C. Whan Park, Bernard J. Jaworski, & Deborah J. Maclnnis

Strategic Brand Concept-Image, Management

Conveying a brand image to a target market is a fundamental marketing activity. The authors present anormative framework, termed brand concept management {BCM), for selecting, implementing, and con-trolling a brand image over time. The framework consists of a sequential process of selecting, introduc-ing, elaborating, and fortifying a brand concept. The concept guides positioning strategies, and hencethe brand image, at each of these stages. The method for maintaining this concept-image linkage de-pends on whether the brand concept is functional, symbolic, or experiential. Maintaining this linkageshould significantly enhance the brand's market performance.

COMMUNICATING a brand image to a targetsegment has long been regarded as an important

marketing activity (Gardner and Levy 1955; Grubb andGrathwhol 1967; Moran 1973; Reynolds and Gutman1984; White 1959). A well-communicated image shouldhelp establish a brand's position, insulate the brandfrom competition (Oxenfeldt and Swann 1964), andtherefore enhance the brand's market performance(Shocker and Srinivasan 1979; Wind 1973). This po-tential impact underscores the importance of manag-ing the image over time.

In their classic paper, Gardner and Levy (1955)wrote that the long-term success of a brand dependson marketers' abilities to select a brand meaning priorto market entry, operationalize the meaning in the formof an image, and maintain the image over time. Thefact that several brands have been able to maintaintheir image for more than 100 years (e.g.. Ivory's

C. Whan Park is Distinguished Professor of Marketing, University ofPittsburgh. Bernard J. Jaworski and Deborah J. Maclnnis are AssistantProfessors of Marketing, University of Arizona. All authors contributedequally to the article. The authors thank two anonymous JM reviewersand Richard Lutz for their valuable comments and suggestions. Partic-ular thanks are extended to Editor Shelby Hunt for his encouragementduring the revision process.

"purity" image) supports their position.Despite the important relationship between a brand's

image and its market performance, neither the man-agement of the brand's long-term image nor the jointrelationship between a brand image and sales-induc-ing marketing strategies has been considered fully. Forexample, product life cycle (PLC) based strategies,though long-term oriented, are not examined for theirpotential effects on the brand image. A brand imagehas both a direct effect on sales and a moderating ef-fect on the relationship between PLC strategies andsales. Finally, a brand image is not simply a percep-tual phenomenon affected by the firm's communica-tion activities alone. It is the understanding consumersderive from the total set of brand-related activities en-gaged in by the firm. Thus, unless effects on the brandimage also are considered, the implementation of PLCstrategies may cause a decline in long-run market per-formance.

Positioning/repositioning strategies, though in-corporating the notion of image (and indirectly sales),do not typically indicate how the image can be man-aged over time. Instead, short-term, market-drivenfactors such as current consumer needs and compet-itors are used as a basis for managing the brand's im-age/position (Aaker and Shansby 1982; Arabie et al.1981; Keon 1983; Trout and Ries 1979; Urban and

Jnurnal of MarketingStrategic Brand Concept-Image Management / 135

Hauser 1980; Wind 1982). Because both positioningand repositioning decisions are based on current con-ditions, they are not strategically oriented.

The purpose of our article is to provide a long-term framework for managing the image over time.Managing the image over time necessitates the coor-dination of communication activities with other sales-inducing activities. We propose a normative frame-work that allows for such coordination. The proposedframework, termed brand concept management (BCM),is defined formally as the planning, implementation,and control of a brand concept throughout the life ofthe brand. A brand concept is a firm-selected brandmeaning derived from basic consumer needs (func-tional, symbolic, and experiential).' A concept se-lected prior to market entry sets boundaries on the scopeof positioning strategies, and hence influences theperceived brand image/position. After the initial con-cept selection task, the concept is managed over threestages: introduction, elaboration, and fortification.Thus, the identification and management of a brandconcept represent the means for developing, main-taining, and controlling the brand image.

The article is organized to correspond with theproposed sequence of brand concept management. Wefirst discuss how a firm selects a brand concept, thenpropose a three-stage process of introduction, elabo-ration, and fortification to maintain and control theconcept. Finally, we discuss how the type of conceptselected and the stage of the process determine spe-cific positioning strategies. Figure 1 provides a frame-work for the discussion to follow. It illustrates the hi-erarchical relationship between the brand concept,positioning strategies {using the marketing niix), andthe position/image. It also summarizes the specificsets of strategies that follow from the distinct brandconcepts across the three stages.

