CEREAL RYE - GRDC · viii ˜˚˛˝˙ˆˇ˘ January 2018 Contents Contents cereal rye 3.1 Seed treatments ..... 1

SOUTHERNSEPTEMBER 2018

CONTENTS

CEREAL RYE

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SOUTHERNJanuary 2018

Contents

Contents cereal rye

IntroductionA.1 Crop overview ..........................................................................................................xxii

A.1.1 Comparative notes ................................................................................................ xxii

A.1.2 Description ............................................................................................................... xxii

A.1.3 Rye for human consumption .............................................................................. xxiv

A.1.4 Rye for animal consumption ............................................................................... xxivGrain ..................................................................................................................................................xxiv

Forage ................................................................................................................................................xxv

Pasture ...............................................................................................................................................xxv

A.2 Growing regions ......................................................................................................xxv

A.3 Brief history ............................................................................................................xxvii

1 Planning/Paddock preparationKey messages: .....................................................................................................................................1

1.1 Paddock selection ....................................................................................................... 1

1.1.1 Topography ................................................................................................................... 1Topography mediates the influence of cover crops on soil nitrate levels .....................2

1.1.2 Soil .................................................................................................................................3Rye on erosion-prone soils .............................................................................................................4

Soil pH ....................................................................................................................................................5

Managing soil pH ...............................................................................................................................6

1.1.3 Sampling soil quality .................................................................................................6Sampling strategy ..............................................................................................................................7

Sampling equipment .........................................................................................................................8

Sampling depth ...................................................................................................................................8

Sample handling.................................................................................................................................8

1.1.4 Biological inputs .........................................................................................................9Yield constraints in the Southern Region ...................................................................................9

1.2 Paddock rotation and history ................................................................................... 9Allelopathic effects ........................................................................................................................... 11

1.2.1 Rotation issues ........................................................................................................... 11

1.2.2 Break cropping ......................................................................................................... 12

1.2.3 Long-fallow disorder ................................................................................................13

1.3 Fallow weed control ..................................................................................................14Summer fallow weed control and residue management impacts on winter crop yield through soil water and N accumulation in a winter-dominant low rainfall region of southern Australia. .............................................................. 15

1.3.1 The green bridge ..................................................................................................... 16

1.3.2 Management strategies ..........................................................................................17

1.3.3 Benefits of stubble retention .................................................................................17Reducing erosion risk ..................................................................................................................... 18

Increasing soil-water content ....................................................................................................... 18

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Increasing soil carbon .................................................................................................................... 18

Other benefits of stubble retention ............................................................................................ 19

Management practices affecting stubble cover .................................................................... 19

1.4 Fallow chemical plant-back effects ........................................................................19Conditions required for breakdown ........................................................................................... 21

Plant-back periods for fallow herbicides in the Southern Region ................................... 21

1.4.1 Herbicide residues in soil—an Australia-wide study ...................................... 22

1.5 Seedbed requirements ............................................................................................24

1.5.1 Seedbed soil structure decline ........................................................................... 25Background .......................................................................................................................................25

Management to improve seedbed soil structure .................................................................26

1.6 Soil moisture..............................................................................................................26

1.6.1 Dryland ....................................................................................................................... 26Soil-water extraction by dryland crops, annual pastures and lucerne in south-eastern Australia ............................................................................................................ 27

Monitoring soil moisture in dryland areas ............................................................................... 27

1.6.2 Tillage ......................................................................................................................... 28Tillage, microbial biomass and soil biological fertility ........................................................30

1.6.3 Irrigation ..................................................................................................................... 32Dry matter accumulation and changes in forage quality during primary growth and three regrowths of irrigated winter cereals .................................... 33

The future of irrigation ................................................................................................................... 34

1.7 Yield and targets ......................................................................................................34Estimating crop yields .................................................................................................................... 35

Yield Prophet® .................................................................................................................................. 36

1.7.1 Seasonal outlook .................................................................................................... 36CliMate ................................................................................................................................................ 37

Climate analogues .......................................................................................................................... 37

1.7.2 Fallow moisture ....................................................................................................... 38HowWet? ............................................................................................................................................ 38

1.7.3 Water Use Efficiency .............................................................................................. 38Strategies to increase yield ......................................................................................................... 39

The French–Schultz approach ................................................................................................... 39

1.7.4 Nitrogen-use efficiency ......................................................................................... 40Improving NUE .................................................................................................................................40

Optimising N fertiliser use ............................................................................................................. 41

Environment and genotype influence on grain protein concentration of wheat and rye .............................................................................................................................. 41

1.7.5 Double crop options ............................................................................................... 42

1.8 Disease status of paddock .....................................................................................42

1.8.1 Cropping history effects ........................................................................................ 42

1.8.2 Soil testing for disease ...........................................................................................43PreDicta B .......................................................................................................................................... 43

