and the bad or how to plough a garden to retain the
good quality or the greengrocer knows how to separate the fresh or good vegetables
from the rotten or gone bad ones. The students are labeled as good or bad.
Obedience relates to goodness, and misbehaviors of students relate to badness.
Ultimately, the teacher needs to be equipped with behaviors to control that particular
context. The teacher acts like a professional ‘cook,’ and is in total control of the
molding process.
On the contrary, after the implementation, the same metaphors that depict
elements of diversity are used, but bear different meanings. The images refer to
learning environments in which the teacher needs to deal with differences and
diversity in the classroom. Rather than labeling characteristics of badness or
goodness, images of diversity reflect differences or diversity in student needs, in their
characteristics and skills. The teacher is described as a person who is aware of those
differences and takes measures, such as applying different instructional strategies to
meet diverse student needs.
Table 2. Caring images.
Early
images f (n�6) Codes Post-images f (n�4) Codes
Butterfly 1 Vulnerable
Handle with care
Smoothness
Butterfly 1 Fragile
Caring needs
Joyful learning
Good student�teacher
relationship
Non-threatening
environment
Snowflake 1 Puzzle to put
together
Snowflake 1 Smooth discipline
Individual differences
Good order
Respecting differences
Plus 1 Empathy
Positive attitude
Pleasure
Plus 1 Empathy
Harmony
Interaction
Enthusiasm
Window 1 Clear ideas about
classroom
management
Window 1 Well-equipped to use
instructional
strategies, rules,
manage time, and
misbehaviors
Peace 1 Peaceful environment
Boss 1 Loving
Caring
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Images of chaotic and unpredictable contexts
Some teacher candidates associated classroom management with the images
of ‘battlefield’, ‘fight’, ‘traffic jam’, and ‘Columbia rebellion’ prior to the
implementation (see Table 4). Teacher candidates apparently viewed classroom
settings as unpredictable environments where lots of disruptions occur. Establishing
order is regarded as essential. Such metaphorical descriptions may relate to student
Table 3. Diversity images.
Early images f (n�9) Codes Post-images f (n�13) Codes
Shopping
center
2 Order
Storing
information
Shopping center
(replaced with
peace)
2 Variety and
harmony
Pleasant, enjoyable
learning
Participation in
activities
Country 1 Governing class Countries’
management
2 Knowledge about
governance and laws
Teaching based on
individual differences
Flower
garden
1 Growing various
plants
Flower gardener 2 Awareness of
diverse needs
Knowledge about
physical arrangement
Safe place
Greengrocer 1 Managing good
and bad
products
Greengrocer 2 Equipped with skills
for differences in
gender, race, and
ethnicity
Keyboard 1 Lots of buttons
to use
Keyboard 1 Knowledge to
operate computer
effectively
Knowledge, skills, and
strategies to manage
diverse learning
environments
Scuba
diver
1 Skills to survive
in unknown
Scuba diver 2 Diving into
complex, diverse,
and mysterious
Discovering depth
and helping
Cooking 1 Patience
Time demanding
Learning rules
through error
and trial
Cooking 2 Student motivation
Student cooperation
Facilitating variety
and choice
Cookbook 1 Techniques for
different tastes
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teachers’ earlier experiences with overcrowded classrooms and the dispositions they
carry to make students sit quietly. This indicates that student teachers prioritized
control over learning in their early metaphors.
After the implementation, although similar metaphors are reported, the meaning
of these metaphors changed, for instance, ‘the battlefield’ that indicates a class full of
problems and chaos is described as the teacher’s struggle to promote an efficient
learning environment. After the implementation the unpredictable events in the
classroom bear new conceptual meanings. The teacher candidates treat chaos as
understanding the reasons behind disruptions and overcoming these by taking
essential precautions. These images imply that teacher candidates gained awareness
Table 4. Chaos and unpredictability.