Brand Concept SelectionAn important factor influencing the selection of a brandconcept is consumer needs. Functional needs are de-fined as those that motivate the search for productsthat solve consumption-related problems (e.g., solvea current problem, prevent a potential problem, re-solve conflict, restructure a frustrating situation; seeFennell 1978). A brand with a functional concept isdefined as one designed to solve externally generatedconsumption needs. Symbolic needs are defined as de-sires for products that fulfill internally generated needs

'The term "brand concept" differs somewhat from the term "productconcept" used in the new product development literature. In that lit-erature a product concept is considered to be a new product idea (e.g.,a powdered drink mix). In contrast, a brand concept reflects a generalmeaning associated with the brand (e.g., symbolic). This distinctionshould become apparent as the discussion progresses.

for self-enhancement, role position, group member-ship, or ego-identification. Work on symbolic con-sumer behavior (Levy 1959; Martineau 1958; Sirgy1982; Solomon 1983) and the sociology of consump-tion (Nicosia and Mayer 1976; Wallendorf and Reilly1983) illustrates the important relationship betweensymbolic needs and consumption. A brand with asymbolic concept is one designed to associate the in-dividual with a desired group, role, or self-image. Ex-periential needs are defined as desires for productsthat provide sensory pleasure, variety, and/or cog-nitive stimulation. Work on variety seeking (Mc-Alister 1979, 1982; McAIister and Pessemier 1982),consumer aesthetics, and experiential consumption(Hirschman and Holbrook 1982; Holbrook andHirschman 1982; Holbrook et al. 1984) illustrates theimportance of experiential needs in consumption. Abrand with an experiential concept is designed to ful-fill these intemally generated needs for stimulation and/or variety. Researchers commonly have assignedproducts to one of these three categories on the basisof product class membership (e.g., lawnmowers arefunctional products, cars are symbolic, and food isexperiential; Midgley 1983; Woods I960). However,we use the terms "functional," "symbolic," and "ex-periential" to refer to the image created in a brand,not a product class. The image is a perception createdby marketers' management of the brand. Any product(e.g., toothpaste) theoretically can be positioned witha functional, symbolic, or experiential image (e.g.,Crest, Ultra Brite, or Aqua Fresh).

Many brands offer a mixture of symbolic, func-tional, and experiential benefits. It therefore may bepossible to develop a brand image with two or moreconcepts. However, we propose that managing this"generic" image may be difficult. First, as illustratedshortly, different concepts require the use of differentlong-term positioning strategies. A brand with mul-tiple concepts therefore provides inconsistent guide-lines for positioning. Second, a brand with multipleconcepts may be more difficult to manage because itcompetes against more brands (e.g., those with purelyfunctional, experiential, or symbolic concepts). Third,a brand with multiple concepts may be less effectivein establishing an image/position by making it moredifficult for consumers to identify the brand's basicmeaning. This difficulty will increase the costs as-sociated with implementing positioning strategies atthe introduction, elaboration, and fortification stages.

Aside from general consumer needs, the selectionof a concept is based also on its fit with macroenvi-ronmental trends and relevant stakeholders. More-over, the firm's internal environment must be consid-ered. The firm's mission sets a limit on the type ofbrand concepts that can be considered. Factors suchas the firm's resources, image, production capabili-

136 / Journal of Marketing, October 1986

FIGURE 1Brand Concept Management

Brand Concept:Stages

BrandConcepts

PositioningStraceglea

DevelopingA HarketlngKlx GivenCompetitiveSituation

Introduction Elaboration

Functional Symbolic Expecientlal Functional Symbolic Experiential

Functional Reference Cognitive/Problem- Group/Ego SensorySolving Enhancement StimulationCapablll- Associationsties

ProblemSolvingSpeciali-zationStrategy

ProblemSolvingGeneraliza-tionStrategy

I

MarketShieldingStrategy

BrandAccessoryStrategy

HrandNetworkStrategy

Develop Appropriate MarketingMix to Establish Image/Position

Develop Appropriate KarketlngMix to Enhance the Value ofthe Iniage/PositIon

Fortification

Functional Symbolic Experiential

Image ImageBundling BuadllngThrough ThroughHew Products New ProductsWith Func- «lthtlonal SymbolicConcepts Concepts

ImageBundling

Through NewProductsWith

ExperientialConcepts

Develop Appropriate HarketlngMix for Brand ConceptAsBoclstlons

ConsumerPerceptionsof Image/Position

Brand Position Relativeto Competitors

ties, and portfolio of products also set boundaries onthe types of brand concepts the firm can operation-alize.

