K12596ISBN: 978-1-4398-5565-2978143985565290000Laboratory Reference and Procedures Manual Cereal GrainsSergio O. Serna-SaldivarFOOD PRESERVATION TECHNOLOGY SERIESFood & NutritionSerna-SaldivarLaboratory Reference and Procedures Manual Cereal GrainsFOOD PRESERVATION TECHNOLOGY SERIESEmphasizing the essential principles underlying the preparation of cereal-based products and demonstrating the roles of ingredients, Cereal Grains: Laboratory Reference and Procedures Manual is a practical laboratory manual complementing the authors text, Cereal Grains: Properties, Processing, and Nutritional Attributes. Organized so that readers progressively learn and apply the theoretical knowledge described in the parent book, the manual covers a range of essential topics, including:Main quality control measurements used to determine physical, morphological,chemical-nutritional, and sensory properties of cereal grains and their productsCritical factors aecting grain stability throughout storage and analytical techniques related to insects and pests responsible for grain storage lossesPhysical and chemical tests to determine the quality of refned productsLaboratory wet-milling proceduresThe most common laboratory methods to assess nixtamal, masa, and tortilla quality and shelf-lifeYeast and chemical leavening agents important for bakery and other fermented productsLaboratory and pilot plant procedures for the production of dierent types of yeast- andchemically-leavened bread, crackers, pasta products, breakfast cereals, and snack foodsProtocols to bioenzymatically transform starch into modifed starches, syrups, and sweetenersLaboratory processes for the production of regular and light beers, distilled spirits, and fuel ethanolBy working through the contents of the book, readers acquire hands-on experience in many quality control procedures and experimental product development protocols of cereal-based products. From these foundations, they are certain to develop enhanced research skills for product development, process design, and ingredient functionality.Cereal Grains Laboratory Reference and Procedures Manual FOOD PRESERVATION TECHNOLOGY SERIESSeries EditorGustavo V. Barbosa-CnovasShelf Life Assessment of FoodEditors: Maria Cristina Nicoli, University of Udine, ItalyCereal Grains: Laboratory Reference and Procedures Manual Sergio O. Serna-SaldivarAdvances in Fresh-Cut Fruits and Vegetables ProcessingEditors: Olga Martn-Belloso and Robert Soliva-FortunyCereal Grains: Properties, Processing, and Nutritional AttributesSergio O. Serna-SaldivarWater Properties of Food, Pharmaceutical, and Biological MaterialsMaria del Pilar Buera, Jorge Welti-Chanes, Peter J. Lillford, and Horacio R. CortiFood Science and Food BiotechnologyEditors: Gustavo F. Gutirrez-Lpez and Gustavo V. Barbosa-CnovasTransport Phenomena in Food Processing Editors: Jorge Welti-Chanes, Jorge F. Vlez-Ruiz, and Gustavo V. Barbosa-CnovasUnit Operations in Food EngineeringAlbert Ibarz and Gustavo V. Barbosa-CnovasEngineering and Food for the 21st CenturyEditors: Jorge Welti-Chanes, Gustavo V. Barbosa-Cnovas, and Jos Miguel AguileraOsmotic Dehydration and Vacuum Impregnation: Applications in Food IndustriesEditors: Pedro Fito, Amparo Chiralt,Jose M. Barat, Walter E. L. Spiess, and Diana BehsnilianPulsed Electric Fields in Food Processing: Fundamental Aspects and ApplicationsEditors: Gustavo V. Barbosa-Cnovas and Q. Howard ZhangTrends in Food EngineeringEditors: Jorge E. Lozano, Cristina An, Efrn Parada-Arias, and Gustavo V. Barbosa-CnovasInnovations in Food ProcessingEditors: Gustavo V. Barbosa-Cnovas and Grahame W. GouldCRC Press is an imprint of theTaylor & Francis Group, an informa businessBoca Raton London New YorkCereal Grains Laboratory Reference and Procedures Manual Sergio O. Serna-SaldivarTecnolgico de Monterrey, MexicoCRC PressTaylor & Francis Group6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 2012 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLCCRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa businessNo claim to original U.S. Government worksVersion Date: 20120302International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4665-5563-1 (eBook - PDF)This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint.Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers.For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright.com (http://www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged.TrademarkNotice:Productorcorporatenamesmaybetrademarksorregisteredtrademarks,andareusedonlyforidentificationandexplanation without intent to infringe.Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site athttp://www.taylorandfrancis.comand the CRC Press Web site athttp://www.crcpress.comThis practical handbook is dedicated to my lovely father Dr. PabloSernaTrevio, who recently passedaway. His love, guidance, motivation, and support throughout my whole life will be always in my heart.This page intentionally left blank This page intentionally left blankviiContentsPreface........................................................................................................................................................................................ xixAcknowledgments ...................................................................................................................................................................... xxiAuthor ......................................................................................................................................................................................xxiiiList of Equivalences .................................................................................................................................................................. xxvChapter 1Physical and Morphological Properties of Cereal Grains ....................................................................................... 11.1Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 11.2Determination of Physical Properties of Cereal Grains ............................................................................... 11.2.1Test Weight ...................................................................................................................................... 11.2.1.1Test Weight Procedure ..................................................................................................... 11.2.2True Density .................................................................................................................................... 21.2.2.1Determination of True Density with the Pycnometer ...................................................... 21.2.2.2Determination of Density with Alcohol Displacement ................................................... 31.2.3Flotation Index ................................................................................................................................ 31.2.3.1Determination of Floating Kernels .................................................................................. 41.2.4Grain Hardness ................................................................................................................................ 41.2.4.1Subjective Determination of the Ratio of Soft to Hard Endosperm or Endosperm Texture ............................................................................................................................. 51.2.4.2Procedure to Determine Grain Hardness Using the TADD Mill .................................... 51.2.4.3Procedure to Determine Grain Hardness Using the Stenvert Test .................................. 61.2.5Breakage Tests ................................................................................................................................. 71.2.5.1Determination of Breakage Susceptibility with the Stein Breakage Tester (Method 55-20) ................................................................................................................ 71.2.5.2Determination of Breakage Susceptibility with the Wisconsin Breakage Tester ............ 81.2.6Stress Cracks and Fissures .............................................................................................................. 81.2.6.1Determination of Stress Cracks or Fissures .................................................................... 81.2.7Thousand Kernel Weight ................................................................................................................. 81.2.7.1Determination of Kernel Weight ..................................................................................... 91.2.8Foreign or Extraneous Material ...................................................................................................... 91.2.8.1Determination of Dockage or Foreign Material .............................................................. 91.2.8.2Test for Maize Breakage and Damaged Kernels ............................................................. 91.2.9Damaged Kernels .......................................................................................................................... 101.2.9.1Determination of Damaged Kernels .............................................................................. 101.2.9.2Tetrazolium Test for Germ Viability (Dead Germ) ....................................................... 111.2.10Research Suggestions .................................................................................................................... 111.2.10.1Test Weight .................................................................................................................... 111.2.10.2True Density .................................................................................................................. 111.2.10.3Flotation Index ............................................................................................................... 121.2.10.4Endosperm Texture ........................................................................................................ 121.2.10.5Breakage Susceptibility ................................................................................................. 121.2.10.6Stress Cracks .................................................................................................................. 121.2.10.7Kernel Weight ................................................................................................................ 121.2.10.8Foreign Material and Dockage ...................................................................................... 131.2.10.9Grain Damage ................................................................................................................ 131.2.11Research Questions ....................................................................................................................... 