Early
images f (n�5) Codes Post-images f (n�6) Codes
Traffic with
jams
1 Avoid jams
Organizing flow
of traffic
License enables
careful acting
Flow of traffic 2 Skill to avoid
disruptions
Enhancing learning
Smooth instruction
Box of
Pandora
1 Handle the
unknown
Box of Pandora 1 Skills and strategies
to avoid the
unknown
Box is clear
Battlefield 1 Battle between
students and
teacher
Battlefield 1 Battle for learning
enhancement
Using right skills and
materials
Decision making as
struggle to meet
student needs
Columbia 1 Peace among
people and
government
Columbia 1 Collaboration within
diversity
Collaboration
between teacher and
students
Respecting individual
differences
Healthy learning
environment
White 1 Unknown
spectrum of
seven colors
Needs to be
discovered
Playing piano
(replaced with
white)
1 Experience and
practice
Engagement in
presentations,
demonstrations, and
portfolio
preparation before
actual practice
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of possible events in the classroom and understanding those problems with regard to
student needs and choices are emergent for teachers.
Images of goal orientedness
Beside all the metaphorical images reported above, there is a set of metaphors that
depict ‘goal orientedness’ images prior to and after the social constructivist
curriculum implementation. The metaphorical images described were ‘bridge’,
‘catalyst’, and ‘chain’. Knowledge about classroom management pedagogy is
accepted as a tool or a ‘catalyst’ for the teacher. The descriptions depict the idea
that when the teacher is well-equipped with the essential skills, the teacher can cope
easily with unpredictable contexts such as ‘chaos’, and ‘traffic jams’. Knowledge
about classroom management pedagogy brings an organizational structure that
combines the different dimensions of education to reach a specific goal. ‘Passing the
bridge’ is managing the classroom effectively to reach their goal, which is similar to
enhancing learning. On the other hand, ‘chain’ entails a symbolic identification that
skills and process are combined together to reach goals. Consequently, being
equipped with classroom management skills in that sense alleviates the instructional
process for the teacher and contributes to student learning (see Table 5).
Conclusions and discussion
The results showed that most teacher candidates held a traditional teacher-centered
view of classroom management before they were subjected to a constructivist
curriculum implementation. After the intervention the metaphors reported were all
almost the same yet the descriptions provided depicted more innovative images
about classroom management. The choice of particular metaphor or language used
by teacher candidates was not accidental as it may represent more than the surface
meaning of the concept. The metaphor may have served as a linkage between the
Table 5. Goal-oriented images.
Early
images f (n�3) Codes Post-images f (n�3) Codes
Bridge 1 Goal achievement
Basic knowledge for
effectiveness
Bridge 1 Learning process
Complex learning
Catalyst 1 Techniques to
manage actions
Catalyst 1 Skills for effective
learning and reaching
goals
Chain 1 Linking teaching
with classroom
management
Chain 1 Environment not
restricted to
instruction
Fulfillment of goals
Effective use of
materials and flow of
activities
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tacit knowledge and the explicit (Inbar 1991). Thus, metaphors do not only passively
exploit pre-existing similarities via comparing; they also are able to actively create
new realities (Lakoff and Johnson 1980).
The early metaphors provided by teacher candidates depicted a ‘controlling’,
‘ruling’, and/or ‘empowering’ image of classroom management as an entry behavior.
Those images were described as the ‘orchestra conductor’, ‘football match’, ‘coach’,‘theatre play’, ‘leader, boss’, ‘shepherd’, and ‘lion’. These metaphors and their
descriptions show that students established a strong link between classroom
management and discipline. This finding is in line with other research that depicts
classroom management from a ruling or leading perspective (Bullough 1994; Glasser
1990; Lasley 1994; McLaughlin 1994). Especially, the metaphorical images that
reflect chaos and unpredictability are indicators of such a disciplinary environment
that may look unpredictable occasionally. Teacher candidates saw the classroom as a
battlefield or the coach as the leader who controls learners. This finding is in line
with other research in which Turkish students described their schools as autocratic
and similar images of war and chaos were also defined by elementary American
students (Engin-Demir 2007). The teacher needs to be equipped with those strategies
to cope successfully with emerging unpredictable issues. Teacher candidates’
traditional dispositions about classroom management may have been influenced
by their past experiences as students (Bramald, Hardman, and Leat 1995). Martinez,
Salueda, and Huber (2001) also found that many of the teachers shared a traditional
view of teaching and learning in their metaphorical images. The learners seemed tobe encouraged to report their conceptual understandings about classroom manage-
ment that did not originate from textbooks, but rather were expressions of how they
internalized the culture of the learning environment (Weinstein et al. 1994).