Once a broad needs-based concept has been se-lected, it can be used to guide positioning decisions.The concept remains the same over the life of the brand,even though the brand's specific position may changewith market conditions. Because the brand conceptguides positioning decisions, it also determines the setof competing brands. Consumers presumably cate-gorize brands with functional (symbolic or experien-tial) concepts as similar to brands with other func-tional (symbolic or experiential) concepts.^ In this waya brand concept serves as a basis for determining mar-ket boundaries at the broad, strategic level (Day,Shocker, and Srivastava 1979). A specific positioningstrategy is therefore necessary to differentiate the brandfrom those with similar concepts.

Though the brand concept does not replace posi-tioning, it does add flexibility and guidance to posi-tioning decisions. For example, a brand with a sym-bolic concept can be maintained even though specificways of communicating symbolic associations varyover time. Likewise, a functional brand concept can

^For readers familiar with the categorization literature, a brand con-cept can be conceptualized as a superordinate level category, whereasthe image represents a basic or superordinate level category (Rosch1978).

guide subsequent repositioning attempts despite thefact that technological or product improvements ne-cessitate an alteration of the brand's specific position.Just as the mission allows for changes in specific of-ferings as needs change (Levitt 1960), so too does theconcept allow for changes in specific images as needschange.

Brand Concept ManagementThe relationship between a brand's concept and itsimage must be managed throughout the life of thebrand. For each of the three management stages (in-troduction, elaboration, and fortification), we specifypositioning strategies (implemented by the marketingmix) that enable consumers to understand a brand im-age (introduction), perceive its steadily increasing value(elaboration), and generalize it to other products pro-duced by the firm (fortification). In subsequent sec-tions we indicate that specific positioning strategiesfor managing brand images over these three stages de-pend on whether the brand has a functional, symbolic,or experiential concept.

Introduction Stage

The introductory stage of BCM is defined as a set ofactivities designed to establish a brand image/posi-tion in the marketplace during the period of marketentry. The specific image/position selected by the firm

Strategic Brand Concept-Image Management / 137

should be within the boundaries of the selected brandconcept and should be influenced by the presence ofa niche in the marketplace.

The marketing mix performs two interrelated tasksthat affect the brand's image/position (and hence salesat the introductory stage). The first is communica-tion of the brand image. Each element of the mixcan affect the inferences consumers develop about thebrand (Frey 1961; Lindquist 1974-75; Olson 1977;Sacharow 1982) and hence the brand image. The sec-ond task is to perform activities that are transaction-oriented. Termed "operating activities," they are con-cerned with the removal of transaction barriers (e.g.,ensuring time and place accessibility, willingness topay, information availability). The relationship be-tween the two tasks is interactive. Understanding abrand image facilitates the accomplishment of the op-erating task (i.e., enhances consumers' willingness toovercome transaction barriers themselves), which inturn enhances the effectiveness and efficiency withwhich the communication task is performed (e.g.,greater willingness to overcome barriers, in turn, fa-cilitates the effective performance of the communi-cation task). When marketing mix elements are con-sistent with both communication and operating tasksand complementary to one another (e.g., coordi-nated), synergy in the marketing mix is more likely.If the mix successfully coordinates communication andoperating tasks, the brand's relative advantage shouldbe apparent to the target market.

Another goal of brand concept management dur-ing the period of market entry is to develop an imagethat can be extended easily and logically during sub-sequent stages. Without this planned introduction, po-sitioning efforts at subsequent stages are likely to beless effective.

Elaboration StageDuring the elaboration stage, positioning strategiesfocus on enhancing the value of the brand's image sothat its perceived superiority in relation to competitorscan be established or sustained. Enhancing the brand'sperceived value is essential as the competitive envi-ronment becomes more complex. For example, in-creasing numbers of competitors that emulate thebrand's position may decrease consumers' abilities todiscriminate among brands. In addition, changes inconsumer needs, triggered by such factors as en-hanced product knowledge or desires for better prod-ucts (particularly across specific usage situations), maynecessitate specific strategies for enhancing the valueof the brand.