131.2.11.1Test Weight .................................................................................................................... 131.2.11.2True Density .................................................................................................................. 131.2.11.3Flotation Index ............................................................................................................... 131.2.11.4Endosperm Texture ........................................................................................................ 131.2.11.5Breakage Susceptibility ................................................................................................. 131.2.11.6Stress Cracks .................................................................................................................. 14viii Contents1.2.11.7Grain Weight .................................................................................................................. 141.2.11.8Dockage and Foreign Material ...................................................................................... 141.2.11.9Damaged Kernels .......................................................................................................... 141.3Determination of Grade and Class ............................................................................................................. 141.3.1Evaluation of Grade ....................................................................................................................... 141.3.1.1Determination of Maize Grade ...................................................................................... 151.3.1.2Determination of Wheat Grade ..................................................................................... 151.3.1.3Determination of Grade of Rough, Brown, or White Polished Rice ............................. 151.3.1.4Determination of Barley Grade ..................................................................................... 161.3.1.5Determination of Sorghum Grade ................................................................................. 161.3.1.6Determination of Oats Grade ........................................................................................ 161.3.1.7Determination of Rye Grade.......................................................................................... 161.3.2Evaluation of Class ........................................................................................................................ 171.3.2.1Determination of Maize Class ....................................................................................... 171.3.2.2Determination of Wheat Class ...................................................................................... 171.3.2.3Determination of Rice Class.......................................................................................... 171.3.2.4Determination of Barley Class ...................................................................................... 181.3.2.5Determination of Sorghum Class .................................................................................. 181.3.2.6Determination of Oats Class .......................................................................................... 191.3.2.7Determination of Rye Class ........................................................................................... 191.3.3Research Suggestions .................................................................................................................... 191.3.4Research Questions ....................................................................................................................... 191.4Macromorphology and Micromorphology of Cereal Grains ..................................................................... 201.4.1Observation of Inforescences ....................................................................................................... 201.4.1.1Observation of Immature Inforescences ....................................................................... 201.4.1.2Observation of Mature Inforescences ........................................................................... 201.4.2Observation and Identifcation of the Anatomical Parts of Cereal Kernels .................................. 201.4.2.1Determination of Relative AmountsofHusks or Glumes,Pericarp,Endosperm, and Germ Tissues .......................................................................................................... 211.4.3Research Suggestions .................................................................................................................... 221.4.4Research Questions ....................................................................................................................... 22References ............................................................................................................................................................. 23Chapter 2Determination of Chemical and Nutritional Properties of Cereal Grains and Their Products ............................ 252.1Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 252.2Proximate Composition .............................................................................................................................. 262.2.1Moisture ........................................................................................................................................ 262.2.1.1Determination of Moisture (Gravimetric Method 44-15 A) .......................................... 262.2.2Minerals or Ash ............................................................................................................................. 262.2.2.1Analysis of Ash or Minerals (Method 08-12) ................................................................ 262.2.3Protein ........................................................................................................................................... 282.2.3.1Crude Protein Analysis (Kjeldahl Method) ................................................................... 282.2.4Fat .................................................................................................................................................. 292.2.4.1Analysis of Crude Fat .................................................................................................... 292.2.5Crude Fiber .................................................................................................................................... 302.2.5.1Analysis of Crude Fiber ................................................................................................. 302.2.6Nitrogen-Free Extract .................................................................................................................... 302.2.6.1Calculation of Nitrogen-Free Extract ............................................................................ 312.2.7Research Suggestions .................................................................................................................... 312.2.8Research Questions ....................................................................................................................... 312.3Methods for Moisture Analysis .................................................................................................................. 312.3.1Research Suggestions .................................................................................................................... 312.3.2Research Questions ....................................................................................................................... 312.4Methods for Mineral Analysis .................................................................................................................... 322.4.1Wet and Dry Ashing ...................................................................................................................... 322.4.1.1Wet-Ashing Procedure ................................................................................................... 33ix Contents2.4.1.2Dry-Ashing Procedure ................................................................................................... 342.4.2Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy ................................................................................................. 342.4.2.1Analysis of Minerals with AAS .................................................................................... 342.4.3ICP Spectroscopy .......................................................................................................................... 352.4.3.1Analysis of Minerals with ICP Spectroscopy ................................................................ 352.4.4Phosphorus Analysis ..................................................................................................................... 362.4.4.1Analysis of Phosphorus with the Blue Molybdate Colorimetric Analysis .................... 362.4.5Sodium Chloride Analysis ............................................................................................................ 382.4.5.1Mohr Titration Method .................................................................................................. 382.4.5.2Volhard Titration Method .............................................................................................. 382.4.5.3Analysis of Salt Content with the Dicromat Analyzer .................................................. 392.4.5.4Analysis of Chloride (Salt) with the Quantab Strip Test ............................................... 392.4.6Research Suggestions .................................................................................................................... 402.4.7Research Questions ....................................................................................................................... 402.5Methods for Nitrogenous Compound Analysis .......................................................................................... 402.5.1Determination of Protein Fractions ............................................................................................... 412.5.1.1Protein Fractionation Scheme ........................................................................................ 412.5.2Determination of Free Amino Nitrogen ........................................................................................ 422.5.2.1Determination of Free Amino Nitrogen (Ninhydrin Reaction) ..................................... 422.5.3Determination of Amino Acid Profle........................................................................................... 432.5.3.1Acid Hydrolysis Procedure for Determination of Amino Acids ................................... 442.5.3.2Determination of Tryptophan with a Colorimetric Procedure ...................................... 