1.8.3 Nematode status of paddock ...............................................................................44Nematode testing of soil ............................................................................................................... 45

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Effects of cropping history on nematode status ................................................................... 45

1.9 Insect status of paddock .........................................................................................45

1.9.1 Sampling of paddocks and soil for insects ...................................................... 46Sampling methods .......................................................................................................................... 46

1.9.2 Identification ..............................................................................................................47Insect ID: The Ute Guide ............................................................................................................... 47

1.9.3 Effect of cropping history ...................................................................................... 48

2 Pre-plantingKey messages ......................................................................................................................................1

2.1 Cereal rye as an alternative crop ............................................................................. 1Cereal rye—an alternative grain crop ..........................................................................................1

2.1.1 Dual-purpose cropping.............................................................................................2Importance of variety choice ..........................................................................................................6

2.1.2 Cereal rye for forage ................................................................................................. 7

2.1.3 Break or cover cropping ..........................................................................................8Cover-crop mixtures ..........................................................................................................................9

Break benefits on Mallee soils .................................................................................................... 10

Control of cover crops .................................................................................................................... 14

Control of cereal rye with a roller/crimper as influenced by cover crop phenology 16

Prevention of wind erosion ........................................................................................................... 16

2.2 Varietal performance and ratings ........................................................................... 17

2.2.1 Identifying products for industry ...........................................................................17Low- and high-amylose rye ...........................................................................................................17

Low- and high-pentosan rye .........................................................................................................17

White rye ..............................................................................................................................................17

High-molecular-weight glutenin rye ........................................................................................... 18

Long-season dual-purpose rye ................................................................................................... 18

2.2.2 Developing products for industry ........................................................................ 18Opportunities ..................................................................................................................................... 19

2.2.3 Varieties ...................................................................................................................... 19Bevy ...................................................................................................................................................... 19

Southern Green forage rye ........................................................................................................... 19

Ryesun ................................................................................................................................................. 21

VampireP ........................................................................................................................................... 21

Westwood ..........................................................................................................................................22

2.3 Quality of planting seed ..........................................................................................22

2.3.1 Seed size and coleoptile length.......................................................................... 23

2.3.2 Seed germination and vigour .............................................................................. 24Seed purity ........................................................................................................................................25

2.3.3 Seed storage ............................................................................................................ 26

2.3.4 Safe rates of fertiliser sown with the seed ....................................................... 26

3 PlantingKey messages ......................................................................................................................................1

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3.1 Seed treatments .......................................................................................................... 1

3.1.1 Emergence problems ................................................................................................2

3.1.2 Fertiliser at seeding ...................................................................................................2

3.2 Time of sowing ............................................................................................................ 3

3.3 Targeted plant population ........................................................................................ 3Effect of seeding rate and planting arrangement on rye cover crop and weed growth. ..............................................................................................................................4

3.4 Calculating seed requirements ................................................................................ 5Agronomic requirements for a semi-dwarf rye variety: phosphorus and sowing rate. 5

3.5 Sowing depth ...............................................................................................................7

3.6 Sowing equipment ..................................................................................................... 8

4 Plant growth and physiologyKey messages ......................................................................................................................................1

4.1 Characteristics of the cereal rye plant .................................................................... 1

4.2 Germination and emergence issues ....................................................................... 3

4.2.1 Dormancy .....................................................................................................................3The seedbank dynamics of volunteer rye .................................................................................3

4.2.2 Germination .................................................................................................................4

4.2.3 Emergence ...................................................................................................................5

4.3 Environmental effects on plant growth and physiology ..................................... 5

4.3.1 Photoperiod and temperature ................................................................................5Effect on frost tolerance ...................................................................................................................6

4.3.2 Salinity ...........................................................................................................................6

4.3.3 Soil water ...................................................................................................................... 7Shoot and root dry weight and soil water in wheat, triticale and rye ...............................7

4.4 Plant growth stages ....................................................................................................7

4.4.1 Roots ..............................................................................................................................8

4.4.2 Plant development: photosynthesis and maturation ....................................... 11

4.4.3 Vegetative behaviour ............................................................................................... 11

4.4.4 Flowering and grain formation ............................................................................. 12

5 nutrition and fertiliserKey messages ......................................................................................................................................1

5.1 Soil nutrient balance ................................................................................................... 1

5.1.1 Benefits of rye to soil health .................................................................................... 1Winter cover crop effects on soil organic carbon in soil. ......................................................3

5.1.2 Fertiliser application ..................................................................................................3Application considerations .............................................................................................................3

Agronomic requirements of a new semi-dwarf rye variety: N and P ................................4

5.1.3 Fungi and soil health .................................................................................................5Management to optimise AMF population ................................................................................6

5.2 Crop removal rates .................................................................................................... 6

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5.3 Soil testing ....................................................................................................................7

5.3.1 Why test soil? ............................................................................................................. 7

5.3.2 Basic requirements ...................................................................................................8