Positioning strategies implemented at the elabo-ration stage may require altering marketing mix com-ponents. However, positioning strategies at this stagediffer from a typical repositioning strategy in two im-

portant ways. First, repositioning typically does notrely upon an overarching meaning to guide reposi-tioning activities. In contrast, according to the BCMframework, the positioning strategies at the elabora-tion stage are guided by the brand concept (see Figure1). Because the image at the elaboration stage is re-lated logically to the brand concept, the elaboratedimage represents a logical extension of the initial im-age. Thus, potential inefficiencies associated withchanging an image without a guiding firamework areavoided. Second, plans for positioning at the elabo-ration stage should start when the brand concept isinitially selected. By planning for positioning activi-ties at the concept selection stage, the firm can createits own changes, not react to market changes as theyoccur. Repositioning, in contrast, usually is deter-mined from current, short-term market conditions.

Several different positioning strategies can be usedto enhance the value of the image at the elaborationstage. First, the brand can be made useful across spe-cific usage situations (e.g., Windex, Arm and Ham-mer Baking Soda) or it can be made to meet a morespecific need (e.g.. Converse sneakers became Con-verse running shoes, racquetball shoes, and tennisshoes). New (old) features can be added (deleted) (e.g.,Crest with tartar prevention) or a single attribute canbe improved (e.g.. Trident's improved flavor). Fi-nally, maintaining the exclusivity or scarcity of thebrand may enhance its perceived value (e.g.. CabbagePatch Dolls). The positioning strategy that is most ap-propriate for enhancing the value of a given brand im-age is determined by the initial concept (as discussedsubsequently). Though elaborating the image mightnecessitate an adjustment from the initial image/po-sition, it should not involve a departure from the ini-tial concept. Just as at the introductory stage, ele-ments of the marketing mix at the elaboration stagewill be most effective and efficient in enhancing thevalue of the image when they are consistent with theoperating and communication objectives and comple-mentary to each other.

Fortification StageAt the final stage of BCM, the fortification stage, theaim is to link an elaborated brand image to the imageof other products produced by the firm in differentproduct classes (e.g., linking Ivory Soap with IvorySnow, Ivory Liquid, Ivory Shampoo). Multiple prod-ucts, all with similar images, reinforce one anotherand serve to strengthen the image of each brand (in-cluding the elaborated brand). Thus, all brands canbenefit from this strategy. The reinforcement of abrand's image by a fortification strategy does not im-ply that the brand elaboration stage has stopped. Theelaboration stage should continue throughout the lifeof the brand. Nor is it the case that a fortification stage

138 / Journal of Marketing, October 1986

is necessary for the long-term success of the brand.In fact, fortification may be tied more closely to aproduct line management strategy than to individualbrand concept management.^

It may be argued that a fortification stage does notnecessarily apply to all firms because the decision toenter a new market and/or develop a new productshould be based on such factors as (1) the firm's ca-pacity to produce multiple products and (2) the com-petitive environment in the market. A firm that is fi-nancially incapable of producing and marketing multipleproducts thus would be incapable of implementing afortification strategy. However, an important featureof the BCM framework is that management deter-mines, prior to market entry, how positioning strate-gies at each of the three stages should proceed. Byvirtue of this planned strategy the firm can developthe appropriate resources during preceding stages sothat a positioning strategy at the fortification stage canbe implemented. Moving from one stage to anotherrepresents part of an overall plan, and decisions shouldbe based on the entire plan.

A fortification stage can be important for severalreasons. First, communication costs are reduced forany single brand because brands with similar imagesmutually reinforce one another. A fum whose prod-ucts convey similar images is likely to be more costeffective in terms of communication than a firm con-veying several unrelated images. Moreover, a productthat fortifies an existing elaborated brand may requireless time in moving from the introductory to the elab-oration stage. The firm can capitalize on consumerknowledge of an existing brand in managing the im-age of a new one. Second, similar images may helpcreate the perception that complementary productsshould be consumed as a package (e.g., Betty Crockercake mix and frosting). Third, brands with similar im-ages (concepts) may help to convey the image of thefirm (Oxenfeldt 1966) and indicate the firm's rela-tionship to broad consumer needs (Levitt 1960). Justas a brand image is produced by the gestalt configu-ration of marketing mix elements, the image of thefirm is produced by the gestalt configuration of theproducts it markets.