442.5.4Research Suggestions .................................................................................................................... 452.5.5Research Questions ....................................................................................................................... 452.6Methods for Fats and Oils Analysis ........................................................................................................... 462.6.1Analysis of FFAs ........................................................................................................................... 472.6.2Peroxide Value and Active Oxygen ............................................................................................... 482.6.2.1Determination of Peroxide Value (Cd 8-53 Method) ..................................................... 482.6.2.2Active Oxygen Stability Method (Procedure Cd 12-57) ............................................... 482.6.3Saponifcation Value ...................................................................................................................... 492.6.4Iodine Value .................................................................................................................................. 492.6.5Smoke Point ................................................................................................................................... 502.6.6Solid Fat Index .............................................................................................................................. 502.6.7Research Suggestions .................................................................................................................... 512.6.8Research Questions ....................................................................................................................... 512.7Methods for Fiber Analysis ........................................................................................................................ 522.7.1Analysis of Detergent Fiber ........................................................................................................... 522.7.2Dietary Fiber ................................................................................................................................. 542.7.2.1Determination of Total Dietary Fiber ............................................................................ 552.7.2.2Determination of Insoluble and Soluble Dietary Fiber ................................................. 562.7.3Research Suggestions .................................................................................................................... 572.7.4Research Questions ....................................................................................................................... 582.8Methods for Nonfbrous Carbohydrate Analysis ........................................................................................ 582.8.1Determination of Total Starch ....................................................................................................... 582.8.1.1Determination of Total Starch with the Anthrone Assay .............................................. 592.8.1.2Determination of Total Starch with the Enzymatic Method (Method 76-11) ............... 592.8.1.3Determination of Enzyme-Susceptible Starch .............................................................. 602.8.1.4Determination of Damaged Starch (Method 76-30A) ................................................... 612.8.2Determination of Amylose ............................................................................................................ 612.8.2.1Determination of Amylose and Amylopectin ................................................................ 622.8.3Determination of Resistant Starch ................................................................................................ 622.8.3.1Determination of Resistant Starch ................................................................................. 622.8.4Determination of Total Sugars ...................................................................................................... 642.8.4.1Determination of Total Sugars (Phenol Method) .......................................................... 652.8.5Determination of Total Reducing Sugars ...................................................................................... 652.8.5.1Determination of Reducing Sugars with the SomogyiNelson Procedure ................... 652.8.5.2Determination of Reducing Sugars with the DNS Procedure ....................................... 66x Contents2.8.6Determination of Glucose ............................................................................................................. 672.8.7Research Suggestions .................................................................................................................... 672.8.8Research Questions ....................................................................................................................... 682.9Vitamin Analysis ........................................................................................................................................ 682.9.1Analysis of Liposoluble Vitamins ................................................................................................. 682.9.1.1Analysis of Vitamin A and Carotenes (Method 86-05) ................................................ 682.9.2Analysis of B-Complex Vitamins ................................................................................................. 712.9.2.1Analysis of Thiamine (Fluorometric Method 957.17) ................................................... 712.9.2.2Analysis of Ribofavin (Fluorometric Method 960.65) ................................................. 722.9.2.3Analysis of Niacin (Method 961.14) .............................................................................. 732.9.3Research Suggestions .................................................................................................................... 742.9.4Research Questions ....................................................................................................................... 742.10Methods for pH and Acidity Analysis ........................................................................................................ 752.10.1Analysis of Acidity ........................................................................................................................ 752.10.1.1Determination of pH ...................................................................................................... 752.10.1.2Titratable Acidity ........................................................................................................... 752.10.2Research Suggestions .................................................................................................................... 762.10.3Research Questions ....................................................................................................................... 762.11Methods for Nutraceutical Compounds Analysis ....................................................................................... 772.11.1Research Suggestions .................................................................................................................... 802.11.2Research Questions ....................................................................................................................... 812.12Instrumental Analysis................................................................................................................................. 812.12.1Chromatography ............................................................................................................................ 812.12.1.1Thin-Layer Chromatography ......................................................................................... 812.12.1.2High-Performance Liquid Chromatography.................................................................. 812.12.1.3Gas-Liquid Chromatography ......................................................................................... 822.12.2Near-Infrared Analysis .................................................................................................................. 822.12.2.1Analysis via NIRA ........................................................................................................ 832.12.3Water Activity ............................................................................................................................... 832.12.3.1Determination of Water Activity (Aw) ........................................................................... 832.12.4Immunoassays ............................................................................................................................... 842.12.5Research Suggestions .................................................................................................................... 842.12.6Research Questions ....................................................................................................................... 842.13Nutrition Labeling ...................................................................................................................................... 852.13.1Research Suggestions .................................................................................................................... 852.13.2Research Questions ....................................................................................................................... 85References ............................................................................................................................................................. 87Chapter 3Determination of Color, Texture, and Sensory Properties of Cereal Grain Products ........................................... 913.1Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 913.2Color ........................................................................................................................................................... 913.2.1Determination of Color ................................................................................................................. 923.2.1.1Hunter Lab Color Meter ................................................................................................ 923.2.1.2Pekar Color (Method 14-10.01) ...................................................................................... 933.2.1.3Agtron Color Meter ....................................................................................................... 933.2.1.4Wheat Flour ColorDetermination (Method 14-30) ....................................................... 933.2.2Research Suggestions .................................................................................................................... 