5.3.3 Types of test ................................................................................................................8

5.4 Plant and/or tissue testing for nutrient levels ....................................................... 8

5.4.1 Why measure nutrients in plant tissues? .............................................................8

5.4.2 What plant-tissue analysis shows ..........................................................................9

5.5 Nitrogen ......................................................................................................................10Accumulation and loss of N during growth and maturation of cereal rye ..................... 11

Nitrate leaching under a cereal rye cover crop. ................................................................... 11

5.5.1 Nitrogen-deficiency symptoms in cereals ......................................................... 12What to look for ................................................................................................................................ 12

What else could it be? .................................................................................................................... 14

5.5.2 Managing nitrogen ...................................................................................................14Timing of application ....................................................................................................................... 14

Budgeting............................................................................................................................................ 14

5.6 Phosphorus.................................................................................................................15Uptake and utilisation of P from iron phosphate—rye shows efficiency ....................... 16

5.6.1 Managing phosphorus .............................................................................................17

5.6.2 Phosphorus-deficiency symptoms .......................................................................17What to look for .................................................................................................................................17

What else could it be? .................................................................................................................... 19

5.6.3 Soil testing ................................................................................................................. 19

5.7 Sulfur ...........................................................................................................................20

5.7.1 Sulfur deficiency symptoms ................................................................................. 20What to look for ...............................................................................................................................20

What else could it be? ...................................................................................................................22

5.8 Potassium ..................................................................................................................22

5.8.1 Potassium deficiency symptoms ......................................................................... 23What to look for ...............................................................................................................................23


5.8.2 Assessing potassium requirements ................................................................... 26

5.8.3 Fertiliser types ......................................................................................................... 26

5.8.4 Fertiliser placement and timing ........................................................................... 26

5.9 Micronutrients ........................................................................................................... 27

5.9.1 Zinc ..............................................................................................................................27Deficiency symptoms ..................................................................................................................... 27


Differential response of rye, triticale, bread and durum wheats to zinc deficiency in calcareous soils. ...........................................................................................29

Managing zinc deficiency .............................................................................................................30

Role of rye chromosomes in improvement of zinc efficiency in wheat and triticale.. 31

5.9.2 Manganese .................................................................................................................31

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Tolerance of barley and other cereals to manganese-deficient calcareous soils of South Australia ........................................................................................... 32

Deficiency symptoms ..................................................................................................................... 32

What else could it be? ................................................................................................................... 34

Managing manganese deficiency ............................................................................................. 34

5.9.3 Copper ....................................................................................................................... 35Deficiency symptoms ..................................................................................................................... 35


Managing copper deficiency ...................................................................................................... 37

5.9.4 Iron ...............................................................................................................................37Symptoms .......................................................................................................................................... 38


Managing iron deficiency .............................................................................................................40

5.10 Aluminium toxicity ....................................................................................................40

5.11 Nutritional deficiencies ...........................................................................................40Making use of the crop nutrition information available to you ........................................40

6 Weed controlKey messages ......................................................................................................................................1

6.1 Cereal rye: a weed suppressor ................................................................................. 1Rye residues contribute weed suppression in no-tillage cropping systems ..................2

6.1.1 Allelopathic effects ....................................................................................................2Managing land classes for better feed utilisation ...................................................................3

Remove cereal rye early to avoid problems from its allelopathic effect .........................5

6.1.2 Volunteer rye ...............................................................................................................5

6.2 Integrated weed management .................................................................................7

6.2.1 Five-point plan ............................................................................................................81. Review past actions .......................................................................................................................8

2. Assess the current weed status ...............................................................................................8

3. Identify weed management opportunities within the cropping system ......................9

4. Fine-tune your list of options .....................................................................................................9

5. Combine and test ideas ..............................................................................................................9

6.2.2 IWM in the Southern Region ................................................................................. 10South Australian Weed Control app ........................................................................................... 11

6.2.3 Cover cropping for weed management ............................................................. 12Overcoming weed management challenges in organic rotational no-till soybean production based on cover cropping.......................................................... 12

6.3 Key weeds in Australia’s cropping systems .........................................................13

6.3.1 Annual ryegrass management in the Southern Region ..................................14South Australian trial ....................................................................................................................... 14

Victorian trial ...................................................................................................................................... 15

6.3.2 Brome grass and barley grass in the Southern Region ................................. 15Brome grass ....................................................................................................................................... 15

Barley grass ........................................................................................................................................17

6.3.3 Emerging flaxleaf fleabane threat.........................................................................17

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Control strategy ................................................................................................................................ 18

6.3.4 Wild radish herbicide resistance .......................................................................... 19

6.4 Herbicides explained ...............................................................................................20