Whereas the introduction and elaboration stagesare accomplished by managing the marketing mix.

^Brand concept fortification has some important implications formanaging a product portfolio. Namely it suggests that instead of usinga "cash cow" to support the growth of unrelated products, productsshouid be coordinated so that they are mutually sustaining and rein-forcing. In this instance, removing a product fix>m its portfolio couldhave important implications for the meaning attached to the portfolioas a whole. Moreover, the issue of adding new products to the port-folio may be affected by the extent to which the concepts of the newproducts are consistent with the concept of other products already inthe portfolio.

positioning strategies at the fortification stage involvean extension of the concept/image to other productsproduced by the firm. During the fortification stage,the positioning strategies of new products establish thelinkage to the existing brand concept (and hence tothe elaborated brand image). This linkage may beachieved by a common identification (i.e., family brandnames), joint promotion, or joint distribution.

Summary

Positioning strategies generally are implemented tocommunicate a brand image and differentiate the brandfrom competitors (achieve a position), but positioningprovides little guidance in managing and maintaininga consistent image over time. A brand concept de-veloped from external and internal environmentalconsiderations and managed over several conceptmanagement stages enables the firm to devise a stra-tegic plan for developing, maintaining, and control-ling the brand image. This plan allows positioning ef-forts to work coherently, elaborating and fortifying theimage and building up a core personality for the brand.The strategic perspective enables the firm to plan forelaboration and fortification stages before the periodof market entry, and provides an opportunity to de-velop an introduction strategy that will logically precedeelaboration and fortification efforts. A concept actslike a mission, allowing the firm to avoid marketingmyopia by thinking in terms of broad needs. By virtueof the strategic plan, marketers can build on an imagein a way that is consistent with the knowledge con-sumers already have acquired about the brand, createefficiencies in maintaining and controlling the image(cost reductions), and enhance the duration of thebrand's life cycle.

Positioning Strategies Across theThree BCM Stages

It is important to differentiate the three brand concepts(functional, symbolic, and experiential) because thespecific positioning strategies implemented at the in-troduction, elaboration, and fortification stages de-pend on the concept type (see Figure 1). Thus a po-sitioning strategy appropriate for managing a brandwith a functional concept may be inappropriate formanaging a brand with a symbolic or experiential con-cept. Positioning strategies are dictated by the brandconcept and the BCM stage, but the implementationof these strategies by the marketing mix also dependson the specific competitive situation facing the firm.Only general positioning strategies are offered here.They should be refined further to reflect the brand'scompetitive situation.

Strategic Brand Concept-Image Management / 139

Positioning Strategies at the IntroductoryStage

For all three brand concepts, coordinating elements ofthe marketing mix to establish the brand's image/po-sition is a basic goal. Moreover, positioning efforts atthe introductory stage should be made with the knowl-edge that the image eventually will be enhanced at theelaboration stage. The positioning efforts at the intro-duction stage therefore should facilitate the position-ing efforts at the elaboration stage. This requires thatmix elements be coordinated so as to fit with the ini-tial concept type (see Figure 1). For brands with func-tional concepts, mix elements should emphasize thebrand's functional performance in solving consump-tion-related problems. Here the mix should differen-tiate performance from that of competitors. CloroxBleach successfully communicated a functional con-cept (e.g., cleaning clothes) and a specific position(e.g., getting dirty clothes white and bright) by co-ordinating multiple mix elements (Table 1).

For brands with symbolic concepts, mix elementscan be coordinated to emphasize the brand's relation-ship to group membership or self-identification (seeFigure 1). The communication and operating activi-ties for positioning brands with symbolic concepts atthe introductory stage differ substantially from thosefollowed for brands with functional concepts. For

brands with symbolic concepts, the communicationactivities center on informing both targeted and non-targeted customers of the brand, thus creating aware-ness and preference in both markets. Operating activ-ities, in contrast, attempt to minimize transactionbarriers facing the target market while maximizingtransaction barriers facing the nontargeted market. Oneway to establish a symbolic image/position is to chargea premium price. A second tactic is to make the branddifficult to obtain by limiting distribution outlets tocertain areas or locations frequented only by the targetsegment (Martineau 1958). It is also possible to ex-press a symbolic image on the basis of promotion. Forexample, language barriers might reduce the compre-hensibility of an advertisement among nontargetedcustomers (Anderson and Jolson 1980). Finally, asymbolic image can be established on the basis of brandcharacteristics. For example, the brand's size or formmay be limited so it is usable only by targeted indi-viduals. As Table 2 indicates, Lenox china and BrooksBrothers suits were introduced in a manner consistentwith the proposed approach.