943.2.3Research Questions ....................................................................................................................... 943.3Texture ........................................................................................................................................................ 943.3.1Rheological Properties .................................................................................................................. 943.3.1.1Rheological Properties of Wheat Dough ....................................................................... 953.3.1.2Rheological Properties of Masa..................................................................................... 953.3.1.3Rheological Properties ofTortillas, Pasta, and Breakfast Cereals ................................ 953.3.2Viscosity Measurement ................................................................................................................. 963.3.2.1Determination of Viscosity with a Viscometer ............................................................. 963.3.3Research Suggestions .................................................................................................................... 97xi Contents3.3.4Research Questions ....................................................................................................................... 983.4Sensory Testing .......................................................................................................................................... 983.4.1Discriminatory Sensory Evaluation Tests ..................................................................................... 983.4.1.1Preparation and Coding ................................................................................................. 993.4.1.2Triangle Test .................................................................................................................. 993.4.1.3Duo-Trio Test ................................................................................................................. 993.4.2Affective Sensory Evaluation Tests ............................................................................................. 1003.4.2.1Preference Paired Tests ................................................................................................ 1003.4.2.2Rank Preference Test ....................................................................................................1013.4.2.3Affective or Hedonic Tests .......................................................................................... 1023.4.3Research Suggestions .................................................................................................................. 1023.4.4Research Questions ..................................................................................................................... 105References ........................................................................................................................................................... 105Chapter 4Storage of Cereal Grains and Detrimental Effects of Pests ................................................................................ 1074.1Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 1074.2Effects of Environment and Grain Moisture Content on Deterioration ................................................... 1074.2.1Equilibrium Grain Moisture at Different RHs ............................................................................ 1074.2.1.1Determination of a Cereal Isotherm Curve ................................................................. 1084.2.1.2Effect of Temperature and Grain Moisture Content on Grain Stability ...................... 1094.2.2Research Suggestions ...................................................................................................................1104.2.3Research Questions ......................................................................................................................1114.3Extrinsic Deterioration of Cereal Grains: Insects, Molds, and Rodents ...................................................1114.3.1Morphology and Identifcation of Stored-Grain Insects ..............................................................1114.3.1.1Identifcation of Stored Grain Insects ...........................................................................1114.3.2Filth, Insect Fragments, and Other Extraneous Materials ...........................................................1144.3.2.1Determination of Light Filth in Flours (Method 972.32) .............................................1144.3.2.2Determination of Insect Fragments in Flours ..............................................................1154.3.2.3Determination of Insect Eggs in Flour (Method 940.34) .............................................1164.3.3Molds and Mycotoxins .................................................................................................................1164.3.3.1Presumptive Test for Afatoxins (Method 45-15) .........................................................1184.3.3.2Determination of Afatoxins Using the AfaTest ..........................................................1184.3.4Rodents ........................................................................................................................................ 1204.3.4.1Detection of Rodent Feces by Decantation (Method 28-50) ....................................... 1204.3.4.2Detection of Urine on Grains (Method 963.28) .......................................................... 1214.3.5Research Suggestions .................................................................................................................. 1224.3.6Research Questions ..................................................................................................................... 122References ........................................................................................................................................................... 123Chapter 5Dry-Milling Processes and Quality of Dry-Milled Products ............................................................................. 1255.1Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 1255.2Laboratory Dry-Milling Processes ........................................................................................................... 1255.2.1Dry-Milling of MaizeProduction of Refned Grits and Flour ................................................ 1255.2.1.1DegermingTempering Milling of Maize ................................................................... 1255.2.2Dry-Milling of WheatProduction of Refned Flours and Semolina ....................................... 1265.2.2.1Dry-Milling of Wheat for the Production of Refned Flours (Method 26-10) ............ 1275.2.3Dry-Milling of RiceProduction ofRegular and Parboiled White Rice .................................. 1295.2.3.1Milling of Rice ............................................................................................................ 1305.2.3.2Dry-Milling of Parboiled Rice .....................................................................................1315.2.4Dry-Milling of OatsProduction of Groats, Meals, and Flours ................................................ 1325.2.4.1Dry-Milling of Oats ..................................................................................................... 1325.2.5Dry-Milling of Sorghum and MilletsProduction of Decorticated Kernels, Grits, andFlours .................................................................................................................................... 1335.2.5.1Production of Decorticated Kernels and Refned Flours from Sorghum or Millets ... 1345.2.5.2Production of Refned Grits and Flours from Decorticated Sorghum or Millets ........ 135xii Contents5.2.6Research Suggestions .................................................................................................................. 1355.2.7Research Questions ..................................................................................................................... 1365.3Assessment of Quality ofDry-Milled Fractions ...................................................................................... 1365.3.1Quality of Dry-Milled Maize Fractions ...................................................................................... 1395.3.1.1Determination of Particle Size Distribution of Dry-Milled Maize Fractions ............. 1395.3.2Quality of White Rice ................................................................................................................. 1395.3.2.1MayGruenwald Dyeing Procedure ............................................................................ 1395.3.2.2Analysis of Amylose in White Polished Rice.............................................................. 1405.3.2.3Elongation Factor of Cooked Rice ................................................................................1415.3.3Simple Tests for Quality of Wheat Flour and Dough Properties .................................................1415.3.3.1Pelshenke Test ...............................................................................................................1415.3.3.2Sedimentation or Zeleny Test ...................................................................................... 1425.3.3.3Alkaline Water Retention Test (Method 56-10)............................................................1435.3.3.4Gluten Content ............................................................................................................. 1445.3.3.5Glutomatic Assay ......................................................................................................... 1455.3.4Wheat Dough Rheological Properties ......................................................................................... 1465.3.4.1Determination of Dough Properties with the Farinograph (Method 54-21) ............... 1465.3.4.2Determination of Dough Properties with the Extensograph (Method 54-10) ............. 1485.3.4.3Determination of Dough Properties with the Mixograph (Method 54-40) ................. 1495.3.4.4Determination of Dough Properties with the Alveograph (Method 54-30) ................ 1515.3.4.5Determination of Dough Properties with Mixolab (Method 54-60.01) ...................... 1535.3.5Quality of Groats ......................................................................................................................... 1555.3.6Quality of Decorticated Sorghum and Refned Meals and Flours .............................................. 1555.3.7Research Suggestions .................................................................................................................. 