6.4.1 Residual and non-residual .................................................................................... 20

6.4.2 Post-emergent and pre-emergent ...................................................................... 20

6.5 Pre-emergent herbicides .........................................................................................21

6.5.1 Understanding pre-emergent herbicides ......................................................... 22

6.5.2 Behaviour of pre-emergent herbicides in the soil .......................................... 22

6.5.3 Top tips for using pre-emergent herbicides ..................................................... 23

6.5.4 Post-sowing pre-emergent (PSPE) herbicide use ........................................... 23

6.5.5 Incorporation by sowing (IBS) .............................................................................. 24

6.5.6 Control of annual ryegrass and crop safety with use of pre-emergent residual herbicides .............................................................................. 24Key findings ....................................................................................................................................... 24

Conclusions .......................................................................................................................................25

6.6 In-crop herbicides: knock-downs and residuals .................................................26

6.6.1 Key points for in-crop herbicide application .................................................... 26

6.6.2 How to get the most out of post-emergent herbicides .................................27

6.7 Conditions for spraying ........................................................................................... 27

6.7.1 Minimising spray drift ............................................................................................. 28Before spraying ...............................................................................................................................28

During spraying ........................................................................................................... 28

6.7.2 Types of drift ............................................................................................................. 29

6.7.3 Factors affecting the risk of spray drift .............................................................. 29Volatility ..............................................................................................................................................30

6.7.4 Equipment and settings for minimising drift .................................................... 30Spray release height ....................................................................................................................... 31

Size of area treated ......................................................................................................................... 31

Capture surface ............................................................................................................................... 32

6.7.5 Weather conditions to avoid ................................................................................ 32Turbulence ......................................................................................................................................... 32

High temperatures .......................................................................................................................... 32

Humidity .............................................................................................................................................. 32

Wind ..................................................................................................................................................... 32

Inversions ........................................................................................................................................... 32

6.8 Herbicide tolerance ratings ....................................................................................33

6.9 Potential herbicide damage effect ........................................................................33

6.9.1 Avoiding crop damage from residual herbicides ............................................33What are the issues? ...................................................................................................................... 33

Which herbicides are residual? .................................................................................................. 34

How to avoid damage from residual herbicides .................................................................. 34

6.9.2 Plant-back intervals ................................................................................................ 35Conditions required for breakdown .......................................................................................... 37

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6.10 Herbicide resistance ................................................................................................38

6.10.1 Understanding herbicide resistance .................................................................. 38Herbicide resistance facts ........................................................................................................... 38

Key messages .................................................................................................................................. 38

How does resistance start? ......................................................................................................... 39

6.10.2 General principles to avoid resistance .............................................................. 39Glyphosate-resistant weeds in australia .................................................................. 41

6.10.3 The 10-point plan to weed out herbicide resistance ..................................... 42If you think you have resistant weeds ...................................................................................... 46

6.11 Monitoring weeds..................................................................................................... 47

6.11.1 Tips for monitoring .................................................................................................. 48

7 Insect controlKey messages ......................................................................................................................................1

7.1 Potential insect pests ................................................................................................. 1

7.2 Integrated pest management .................................................................................. 5Key IPM strategies .............................................................................................................................5

Insecticide choices ............................................................................................................................5

Insecticide resistance .......................................................................................................................5

7.2.1 Insect sampling methods .........................................................................................6Factors that contribute to quality monitoring ............................................................................6

Keeping good records ......................................................................................................................6

Sampling methods .............................................................................................................................7

7.3 Russian wheat aphid .................................................................................................10Key points ........................................................................................................................................... 10

7.3.1 Damage caused by RWA ....................................................................................... 12

7.3.2 Where to look and what to look for ....................................................................13Measures to increase the likelihood of RWA detection ...................................................... 14

Where to find the RWA ................................................................................................................... 15

7.3.3 Thresholds for control ............................................................................................. 15

7.3.4 Management of RWA .............................................................................................. 16Control options .................................................................................................................................. 16

Bees ...................................................................................................................................................... 16

General instructions ........................................................................................................................ 16

7.4 Aphids .......................................................................................................................... 17

7.4.1 Oat or wheat aphid ...................................................................................................17

7.4.2 Corn aphid ................................................................................................................. 18

7.4.3 Rose-grain aphid ...................................................................................................... 18

7.4.4 Conditions favouring aphid development ......................................................... 19

7.4.5 Thresholds for control ............................................................................................ 20

7.4.6 Managing aphids ..................................................................................................... 20Biological control .............................................................................................................................20

Cultural control .................................................................................................................................20

Chemical control ............................................................................................................................... 21

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Monitoring ........................................................................................................................................... 21

7.5 Mites ............................................................................................................................21

7.5.1 Redlegged earth mite ............................................................................................. 21Damage caused by RLEM............................................................................................................23

Managing RLEM...............................................................................................................................23

7.5.2 Balaustium mite ....................................................................................................... 26Damage caused by Balaustium mite ....................................................................................... 27

Management..................................................................................................................................... 27

7.5.3 Blue oat mite ............................................................................................................ 28Damage caused by BOM .............................................................................................................30