The constructivist learning environment transformed control-based or disciplin-
ary images about classroom management into more learner-oriented descriptions
that highlighted teachers’ leadership qualities, knowledge, and awareness about
different learning styles, and individual differences and needs (McLaughlin 1994;
Randolph and Evertson 1994; Weinstein et al. 1994). For instance, prior to the
implementation of social constructivist curriculum, the orchestra conductor is
precise and well-planned, responsible to direct an organized environment without
any interactions among players, and rules set are obeyed by the players to enhance
order. On the contrary, after the implementation, teacher candidates reported that
the orchestra conductor holds essential knowledge to help learners enhance course
objectives, operates cooperatively with all musicians, uses time efficiently and cares
about individual differences, makes learning more attractive, and cares about having
a safe environment.The caring metaphor unlike in other studies has not been associated with
humanistic learning environments. While Western countries have a masculine image
and use the noun fatherland to describe the country, Turkey is feminine and is called as
‘she’ or ‘Anatolia [motherland]’. The image ‘mother’ comes from the history with
authoritative figures such as Kybele, the Goddess of Fertility and Power (Unal 2001).
In this study, the image ‘mother’ bears a dominant function like Kybele prior to the
implementation. Nevertheless, after the implementation this image was not men-
tioned, and images such as snowflake, plus, and window were reported.
The descriptions provided by teacher candidates depicted nurturing, and humanistic
classroom images after the social constructivist implementation. Thus, as the
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classroom manager, the teacher is expected to be considerate about students’ needs and
build empathy. The caring image does not mean a warm feeling that makes people
likable, rather it implies searching ways for students’ competency (Noddings 2007).
Similarly, metaphors that depict diversity indicate that teachers are equipped with theessential tools to meet learning differences, and handle diverse classroom contexts.
Thus, classroom managers are teachers bearing with them skills that require eclectic
approach, spontaneity, and high adaptability (Baines and Stanley 2000).
Mental processes or images are the products of the social environment (McLaugh-
lin 1994; Weinstein et al. 1994). It may be that the learning context the students were
subjected to builds awareness of learning-based environments. Especially, in the way
teacher candidates experienced the social constructivist tasks and activities, and the
instructors’ attitude overall may have been a model for them, and the conceptualchange of teacher candidates may have been facilitated due to how they see their roles
as learners in the course rather than being teacher candidates. Yet, to claim the latter,
more descriptive and in-depth qualitative research is needed. Morine-Dershimer and
Reeve (1994) suggest that the metaphoric language used by prospective teachers may
bring tacit beliefs about teaching and learning to the surface and question them.
Consequently, having focused on different approaches related to classroom manage-
ment and creating effective learning environments, student teachers may have adopted
these into their knowledge constructs (Weinstein et al. 1994).This study showed that the learning environment may actually contribute to
change in teacher candidates’ conceptual understanding about classroom manage-
ment. While first metaphors described traditional approaches to classroom manage-
ment, the final metaphors indicated messages of more contemporary approaches that
emphasized student learning. This result may offer several implications for practice.
First, teacher educators can explore teacher candidates’ dispositions about classroom
management, and understand how the learning environment they are subjected to may
lead to a change in their conceptual understanding. Through utilizing metaphors,teacher educators can evaluate the effectiveness of the instructional process in the
development and learning of teacher candidates. Second, the metaphors can be a
powerful tool to help teacher candidates develop new understandings of classroom
management through social interactions and individual internalizations (reflections)
of new understandings. When teacher candidates are put in social learning environ-
ments that model collaborative learning, a significant difference can be seen in the
description of the metaphoric images. This finding underscores that modeling in
teacher education may promote conceptual change in teacher candidates’ knowledgeconstruction, and through using metaphors, teacher candidates may reflect a new
collaborative culture and understanding to their prospective classrooms. Finally,
creating constructivist teaching and learning environments in teacher education is
becoming widespread. Understanding the conceptual change teacher candidates go
through in such environments may assist them in corporating metaphors and
constructivist approach in teacher education programs.
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