1555.3.8Research Questions ..................................................................................................................... 155References ........................................................................................................................................................... 156Chapter 6Wet-Milling Processes and Starch Properties and Characteristics ..................................................................... 1596.1Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 1596.2Wet-Milling Processes .............................................................................................................................. 1596.2.1Wet-Milling of Maize .................................................................................................................. 1596.2.1.1Laboratory Wet-Milling Process of Maize .................................................................. 1606.2.2Wet-Milling of Rice .................................................................................................................... 1626.2.2.1Laboratory Wet-Milling Procedure of White Polished Rice ....................................... 1626.2.3Wet-Milling of Wheat and Vital Gluten Production ................................................................... 1636.2.3.1Wet-Milling Laboratory Procedure for Wheat Flour .................................................. 1636.2.4Research Suggestions .................................................................................................................. 1646.2.5Research Questions ..................................................................................................................... 1656.3Morphologhy and Dyeing of Starches ...................................................................................................... 1656.3.1Starch Granule Morphology and Dyeing Techniques ................................................................. 1666.3.1.1Iodine Dye Test ............................................................................................................ 1666.3.1.2Congo Red Dye Test .................................................................................................... 1676.3.1.3Starch Microscopy ....................................................................................................... 1676.3.1.4Birefringence End-Point Temperature ......................................................................... 1686.3.1.5Scanning Electron Microscopy ................................................................................... 1686.3.2Research Suggestions .................................................................................................................. 1696.3.3Research Questions ..................................................................................................................... 1696.4Evaluation of the Functional Properties of Starches ................................................................................ 1696.4.1Viscoamylography ....................................................................................................................... 1696.4.1.1Amylograph Properties of Starches and Starch-Rich Products ....................................1706.4.1.2Rapid Viscoamylograph Properties of Flour and Starches ...........................................1716.4.2Differential Scanning Calorimetry (Thermal Properties) ...........................................................1716.4.3Determination of Starch Damage and Diastatic Activity ........................................................... 1726.4.3.1Determination of Diastatic Activity of Wheat Flour with the Amylograph (Method 22-10) .............................................................................................................173xiii Contents6.4.3.2Determination of Diastatic Activity with the Rapid Viscoamylograph (Stirring Number, Method 22-08) ...............................................................................................1736.4.3.3Determination of Diastatic Activity with the Pressurometer (Method 22-11) .............1736.4.3.4Falling Number Method (Method 56-81B) ..................................................................1746.4.3.5Determination of Optimum Malt Supplemented to Wheat Flour for Baking Purposes with the Amylograph ....................................................................................1766.4.4Research Suggestions ...................................................................................................................1766.4.5Research Questions ......................................................................................................................176References ........................................................................................................................................................... 177Chapter 7Production of Maize Tortillas and Quality of Lime-Cooked Products .............................................................. 1797.1Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 1797.2Quality Tests for Nixtamalized Products ................................................................................................. 1797.2.1Nixtamal Cooking and Quality ................................................................................................... 1807.2.1.1Ease of Pericarp Removal Test .................................................................................... 1807.2.1.2Mini Lime-Cooking Trial: Optimum Cooking and Dry Matter Loss......................... 1837.2.2Masa Quality ............................................................................................................................... 1857.2.2.1Color ............................................................................................................................ 1857.2.2.2Determination of pH .................................................................................................... 1867.2.2.3Particle Size Distribution of Hydrated Masa ............................................................... 1867.2.2.4Determination of Masa Stickiness .............................................................................. 1877.2.2.5Determination of Masa Consistency with the Penetrometer ....................................... 1877.2.2.6Masa Texture with the Instron Compression Tension Test .......................................... 1887.2.2.7TPA of Masa ................................................................................................................ 1887.2.3Tortilla Production and Quality .................................................................................................. 1897.2.3.1Production of Tortillas ................................................................................................. 1897.2.3.2Tortilla Texture ............................................................................................................ 1907.2.4Dry Masa Flour Production ........................................................................................................ 1927.2.4.1Production of Dry Masa Flours ................................................................................... 1927.2.4.2Production of Tortillas from Dry Masa Flour ............................................................. 1937.2.4.3Determination of Water Absorption and Solubility Indexes ....................................... 1937.2.4.4Consistency of Dry Masa Flour Slurries ..................................................................... 1947.2.4.5Determination of Dry Masa Flour Consistency .......................................................... 1947.2.5Research Suggestions .................................................................................................................. 1957.2.6Research Questions ..................................................................................................................... 195References ........................................................................................................................................................... 196Chapter 8Functionality Tests for Yeast and Chemical Leavening Agents .......................................................................... 1998.1Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 1998.2Functionality Tests for Yeast Activity ...................................................................................................... 1998.2.1Fermentograph ............................................................................................................................ 1998.2.1.1Determination of Yeast Activity with the Fermentograph .......................................... 2008.2.2Maturograph and Oven Rise Recorder ........................................................................................ 2008.2.2.1Determination of Dough Properties and Bread Volume with the Maturograph and Oven Rise Recorder .............................................................................................. 2028.2.3Rheofermentometer ..................................................................................................................... 2028.2.3.1Determination of Fermenting Dough Gas Production and Retention with the Rheofermentometer ..................................................................................................... 2038.2.4Gasograph.................................................................................................................................... 2038.2.4.1Determination of Yeast Activity with the Gasograph ................................................. 2048.2.5Pressurometer .............................................................................................................................. 2048.2.5.1Determination of Yeast Activity with the Pressurometer ............................................ 2048.2.6Research Suggestions .................................................................................................................. 2058.2.7Research Questions ..................................................................................................................... 205xiv Contents8.3Functionality Tests for Chemical Leavening Agents ............................................................................... 2058.3.1Neutralization Value .................................................................................................................... 2068.3.1.1Determination of Neutralization Values of Monocalcium Phosphate, Monohydrate or Anhydrous ......................................................................................... 2068.3.1.2Determination of Neutralization Values of Sodium Acid Pyrophosphate .................. 2078.3.1.3Determination of Neutralization Values of Sodium Aluminum Phosphate ................ 