Managing BOM ................................................................................................................................30

7.5.4 Bryobia mite ............................................................................................................. 32Damage cause by mite ................................................................................................................. 34

Managing Bryobia mites ............................................................................................................... 34

7.6 Lucerne flea ...............................................................................................................34Damage caused by Lucerne flea .............................................................................................. 36

Managing Lucerne flea ................................................................................................................. 36

7.7 Cutworm .....................................................................................................................38

7.7.1 Damage caused by cutworms ...............................................................................41

7.7.2 Thresholds for control ..............................................................................................41

7.7.3 Managing cutworm ...................................................................................................41Biological .......................................................................................................................................... 42

Cultural .............................................................................................................................................. 42

Chemical ........................................................................................................................................... 42

7.8 Armyworm .................................................................................................................42

7.8.1 Damage caused by armyworms ..........................................................................44

7.8.2 Thresholds for control ............................................................................................ 45

7.8.3 Managing armyworms ........................................................................................... 45Sampling and detection ................................................................................................................ 45

Biological control ............................................................................................................................. 46

Cultural control ................................................................................................................................. 46

Chemical control .............................................................................................................................. 46

7.9 Slugs and snails ........................................................................................................46

7.9.1 Managing slugs and snails ................................................................................... 49

7.10 Wireworms and False wireworms .........................................................................53

7.10.1 False wireworms ..................................................................................................... 53Biology ................................................................................................................................................55

Damage caused by false wireworms .......................................................................................55

7.10.2 True wireworm ......................................................................................................... 56Biology ................................................................................................................................................ 57

Damage .............................................................................................................................................. 57

7.10.3 Sampling and detection ........................................................................................ 58

7.10.4 Control ....................................................................................................................... 58

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7.11 Plague locusts ...........................................................................................................59

8 nematode managementKey messages ......................................................................................................................................1

Cereal root disease management in Victoria and southern Australia .............................1

8.1 Root-lesion nematode (RLN) .................................................................................... 2Key points .............................................................................................................................................2

8.1.1 Symptoms ....................................................................................................................4Paddock ................................................................................................................................................4

Plant ........................................................................................................................................................5

8.1.2 Soil testing ...................................................................................................................6PreDictaB ..............................................................................................................................................6

8.1.3 Varietal resistance or tolerance ............................................................................. 7

8.1.4 Damage caused by RLN ........................................................................................... 7

8.1.5 Conditions favouring development .......................................................................8How long does it take to reduce Pt in soils? ............................................................................8

8.1.6 Thresholds for control ...............................................................................................9

8.1.7 Management of RLN .................................................................................................9Key points .............................................................................................................................................9

8.2 Cereal Cyst Nematode (CCN) .................................................................................10Key points ........................................................................................................................................... 10

The effect of plant hosts on populations of the cereal cyst nematode (Heterodera a Venae) and on the subsequent yield of wheat ................... 11

8.2.1 Symptoms and detection ....................................................................................... 12

8.2.2 Varietal resistance or tolerance ............................................................................14

8.2.3 Damage caused by CCN.........................................................................................14

8.2.4 Management ..............................................................................................................14

8.3 Nematodes and crown rot .......................................................................................15

8.3.1 Management ............................................................................................................ 16Soil testing .......................................................................................................................................... 16

Varietal choice ...................................................................................................................................17

9 DiseasesKey messages ......................................................................................................................................1

9.1.1 Tools for diagnosing cereal disease .....................................................................2Crop Disease Au App .......................................................................................................................2

CropPro..................................................................................................................................................2

9.2 Ergot ............................................................................................................................. 3

9.2.1 Varietal resistance or tolerance .............................................................................4

9.2.2 Damage caused by disease ....................................................................................4Gangrenous ergotism of man and cattle ...................................................................................4

Convulsive ergotism .........................................................................................................................4

9.2.3 Crop symptoms ..........................................................................................................4What to look for ..................................................................................................................................4

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9.2.4 Conditions favouring development .......................................................................5

9.2.5 Management of disease ...........................................................................................6Key points .............................................................................................................................................6

Strategies to reduce the risk of ergot infection ........................................................................7

Marketing options ..............................................................................................................................7

Alkaloids in Australian rye ergot sclerotia: implications for food and stockfeed regulations. .....................................................................................................................8

9.3 Take-all ......................................................................................................................... 8Key points: ............................................................................................................................................8

9.3.1 Symptoms .................................................................................................................. 10What to look for ................................................................................................................................ 10

9.3.2 Conditions favouring development ...................................................................... 11Hosts ..................................................................................................................................................... 12

9.3.3 Managing take-all ..................................................................................................... 12Key points ........................................................................................................................................... 12

Take-all decline ................................................................................................................................. 13

9.4 Rusts ............................................................................................................................13

9.4.1 Symptoms ...................................................................................................................14

