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Chapter 2

Scientific Investigation

2009 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.www.wileyeurope.com/college/sekaran


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Definition of Scientific Research

Scientific Research focusing on solving problems

and pursues a step by step logical, organized

and rigorous method to identify the problems,

gather data, analyze them and draw valid

conclusions there from.

2 2009 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.www.wileyeurope.com/college/sekaran


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Why Scientific Research?

This research is not based on hunches, experienceand intuition.It is purposive and rigorous.

Enables all those who are interested in researchingand knowing about the same or similar issues tocome up with comparable findings when data areanalyzed.Findings are accurate and confident. Apply solutions to similar problems.



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Cont.

It is more objective.Highlights the most critical factors at the work placethat need specific attention to solve or minimize

problems.Scientific Investigation and Managerial DecisionMaking are integral part of effective problem

solving.It can be applied to both basic and appliedresearch.



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Hallmarks of Scientific Research:

Hallmarks or main distinguishing characteristics ofscientific research: Purposiveness

Rigor Testability Replicability Precision and Condence

Objectivity Generalizability Parsimony



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Purposiveness The research has to start with a definite aim or purposeThe focus is on increasing the commitment ofemployees to the organization, as this will be beneficial

in many ways An increase in employee commitment will translate intoless turnover, less absenteeism, and probablyincreased performance levels, all of which woulddefinitely benefit the organizationThe research thus has a purposive focus


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Rigor

A good theoretical base and a sound methodological

design would add rigor to a purposive study.

Rigor adds carefulness and the degree of exactitude in

research investigations.

Rigorous research involves a good theoreticalfoundation and a carefully thought-out methodology.


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Example:

A manager asks 10-12 employees how to increase the

level of commitment. If solely on the basis of their

responses the manager reaches several conclusions on

how employee commitment can be increases, the whole

approach to the investigation would be unscientific. It

would lack rigor for the following reasons:


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1. Based on few employees

2. Bias and incorrectness3. There might be other influences on commitment

which are ignored and are important for a researcherto know

Thus, Rigorous involves good theoretical base andthought out methodology.These factors enable the researcher to collect theright kind of information from an appropriate samplewith the minimum degree of bias and facilitatesuitable analysis of the data gathered.This supports the other six too.


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Testability

Scientific research lends itself to testing logically

developed hypotheses to see whether or not the data

support the hypotheses that are developed after acareful study of the problem situation.

Testability thus becomes another hallmark of scientific

research.


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Replicability

The results of the tests of hypotheses should besupported again and again when the same type ofresearch is repeated in other similar circumstances.

To the extent that the results are replicated or repeated,we will gain confidence in the scientific nature of ourresearch.In other words, our hypotheses would not have beensupported merely by chance, but are reflective of thetrue state of affairs in the population.


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Example:

The study concludes that participation in decision making

is one of the most important factors that influences the

commitment, we will place more faith and credence in

these finding and apply in similar situations. To the

extent that this does happen, we will gain confidencein the scientific nature of our research.


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Precision andCondence

Precision refers to the closeness of the findings

to reality based on a sample.

In other words, precision reflects the degree of

accuracy or exactitude of the results on the basis

of the sample, to what really exists in the

universe.


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Example: If a supervisor estimated the number of

production days lost during the year due to

absenteeism at between 30 and 40, as against the

actual of 35, the precision of my estimation more

favorably than if he has indicated that the loss ofproduction days was somewhere between 20 and

50.


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Confidence refers to the probability that our estimations are

correct.

That is, it is not merely enough to be precise, but it is also

important that we can confidently claim that 95% of the time

our results would be true and there is only a 5% chance of

our being wrong.


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The greater the precision and confidence we

aim at our research, the more scientific is the

investigation and the more useful are the

results.


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Objectivity

The conclusions drawn through the interpretation of the

results of data analysis should be objective; that is, they

should be based on the facts of the findings derivedfrom actual data, and not on our own subjective or

emotional values.

The more objective the interpretation of the data, the

more scientific the research investigation becomes.


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Generalizability

Generalizability refers to the scope of applicability of theresearch findings in one organizational setting to othersettings.

Obviously, the wider the range of applicability of thesolutions generated by research, the more useful theresearch is to the users.For wider generalizability, the research sampling designhas to be logically developed and a number of otherdetails in the data-collection methods need to befollowed.


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Generalizability Example: If a researchers findings that participation in

decision making enhances organizational commitment are

found to be true in a variety of manufacturing, industrial and

service organizations, and not merely in the particular

organization studied by the researcher, then the

generalizability of the findings to other organizational

settings in enhanced. The more generalizable the research,

the greater its usefulness and value.


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Parsimony

Simplicity in explaining the phenomena or problems thatoccur, and in generating solutions for the problems, isalways preferred to complex research frameworks thatconsider an unmanageable number of factors.Economy in research models is achieved when we canbuild into our research framework a lesser number of

variables that would explain the variance far moreefficiently than a complex set of variables that wouldonly marginally add to the variance explained.


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Parsimony Parsimony can be introduced with a good

understanding of the problem and the important factors

that influence it.

Such a good conceptual theoretical model can be

realized through unstructured and structured interviews

with the concerned people, and a thorough literature

review of the previous research work in the particular

problem area.


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Parsimony For instance, if 2-3 specific variables in the work situation

are identified, which when changed would raise the

organizational commitment of the employees by 45%,that would be more useful be more useful and valuable

to the manager than if it were recommended that he

should change 10 different variables to increase

organizational commitment by 48%.


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The Building Blocks of Science inResearch

Deduction and Inductions

Answers to issues can be found either by the

process of deduction or the process of induction, or

by a combination of the two.


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Theory Building

Deductive Reasoning The logical process of deriving a conclusion

about a specific instance based on a knowngeneral premise or something known to betrue.

Inductive Reasoning The logical process of establishing a general

proposition on the basis of observation ofparticular facts.


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Deduction and Induction

Deductive reasoning : application of a general theory toa specific case. Hypothesis testing

Inductive reasoning : a process where we observespecific phenomena and on this basis arrive at generalconclusions. Counting white swans

Both inductive and deductive processes are often usedin research.



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Deduction

Deduction is the process by which we arrive at areasoned conclusion by logical generalization of aknown fact.


Example: we know that all high performers are highly proficient in their jobs.

If John is a high performer, we then conclude that he is highly proficient in his job


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Induction Induction is a process where we observe certainphenomena and on this basis arrive at conclusions.


In other words, in induction we logically establish ageneral proposition based on observed facts.


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Hypothetico-Deductive Research

The Seven-Step Process in the Hypothetico-DeductiveMethod Identify a broad problem area Define the problem statement Develop hypotheses Determine measures Data collection Data analysis Interpretation of data



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Other Types of Research

Case Studies

Action Research


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Case Studies Involves in-depth, contextual analyses of similarsituations in other organizations, where the nature anddefinition of the problem happen to be the same asexperienced in the current situation.Case studies usually provide qualitative rather thanquantitative data for analysis and interpretation.Ex. A study of what contributes to the successfulinstallation of a good MIS in organizations similar to theone that is planning to install it, and the practicalapplication of that knowledge would be very functional.


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Action Research It is sometimes undertaken by consultants who want toinitiate change process in organizations. Action research methodology is most appropriate while

effecting planned changes.Ex. The vice president of a company wants to introducea new system of bookkeeping that is likely to meet withsome resistance from the accounting department.Based on the past experience in the organization, theVP would like to seek a solution to the problem ofemployee resistance.

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