For brands with experiential concepts, positioningstrategies should convey the brand's effect on sensorysatisfaction or cognitive stimulation (Figure 1). Thus,the experiential and fantasy aspects associated withconsumption should be highlighted by using elementsof the marketing mix. Barbie Dolls and Lego Building

TABLE 1Examples of Brands with Functional Concepts

Concept Introduction Concept Elaboration Concept Fortification

Clorox Bleach (whiter and brighter clothes)Problem-solving generalizationIn 1913 Clorox liquid bleach

introduced to the market strategy

Product usage extended fromcottons to synthetic fibers

Vaseline Petroleum Jelly (general purpose medicinal cream)

1869 Vaseline Petroleum Jellyintroduced to the market as alubricant and as a skin balmfor burns

Problem-solving generalizationstrategy

Produce usage extended tomultiple-usage situations:preventing diaper rash,removing eye makeup, lipbalm

Clorox Pre-Wash soil and stainremover used prior to launderingclothes

Tackle cleaner, a fresh-scented, all-purpose household cleaner"

Vaseline health and beauty relatedproducts:Vaseline Intensive Care LotionIntensive Care Bath BeadsVaseline Constant CareVaseline Dermatology Formula

Vaseline baby care products:Wipe 'N DipesVaseline Intensive Care Baby LotionVaseline Intensive Care Baby

ShampooVaseline Intensive Care Baby

Powder

Xlorox did not follow this strategy. This strategy would be consistent with the proposed elaboration approach.''Tackle cleaner should have been linked more clearly to the Clorox concept. One method to accomplish this link would be to usefamily names.

140 / Journal of Marketing, October 1986

TABLE 2Examples of Brands with Symbolic Concepts

Concept Introduction Concept Elaboration Concept Fortification

Lenox China ("A World Apart," "Let It Express Your World")Almost a century ago, the Lenox Market shielding

Company introduced a line offine china A tightly controlled marketing

mix to preserve the statusconcept

Brooks Brothers (attire for the conservative, professional gentleman)

In 1818 Brooks Brothers Market shieldingintroducedsuit"

a "gentleman'sA tightly controlled marketing

mix to shield the market (e.g.,only 26 stores in the U.S. andcarefully controlled in-storemerchandising)

Lenox crystalLenox silverplated hollowareCandlesJewelry

Brooks Brothers shoesBrooks Brothers cologneBrooks Brothers hatsBrooks Brothers valet stands

Blocks (Table 3) established a successful position atthe introduction stage by following such a strategy.Moreover, this strategy facilitated positioning effortsat the elaboration stage.'^

Positioning Strategies at the ElaborationStageAn important part of long-term brand concept man-agement is the continuous attempt to enhance the valueof the brand at the elaboration stage. Though the goalsfor brands with different concepts are the same, theselected concept should affect the method of elabo-ration (see Figure 1). Thus, the concept affects theparticular positioning strategies followed in elaborat-ing the image.^ The positioning strategy at the elab-oration stage is an extension of positioning efforts atthe introductory stage. However, at this stage the mar-keting mix elements are adjusted on the basis of changesin market conditions.

Two basic, related positioning strategies for brandswith functional concepts are (1) problem-solving spe-cialization and (2) problem-solving generalizationstrategies. A problem-solving specialization strategyenhances the value of brands with a functional con-cept by appealing to more specific needs. For exam-ple. Converse elaborated the functional brand conceptfor their sneakers by developing a variety of athletic

''Although examples are used in the text, we are not suggesting thatthese are examples of brands that have deliberately followed a BCMstrategy. The examples are used only to provide a more intuitive graspof the concepts discussed.