9.4.2 Stripe rust (Yellow rust) ............................................................................................14Stripe rust in southern Australia .................................................................................................. 15

9.4.3 Leaf rust (Brown rust) .............................................................................................. 15

9.4.4 Stem rust (Black rust) ...............................................................................................17Stem rust in southern Australia .................................................................................................... 18

9.4.5 Management of Rust ............................................................................................... 18

9.4.6 Integrated disease management of rusts and yellow leaf spot................... 19Key points .......................................................................................................................................... 19

Breeding cereals for rust resistance in Australia .................................................................. 21

9.5 Yellow leaf spot (Tan spot) .......................................................................................21

9.5.1 Varietal resistance or tolerance .......................................................................... 22

9.5.2 Damage caused by disease ................................................................................. 22

9.5.3 Symptoms ................................................................................................................. 22

9.5.4 Conditions favouring development .................................................................... 22

9.5.5 Management of disease ........................................................................................ 22Minimising the risk of yellow leaf spot......................................................................................23

In-crop fungicides and timing ......................................................................................................23

9.6 Fusarium: Crown rot and FHB ...............................................................................23Key points ..........................................................................................................................................23

9.6.1 Update on the latest research ............................................................................. 24Take home messages.................................................................................................................... 24

9.6.2 Damage caused by Crown rot ............................................................................. 25

9.6.3 Symptoms ................................................................................................................. 25

9.6.4 FHB symptoms ..........................................................................................................27

9.6.5 Conditions favouring development .................................................................... 28

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Crown rot............................................................................................................................................28

FHB .....................................................................................................................................................29

9.6.6 Management ............................................................................................................ 29Crop rotation .....................................................................................................................................29

Variety selection ..............................................................................................................................30

Crop management ..........................................................................................................................30

Cultivation ..........................................................................................................................................30

Stubble burning ................................................................................................................................. 31

Reducing water loss ........................................................................................................................ 31

Grass-weed management ............................................................................................................ 31

Sowing time ........................................................................................................................................ 31

Row placement ................................................................................................................................ 32

Soil type .............................................................................................................................................. 32

Soil testing ......................................................................................................................................... 32

9.7 Common root rot ......................................................................................................33

9.7.1 Damage caused by disease ..................................................................................33

9.7.2 Symptoms ..................................................................................................................33Paddock ............................................................................................................................................. 33

Plant ..................................................................................................................................................... 33

9.7.3 Conditions favouring development .....................................................................34

9.7.4 Management .............................................................................................................34

9.8 Smut ............................................................................................................................35

9.8.1 Bunt or stinking smut ............................................................................................. 35Managing bunt ................................................................................................................................. 35

9.8.2 Loose smut ............................................................................................................... 36Managing smut ................................................................................................................................ 36

9.9 Rhizoctonia root rot ................................................................................................. 37

9.9.1 Symptoms ..................................................................................................................37What to look for ............................................................................................................................... 37

9.9.2 Conditions favouring development .................................................................... 40Factors Affecting Rhizoctonia .....................................................................................................40

9.9.3 Managing Rhizoctonia .............................................................................................41

9.10 Cereal fungicides ......................................................................................................41

9.10.1 Fungicide stewardship .......................................................................................... 42

9.11 Disease following extreme weather events ........................................................43

9.11.1 Cereal disease after drought ................................................................................43

9.11.2 Cereal disease after flood .....................................................................................43

10 Plant growth regulators and canopy managementKey messages ......................................................................................................................................1

10.1 Plant growth regulators (PGRs) ................................................................................ 1

10.1.1 Considering mixed results .......................................................................................2Conclusions: The value of PGRs ...................................................................................................3

10.1.2 Case study: using Moddus® Evo ............................................................................3

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Methods .................................................................................................................................................4

Results ....................................................................................................................................................4

10.2 Canopy management ................................................................................................ 4What is canopy management? .....................................................................................................4

Canopy management—Inverleigh ................................................................................................7

10.2.1 Cereal Canopy management in a nutshell ..........................................................8

10.2.2 Setting up the canopy ...............................................................................................9

10.2.3 Soil moisture status ...................................................................................................9

10.2.4 Soil nitrogen ................................................................................................................9

10.2.5 Seeding rate and date ............................................................................................ 10Row spacing ....................................................................................................................................... 10

Yield ....................................................................................................................................................... 11

Plant spacing ..................................................................................................................................... 12

Dry Matter ........................................................................................................................................... 12

Grain quality ....................................................................................................................................... 12

Nitrogen management ................................................................................................................... 12

10.2.6 In-crop nitrogen .........................................................................................................13

10.2.7 Limitations of tactical nitrogen application .......................................................13

11 Crop desiccation/spray out

12 HarvestKey messages ......................................................................................................................................1

12.1 Windrowing ................................................................................................................ 2

12.1.1 Timing............................................................................................................................2

12.1.2 Cutting ...........................................................................................................................3