2078.3.2Research Suggestions .................................................................................................................. 2078.3.3Research Questions ..................................................................................................................... 207References ........................................................................................................................................................... 208Chapter 9Production of Yeast-Leavened Bakery Products ................................................................................................. 2099.1Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 2099.2Production and Quality of Yeast Fermented Breads .................................................................................2119.2.1Chinese Steamed Bread ...............................................................................................................2119.2.1.1Production of Chinese Steamed Bread .........................................................................2119.2.2Baguettes or French Breads ......................................................................................................... 2139.2.2.1Production of French Bread or Baguettes .................................................................... 2139.2.3Arabic Flat Breads ........................................................................................................................2149.2.3.1Production of Pita Bread .............................................................................................. 2159.2.3.2Production of Lavash ....................................................................................................2179.2.3.3Production of Yufka ......................................................................................................2179.2.3.4Production of Pide ........................................................................................................2189.2.4Bagels ...........................................................................................................................................2199.2.4.1Production of Bagels .....................................................................................................2199.2.5Pretzel Bread ................................................................................................................................2199.2.5.1Production of Soft Pretzels .......................................................................................... 2209.2.6Pan Bread .................................................................................................................................... 2229.2.6.1Production of Pup Loaves with the Offcial Microbaking Straight Dough Procedure ..................................................................................................................... 2229.2.6.2Production of Pan Bread from Sponge Doughs ........................................................... 2259.2.7Whole, Variety, and Multigrain Breads ...................................................................................... 2279.2.7.1Production of Whole, Variety, and Multigrain Breads ................................................ 2279.2.8Sour Breads ................................................................................................................................. 2299.2.8.1Production of Sour Breads ........................................................................................... 2299.2.9Hamburger and Hot Dog Buns .................................................................................................... 2309.2.9.1Production of Hamburger and Hot Dog Buns ............................................................. 2309.2.10Cheese Bread Rolls ..................................................................................................................... 2329.2.10.1Production of Cheese Bread Rolls ............................................................................... 2329.2.11Research Suggestions .................................................................................................................. 2329.2.12Research Questions ..................................................................................................................... 2339.3Production of Sweet Pastries .................................................................................................................... 2349.3.1Croissants .................................................................................................................................... 2349.3.1.1Production of Croissants .............................................................................................. 2359.3.2Danish Pastries ............................................................................................................................ 2359.3.2.1Production of Danish Pastries ..................................................................................... 2369.3.2.2Production of Other Pastries Confgurations ............................................................... 2389.3.2.3Production of Danish Icing .......................................................................................... 2399.3.2.4Production of Pastry Cream......................................................................................... 2399.3.3Cinnamon Rolls ........................................................................................................................... 2409.3.3.1Production of Glazed Cinnamon Rolls ........................................................................ 2409.3.4Sweet Concha Bread ................................................................................................................... 2419.3.4.1Production of Sweet Conchas ...................................................................................... 2419.3.5Yeast-Leavened Donuts ............................................................................................................... 2429.3.5.1Production of Yeast-Leavened Fried Donuts ............................................................... 2429.3.6Research Suggestions .................................................................................................................. 244xv Contents9.3.7Research Questions ..................................................................................................................... 245References ........................................................................................................................................................... 245Chapter 10Production of Chemical-Leavened Products: Crackers, Cookies, Cakes and Related Products, Donuts, and Wheat Flour Tortillas .......................................................................................................................................... 24710.1Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 24710.2Crackers .................................................................................................................................................... 24710.2.1Production of Crackers ................................................................................................................ 24810.2.2Research Suggestions .................................................................................................................. 25010.2.3Research Questions ..................................................................................................................... 25010.3Production of Cookies .............................................................................................................................. 25010.3.1Spread Factor ............................................................................................................................... 25110.3.1.1Spread Factor Assay(AACC2000, Method 10-50D) ................................................. 25110.3.2Rotary-Molded Cookies .............................................................................................................. 25310.3.2.1Production of Rotary-Molded Cookies ........................................................................ 25310.3.3Sheeted and Formed Cookies ...................................................................................................... 25510.3.3.1Production of Sheeted and Formed Cookies ............................................................... 25510.3.4Wire-Cut Cookies ....................................................................................................................... 25610.3.4.1Production of Wire-Cut Cookies ................................................................................. 25610.3.5Other Sweet Cookies ................................................................................................................... 25810.3.5.1Production of Chocolate-Chip Cookies ....................................................................... 25810.3.5.2Production of Oat Cookies .......................................................................................... 25810.3.5.3Oat-Chocolate Bars ...................................................................................................... 25910.3.6Research Suggestions .................................................................................................................. 25910.3.7Research Questions ..................................................................................................................... 26010.4Production ofBiscuits,Muffns, Chemical-LeavenedDonuts, and Cakes .............................................. 26010.4.1Biscuits ........................................................................................................................................ 26010.4.1.1Production of Biscuits and Cornbread ......................................................................... 26010.4.2Muffns ........................................................................................................................................ 26110.4.2.1Production of Muffns .................................................................................................. 26110.4.3Production of Chemical-Leavened or Coffee Donuts ................................................................. 26210.4.3.1Production of Chemical-Leavened Donuts .................................................................. 26210.4.4Production of Cakes and Related Products ................................................................................. 26410.4.4.1Production of Shortened Low-Ratio Cakes ................................................................. 