^Note, however, that adding (deleting) new (old) attributes is an ap-propriate strategy for elaborating brands with either functional, ex-periential, or symbolic concepts. Likewise, all three brand conceptscan be elaborated by improving the satisfaction delivered by existingattributes. In this section, primary attention is focused on positioningstrategies that are different for functional, symbolic, and experientialconcepts.

shoes specific to certain usage occasions (e.g., tennis,running, racquetball, basketball). The same strategyhas been used for Xerox copiers, IBM computers, andRobitussin cough medicine.

A problem-solving specialization strategy reducesthe number of competitors to those having the same,more narrowly defined, benefits. This strategy is use-ful when products become technically complex, needsmore specialized, and markets more fragmented. Itcorresponds to recent work on the situation as a basisfor segmentation decisions (e.g., Dickson 1982) andbenefit segmentation (Haley 1968).

Specialization of needs within a product categoryis effective when customers' levels of product classknowledge become high and usage experiences be-come specialized and focused. Thus, a problem-solv-ing specialization strategy enables the firm to concen-trate on a narrower segment with greater profit potential.However, problem-solving specialization will not in-sulate the brand from competitive pressures over thelong term. A firm that produces multiple brands forspecific needs will be vulnerable if competitors offera single brand that meets the needs of several usagesituations. For example, if Arm and Hammer decidedto introduce several brands of baking soda for differ-ent usage situations, the separate brands would be morevulnerable than a single brand that performs all thefunctions. Product specialization is therefore an im-portant but intermediate step in the long-term man-agement of a brand with a functional concept. Even-tually this strategy should be replaced by one that offerscustomers multiple benefits across usage situations.

Problem-solving generalization is a second strat-egy for enhancing the value of a brand with a func-tional concept. This strategy logically follows prob-lem-solving specialization. Here the goal is to makethe brand useful across a variety of previously dis-

Strategic Brand Concept-Image Management / 141

TABLE 3Examples of Brands with Experiential Concepts

Concept Introduction Concept Elaboration Concept Fortification

Barbie Dolt (the sophisticated teenager)

Barbie Doll was introduced tothe market in 1959

Brand accessory strategy

Accessories like outfits, houses,furniture, cars, jewelry for Barbie,Ken

Barbie MagazineBarbie GameBarbie Boutique

Lego Building Blocks (unbreakable safe toy emphasizing creativity and imagination)

Lego Building Blocks for 3-8-year-olds introduced in 1960

Brand accessory strategy

Accessories like minifigures, trees,signs, idea books, storage cases

Accessories like large bricks for 1 -5-year-olds that can link with thesmaller bricks when the childgets older

Expert builder sets for ages 7-12with items such as wheels, gears,axles, toggle joints, andconnectors

Do-it-yourself furniture^ such asLego chairs, couches, desks,bookshelves

^Suggested; not actual fortification strategy for Lego.

parate usage situations. Brands such as Vaseline Pe-troleum Jelly, Windex, and Arm and Hammer BakingSoda have elaborated their functional images acrossmultiple usage situations. Because each brand is shownto fulfill multiple needs, it has a competitive advan-tage over brands positioned to fulfill a specific need.For example, it is not difficult to imagine the com-petitive advantage of Windex when it performs mul-tiple functions (e.g., window cleaning, countertopcleaning, refrigerator cleaning) in comparison with asingle-function brand.

Adopting a multibrand strategy (e.g., offeringmultiple brands that serve the same general purpose)is regarded here as an inappropriate strategy for brandswith functional concepts. First, producing three or fourbrands, all of which are used in different situationsbut share the same basic function, provides less valueto consumers than producing a single brand that gen-eralizes across multiple usage situations. This reducedvalue makes the brands more vulnerable to competi-tion. Second, consumers may have more difficultydistinguishing the unique contribution of each brandwhen a multibrand strategy is used. This is particu-larly true when brands in the multibrand set differ onlyin intangible benefits. Third, a multibrand strategy in-creases management and resource allocation costs.Though within-firm interbrand cannibalization may bea short-term benefit of a multibrand strategy, it is morelikely to lead to a weakening of each brand's marketposition over the long run. The steady decline of Procter

& Gamble's Tide market share over the years may bepartly attributable to this multibrand strategy.^ Insteadof enhancing the value of any single brand, a multi-brand strategy may actually reduce the value of eachbrand by minimizing the unique contribution eachmakes in solving a functionally based problem.