12.1.3 Harvesting the windrow ...........................................................................................3

12.2 Harvest timing ............................................................................................................. 3

12.2.1 Lodging .........................................................................................................................4

12.2.2 Harvesting for silage .................................................................................................4When to cut for silage .......................................................................................................................4

DM levels recommended for ensiling ..........................................................................................5

Mowing ..................................................................................................................................................5

12.2.3 Equipment ....................................................................................................................5Forage harvesters ..............................................................................................................................6

Balers .....................................................................................................................................................7

12.3 Fire prevention ...................................................................................................... 8Harvester fire reduction checklist .................................................................................................8

12.3.1 Harvesting in low-risk conditions ......................................................................... 10

12.4 Receival standards ....................................................................................................10

12.5 Harvest weed seed management ...........................................................................11

12.5.1 HWSC Strategies ....................................................................................................... 11Narrow windrow burning ................................................................................................................ 11

Chaff Carts .......................................................................................................................................... 12

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Bale direct systems ......................................................................................................................... 12

Harrington Seed Destructor ......................................................................................................... 12

13 storageKey messages ......................................................................................................................................1

Safe storage guidelines for rye. ....................................................................................................1

GRDC Stored grain information hub ............................................................................................2

13.1 How to store product on-farm.................................................................................. 3On-farm storage—Tasmania...........................................................................................................3

13.1.1 Silos ...............................................................................................................................5Pressure testing ..................................................................................................................................6

The importance of a gas-tight silo ................................................................................................6

13.1.2 Grain bags ....................................................................................................................8

13.1.3 Monitoring stored grain ............................................................................................8

13.1.4 Grain storage: getting the economics right ........................................................9Comparing on-farm grain storage ................................................................................................9

Summary ............................................................................................................................................. 10

13.2 Stored grain pests .....................................................................................................12Key points ........................................................................................................................................... 12

Prevention is better than cure ...................................................................................................... 12

13.2.1 Common species ..................................................................................................... 12Why identify stored insect grain pests? .................................................................................... 13

13.2.2 Monitoring grain for pests .......................................................................................14

13.2.3 Hygiene .......................................................................................................................14Key points ........................................................................................................................................... 14

Where to clean .................................................................................................................................. 14

When to clean ................................................................................................................................... 15

How to clean ...................................................................................................................................... 15

13.2.4 Aeration cooling for pest control ..........................................................................17

13.2.5 Structural treatments ................................................................................................17Key points ............................................................................................................................................17

Application ...........................................................................................................................................17

Silo application .................................................................................................................................. 18

13.2.6 Fumigation ................................................................................................................. 18Maximum residue limits .................................................................................................................20

Phosphine application .................................................................................................................... 21

Non-chemical treatment options include: ................................................................................ 21

13.3 Aeration during storage ..........................................................................................22

13.3.1 Dealing with high moisture grain ........................................................................ 22Key points ..........................................................................................................................................22

13.3.2 Aeration cooling ...................................................................................................... 23Key points ..........................................................................................................................................23

Blending .............................................................................................................................................23

Seed viability.....................................................................................................................................23

13.3.3 Aeration drying ........................................................................................................ 24

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High airflow for drying ................................................................................................................... 24

Ducting for drying ............................................................................................................................ 24

Venting for drying ............................................................................................................................25

Weather conditions for drying .....................................................................................................25

Phase one of drying .......................................................................................................................25

Phase two of drying ........................................................................................................................25

Supplementary heating .................................................................................................................25

Cooling after drying ........................................................................................................................25

13.3.4 Aeration controllers ................................................................................................ 26

13.4 Grain protectants for storage .................................................................................26

13.4.1 K-Obiol Combi .........................................................................................................27

13.4.2 Conserve On-farm ...................................................................................................27

14 environmental issuesKey messages ......................................................................................................................................1

14.1 Frost issues for Cereal Rye ........................................................................................ 1Key points ..............................................................................................................................................1

14.1.1 Diagnosing stem and head frost damage in cereals ........................................3What to look for ..................................................................................................................................5

New insight in frost events and management ..........................................................................7

Guidelines for reducing frost risk and assessing frost damage ....................................... 10

14.1.2 Managing frost risk ................................................................................................... 11Key points ............................................................................................................................................ 11

Farm management planning tactics .......................................................................................... 12

Frost zone management tactics .................................................................................................. 12

Diversity the key to balancing frost and heat stress risks .................................................. 15

Post-frost event management tactics ........................................................................................ 16

Useful tools ......................................................................................................................................... 18

National Frost Initiative ................................................................................................................... 19

14.2 Waterlogging/flooding issues for cereal rye ........................................................19Key points ........................................................................................................................................... 19

Comparison of waterlogging and drought tolerances among winter cereals ...........20

Where does waterlogging occur? .............................................................................................. 21

Crop production in the high rainfall zones of southern Australia—potential, constraints and opportunities ................................................................................... 21