26510.4.4.2Production of Shortened High-Ratio Cakes ................................................................ 26510.4.4.3Production of Angel Cakes .......................................................................................... 26710.4.5Cake Frostings ............................................................................................................................. 26810.4.5.1Production of Different Types of Frostings ................................................................. 26910.4.6Production of Waffes, Pancakes, and Crepes ............................................................................. 27010.4.6.1Production of Waffes .................................................................................................. 27010.4.6.2Production of Pancakes ............................................................................................... 27110.4.6.3Production of Crepes ................................................................................................... 27310.4.7Pies .............................................................................................................................................. 27310.4.7.1Production of Pies ........................................................................................................ 27410.4.8Research Suggestions .................................................................................................................. 27810.4.9Research Questions ..................................................................................................................... 27910.5Production of Wheat Flour Tortillas ........................................................................................................ 27910.5.1Wheat Flour Tortillas .................................................................................................................. 28110.5.1.1Production of Hot-Press Tortillas ................................................................................ 28110.5.1.2Laminated and Formed Tortillas ................................................................................. 28210.5.2Sweet Flour Tortillas ................................................................................................................... 28310.5.2.1Production of Sweet Tortilla Pancakes ........................................................................ 28310.5.3Research Suggestions .................................................................................................................. 28410.5.4Research Questions ..................................................................................................................... 284References ........................................................................................................................................................... 285xvi ContentsChapter 11Production of Pasta Products and Oriental Noodles ........................................................................................... 28711.1Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 28711.2Pasta Products from Durum Semolina ..................................................................................................... 28711.2.1Sheeted and Cut Pasta ................................................................................................................. 28811.2.1.1Production of Pasta by Sheeting and Cutting .............................................................. 28811.2.2Extruded Pasta ............................................................................................................................. 28911.2.2.1Production of Cold-Extruded Pasta ............................................................................. 29011.2.2.2Cooking Quality of Pasta ............................................................................................ 29111.2.2.3Determination of Pasta Texture with the Texture Analyzer ........................................ 29211.2.3Research Suggestions .................................................................................................................. 29211.2.4Research Questions ..................................................................................................................... 29211.3Oriental Noodles ...................................................................................................................................... 29311.3.1Oriental Noodles from Wheat Flour ........................................................................................... 29311.3.1.1Production of Wheat-Based Oriental Noodles ............................................................ 29311.3.2Production of Rice Noodles ........................................................................................................ 29511.3.2.1Production of Rice-Based Noodles .............................................................................. 29511.3.3Research Suggestions .................................................................................................................. 29611.3.4Research Questions ..................................................................................................................... 296References ........................................................................................................................................................... 296Chapter 12Production of Breakfast Cereals and Snack Foods ............................................................................................. 29912.1Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 29912.2Production of Breakfast Cereals ............................................................................................................... 30112.2.1Corn Flakes ................................................................................................................................. 30212.2.1.1Production of Corn Flakes ........................................................................................... 30212.2.2Rolled or Flaked Oats .................................................................................................................. 30412.2.2.1Production of Rolled Oats ........................................................................................... 30412.2.3Oven-Puffed Rice ........................................................................................................................ 30512.2.3.1Production of Oven-Puffed Rice ................................................................................. 30512.2.4Extruded Corn Puffs ................................................................................................................... 30612.2.4.1Production of Extruded Corn Puffs ............................................................................. 30712.2.5Granola ........................................................................................................................................ 30812.2.5.1Production of Fermented Baked Granola .................................................................... 30812.2.5.2Production of Granola Bars ..........................................................................................31012.2.6Determination of Bowl-Life .........................................................................................................31012.2.6.1Determination of Bowl-Life with the Texturometer .....................................................31012.2.7Research Suggestions ...................................................................................................................31112.2.8Research Questions ......................................................................................................................31112.3Cereal-Based Snacks .................................................................................................................................31112.3.1Popcorn.........................................................................................................................................31212.3.1.1Popcorn Popping ...........................................................................................................31212.4Wheat-Based Snacks .................................................................................................................................31512.4.1Production of Pretzels ..................................................................................................................31512.4.2Alkaline-Cooked Snacks..............................................................................................................31712.4.2.1Production of Alkaline-Cooked Parched Corn ............................................................31712.4.2.2Production of Corn Chips .............................................................................................31812.4.2.3Production of Tortilla Chips .........................................................................................31912.4.3Extruded Snacks .......................................................................................................................... 32112.4.3.1Production of Baked Cheese- Flavored Corn Puffs ..................................................... 32212.4.3.2Production of Fried Cheese- Flavored Corn Puffs ....................................................... 32312.4.3.3Production of Third-Generation Snacks ...................................................................... 32512.4.4Research Suggestions .................................................................................................................. 32812.4.5Research Questions ..................................................................................................................... 328References ........................................................................................................................................................... 329xvii ContentsChapter 13Production of Modifed Starches, Syrups, and Sweeteners .................................................................................33113.1Introduction ...............................................................................................................................................33113.2Modifed Starches ......................................................................................................................................33113.2.1Pregelatinized Starches ................................................................................................................33113.2.1.1Production of Pregelatinized Starches ..........................................................................33113.2.2Chemically Modifed Starches .................................................................................................... 33313.2.2.1Production of Acid-Treated or Dextrinized Starches .................................................. 33313.2.2.2Production of Oxidized/Bleached Starches ................................................................. 33313.2.2.3Production of Cross-Bonded Starches ......................................................................... 33413.2.2.4Production of Derivatized and Substituted Starches (Acetylated, Propionylated, and Butyryated) ........................................................................................................... 33513.2.3Research Suggestions .................................................................................................................. 33613.2.4Research Questions ..................................................................................................................... 33613.3Production of Syrups ................................................................................................................................ 33613.3.1Low-Dextrose Equivalent (DE) Syrups (Maltodextrins) ............................................................ 33613.3.1.1Production of Low-DE Syrups via Acid Hydrolysis .................................................... 33713.3.1.2Production of Low-DE Syrups via Hydrolysis with Heat-Stable -Amylase .............. 33813.3.2Maltose Syrups ............................................................................................................................ 33813.3.2.1Production of Regular and High-Maltose Syrups ....................................................... 33813.3.3Glucose Syrups ............................................................................................................................ 33913.3.3.1Production of Glucose Syrups ..................................................................................... 33913.3.4High-Fructose Corn Syrups ........................................................................................................ 34013.3.4.1Production of Fructose Syrups (HFCS) ....................................................................... 34013.3.5Research Suggestions .................................................................................................................. 34113.3.6Research Questions ..................................................................................................................... 341References ........................................................................................................................................................... 342Chapter 14Production of Malt, Beer, Distilled Spirits, and Fuel Ethanol ............................................................................ 34314.1Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 34314.2Production of European Beers and Sake .................................................................................................. 34414.2.1Production of Barley Malts ......................................................................................................... 34414.2.1.1Production of Diastatic Malts ...................................................................................... 34414.2.1.2Production of Nondiastatic and Dark Malts ................................................................ 34614.2.1.3Determination of Diastatic Activity of Malt (AACC 2000, Method 22-16) ............... 34714.2.2Production of Hopped Beers ....................................................................................................... 34814.2.2.1Production of Regular Lager Beer ............................................................................... 34914.2.2.2Production of Dark Beer ...............................................................................................35114.2.2.3Production of Light Beer ............................................................................................. 35214.2.2.4Production of Ale Beers .............................................................................................. 35314.2.3Production of Rice Wine or Sake ................................................................................................ 35314.2.3.1Production of Sake ....................................................................................................... 35414.2.4Research Suggestions .................................................................................................................. 35514.2.5Research Questions ..................................................................................................................... 35514.3Production of Cereal-Based Alcoholic Spirits and Bioethanol ................................................................ 35614.3.1Distilled Spirits ........................................................................................................................... 35614.3.1.1Production of Distilled Spirits ..................................................................................... 35714.3.2Production of Fuel Ethanol from Cereals.................................................................................... 35814.3.3Research Suggestions .................................................................................................................. 35914.3.4Research Questions ..................................................................................................................... 360References ........................................................................................................................................................... 360Index ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 361This page intentionally left blank This page intentionally left blankxixPrefaceThis practical laboratory manual complements the book enti-tled Cereal Grains: Properties, Processing, and Nutritional Attributes.Itsmaingoalistoassiststudentsandresearch-ersinterestedinthefundamentalsofanalysis,qualitycon-trol,experimentalstudies,andproductdevelopmentofthe widearrayofcereal-basedfoods.Thisbookisdesigned toemphasizetheessentialprinciplesunderlyingprepara-tionofcereal-basedproductsandtodemonstratetheroles ofingredients.Themanualisorganizedinsuchawaythat thestudentprogressivelylearnsandappliesthetheoretical knowledgedescribedintheparentbook.Forinstructors, thismanualwillserveasapracticalguidetoimplement andapplyqualitycontrolmeasurementsofgrains,milled products, starches, and an ample array of fnished products. The book is designed to facilitate the acquisition of practical knowledge and provides new innovative ideas for new devel-opments.Eachchaptercontainsasetofkeyreferencesso thereadercanbroadentheknowledgeandstudyquestions planned to motivate students to go beyond the boundaries of the covered material. In addition, each set of related proce-dures contains at the end research suggestions. A section of weight,volume,density,andotherequivalencestoconvert kitchenandEnglishunitstometricmeasurementsandvice versa is included.Thepracticalmanualisdividedintofourteenchapters. Thefrstthreechaptersincludesthemainqualitycontrol measurementsusedtodeterminephysical,morphological, chemicalnutritionalproperties,andsensoryproperties (color,texture,andorganoleptictests)ofcerealgrainsand their products. In these chapters, the student will learn and practice grade and class determination, the most frequently usedmethodstoassesschemicalandphysicalproperties and the viewing of the different anatomical parts of cereal grains. In addition, Chapter 3 deals with color, texture, and sensory evaluations of cereal products. The objective of the fourth chapter is to provide the practical knowledge of the mostcriticalfactorsthataffectgrainstabilitythroughout prolongedstorage,identifythemostcommoninsectsand pestsresponsibleforgrainstoragelosses,andpracticethe mostcommonanalyticaltechniquestodetermineinsect fragments, flth, mycotoxins, and other sanitary indicators. Theffthchapterisdesignedtopracticeatthelaboratory level the various types of dry-milling processes for produc-tion of dry-milled fractions of maize, polished rice, refned wheat four, groats, and decorticated sorghum that are used as raw materials for the production of prepared cereal based end-products.Thissectionincludesthemostcommon physical and chemical tests to determine quality of refned productsincludingthedeterminationofdoughrheological propertieswiththemixograph,farinograph,extensigraph, alveograph,andthenewassaywiththemixolab.Chapter 6 includes laboratory wet-milling procedures aimed toward the production of maize, rice, and wheat starches and micro-scopicmethodstodeterminebirefringence,starchgran-ulemorphology,andtypesofstarches.Thissectionalso includesthetwomostcommonmethods(amylographand differential scanning calorimetry) to assess starch function-ality and the quantifcation of resistant starch. Chapter 7 is designed to practice production of nixtamalized fresh masa anddrymasafoursusedforthemanufacturingofmaize tortillasandrelatedproducts.Inthispart,thereaderwill be exposed to the production of table tortillas and the most common laboratory methods to assess nixtamal, masa, and tortillaqualityandshelf-life.Chapter8focusesinassess-ing activity of yeast and chemical leavening agents critically important for the elaboration of bakery and other fermented products.Thefrstpartofthissectionthoroughlycovers procedurestodetermineyeastactivityusingthepressur-ometer,gasograph,andmaturograph,whereasthesecond part, laboratory procedures, is for the determination of the neutralization values of various types of chemical leavening agents. Chapter 9 describes laboratory and pilot plant proce-dures for the production of different types of yeast-leavened breadsincludingoffcialmethodstotestfourforbaking purposes.Theproductionofbaguettes,Chinesesteamed bread,whiteandwholewheattablebread,yeast-leavened donuts,Arabicbreads,bagels,pretzels,sourbreads,sweet breads,andpastriessuchasdanish,croissants,cinnamon rolls,andanassortofpastriesiscovered.Thelaboratory procedures include different formulations so the student can learn ingredient functionality. Chapter 10 describes labora-tory procedures for the production of crackers and different sorts of chemically leavened bakery products including the mostcommonmethod(spreadfactor)employedtoassess softwheatfourfunctionality.Thestudentwillhavelabo-ratoryproceduresfortheelaborationofdifferentsortsof cookies (rotary molded, wire-cut, laminated) and cakes and otherrelatedproductssuchaspancakes,crepes,muffns, biscuits,andcoffeedonuts.Thischapteralsothoroughly covered the manufacturing of refned and whole wheat four tortillas.Chapter11depictslaboratoryproceduresforthe production of different types of short and long pasta products from semolina and regular and alkaline oriental noodles pro-ducedfromrefnedwheatfour.Thenextsectioncontains a s