Identifying problem areas ............................................................................................................22

14.2.1 Symptoms and causes ........................................................................................... 22What to look for in the paddock .................................................................................................22

What to look for in plants ............................................................................................................23

How can waterlogging be monitored? .................................................................................... 24

Other impacts of waterlogging and flood events ................................................................ 24

14.2.2 Managing waterlogging ........................................................................................ 25Key points ..........................................................................................................................................25

Drainage problems after flooding .............................................................................................25

Irrigation after waterlogging ........................................................................................................25

Ways to improve drainage ...........................................................................................................25

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Contents cereal rye

Choice of crop species .................................................................................................................26

Seeding rates ...................................................................................................................................26

Nitrogen fertiliser .............................................................................................................................26

14.3 Other environmental issues for cereal rye ..........................................................26

14.3.1 Drought ...................................................................................................................... 26The influence of the autumn and spring drought on the development of winter rye and barley. ................................................................................... 27

Managing drought ..........................................................................................................................28

14.3.2 Heat stress ................................................................................................................ 28Managing heat stress ....................................................................................................................30

14.3.3 Salinity ....................................................................................................................... 30How salinity affects the emergence, growth, yield and quality of rye ........................... 31

Symptoms ........................................................................................................................................... 31

Management strategies ................................................................................................................ 33

15 MarketingKey messages ......................................................................................................................................1

15.1 Links to industry boards ............................................................................................. 1

15.1.1 Mackillop Farm Management Group ..................................................................... 1Objectives ..............................................................................................................................................1

15.1.2 Riverine Plains .............................................................................................................2

15.1.3 Southern Farming Systems (SFS)...........................................................................2

15.1.4 Tasmanian Farmers and Graziers Association (TFGA) .....................................2

15.1.5 Mallee Sustainable Farming (MSF) .......................................................................3

15.1.6 Hart Field Site SA ......................................................................................................3

15.1.7 Birchop Cropping Group .........................................................................................3

15.1.8 Victorian No-Till Farming Association .................................................................3

15.1.9 South Australian No Till Farming Association (SANTFA) .................................4

15.2 Selling principles ........................................................................................................ 4

15.2.1 Be prepared.................................................................................................................4Expand the sales window ...............................................................................................................5

When to sell ..........................................................................................................................................5

How to sell? ..........................................................................................................................................5

15.2.2 Establishing the business risk profile—when to sell .........................................5When does a growers sell their grain? ......................................................................................6

15.2.3 Production risk profile of the farm .........................................................................6You can’t sell what you don’t have ...............................................................................................6

15.2.4 Farm costs in their entirety, variable and fixed costs (establishing a target price) ..................................................................................... 7Don’t lock in a loss .............................................................................................................................7

15.2.5 Income requirements ................................................................................................8Don’t be a forced seller....................................................................................................................8

Summary ............................................................................................................................................. 10

15.2.6 Managing your price—how to sell ........................................................................ 11

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Methods of price management .................................................................................................... 11

If increasing production risk, take price risk off the table ................................................... 11

Separate the pricing decision from the delivery decision ................................................... 11

Fixed price ........................................................................................................................................... 11

Floor price ........................................................................................................................................... 12

Floating price ..................................................................................................................................... 12

Summary ............................................................................................................................................. 13

15.2.7 Ensuring access to markets ...................................................................................13Storage and logistics ...................................................................................................................... 14

Harvest is the first priority .............................................................................................................. 14

Storage is all about market access............................................................................................ 14

Cost of carrying grain ..................................................................................................................... 15

Carrying grain is not free ............................................................................................................... 16

Summary ............................................................................................................................................. 16

15.2.8 Executing tonnes into cash ................................................................................... 16Set up the tool box ........................................................................................................................... 16

How to sell for cash ......................................................................................................................... 16

Counterparty risk .............................................................................................................................. 19

Seller beware .................................................................................................................................... 19

Relative values .................................................................................................................................. 19

Sell valued commodities, not undervalued commodities ................................................... 19

Contract allocation .........................................................................................................................20

Don’t leave money on the table. ................................................................................................20

Read market signals .......................................................................................................................20

Sell when there is buyer appetite ..............................................................................................20

Summary ............................................................................................................................................20

Separate the delivery decision from the pricing decision .................................................20

15.3 Other relevant marketing issues ............................................................................21

15.3.1 Improving structures around grain marketing decision making .................. 21Take home messages..................................................................................................................... 21

15.3.2 Making effective grain marketing decisions—Eyre Peninsula ..................... 21Take home messages..................................................................................................................... 21

15.3.3 The grain industry in Tasmania—new and emerging markets .................... 22Take home messages....................................................................................................................22

Documents

CEREAL RYE - GRDC · viii ˜˚˛˝˙ˆˇ˘ January 2018 Contents Contents cereal rye 3.1 Seed treatments ..... 1