A major positioning strategy for a brand with asymbolic concept is to maintain group- or self-image-based associations. Thus, positioning strategies at theelaboration stage center on protecting the target seg-ment by making consumption more difficult for non-targeted customers (e.g., people for whom the desiredreference group affiliation is inconsistent). Position-ing efforts at the elaboration stage therefore should bean extention of positioning efforts at the introductionstage. However, tighter control on the nontargetedmarket's consumption of the brand must be estab-lished. The methods used in positioning the productduring the period of market entry should be aug-mented by introducing additional constraints on ac-cess.

This positioning strategy is best described as a"market shielding" strategy (see Figure 1 and Table2). Market shielding is a positioning strategy thatmaintains the exclusivity of the brand by continuouslymarketing to both targeted and nontargeted segments

*A multibrand strategy and a problem-solving specialization strategyare not the same. In the former case, brands compete with one an-other, whereas in the latter case they do not.

142 / Journal of Marketing, October 1986

on the demand side while demarketing from the non-targeted segment on the supply side. It is distinct fromselective demarketing (Kotler and Levy 1971) in thatthe image is communicated to the nontargeted seg-ment in a way that makes the brand simultaneouslydesirable and unattainable. The primary aim of a mar-ket shielding strategy is to maintain the brand's im-age/position. A firm that uses all four mix elementsto shield the market can be most effective in imple-menting this strategy.^ Lenox and Brooks Brothersproduct lines have been successfully elaborated bymeans of a market shielding strategy (Table 2).

Maintaining the image is often difficult givencompetitive pressures and pressures to increase short-term profits. However, maintaining the image may bethe only way of extending the life of a brand with asymbolic concept. Though handling competitive pres-sures and sustaining profit are important objectives,the means to achieve them should not be based onstrategies that debilitate the effectiveness of the initialimage (e.g., price reduction, distribution extension,target market expansion, etc.), but on strategies (e.g.,market shielding) that strengthen its position. Long-run success is unlikely without a market shieldingstrategy.^ One reason why certain (symbolic) fashionproducts have such a short life cycle may be that theyrarely follow this positioning strategy (e.g., Izod shirts).Symbolic fashion brands that have been successful formany years (e.g., Brooks Brothers suits) have imple-mented this market shielding strategy.

Experiential brands, with their emphasis on sen-sory/cognitive stimulation, encourage frequent con-sumption. This heightened level of use may lead tosatiation and weaken the experiential image unlessconsumption is controlled. For functional brands sa-tiation is less serious given that the brands continueto fulfill functional needs. Satiation is also less likelyfor brands with symbolic concepts as long as the brand'sassociation with the group or self-image is properlymaintained. Consumption itself does not generate sa-tiation for these brands.

Two positioning strategies can be used to elabo-rate brands with experiential concepts (see Figure 1).Providing brand accessories is one method of main-taining desired levels of stimulation while controlling

'Market shielding raises several ethical issues. The targeted and non-targeted segments conflict in their desires. The target segment wantsa product that makes them feel unique. Responding to their wishesrequires that the brand be shielded from others who also desire thebrand. However, satisfying the desires of the nontargeted segmentwill make the brand less valuable to members of the target segment.The ethical issues associated with a market shielding strategy are be-yond the scope of this article.

^Here we assume the firm's goal is long-term brand management.If the firm's goal is to maximize short-term benefits, this argumentis not appropriate.

satiation. A brand accessory strategy entails the intro-duction of accessories that can be used in conjunctionwith the elaborated brand. For example. Barbie dresses,friends (e.g.. Ken), furniture, houses, and cars serveto accessorize Barbie's experiential concept (see Ta-ble 3). In a positioning sense, a brand accessory strat-egy enhances the value of the brand's concept by cre-ating satellite products used in a complementary fashionwith the elaborated brand. Note that this is differentfrom a general fortification strategy because the sat-ellite brands may be considered as additional attri-butes (or appendages) of the main brand. In contrast,a fortification strategy extends the meaning to otherproduct classes (e.g., Barbie Magazine).

A second positioning strategy is to produce a net-work of brands, each of which provides a somewhatdifferent type of stimulation. Multiple offerings for agiven product class (e.g., Kellogg's variety pack) re-duce satiation with any one brand. The use of a brandnetwork strategy implies that a positioning strategy andmarketing elements explicitly focus on the availabilityof multiple alternatives. The use of multibrand strat-egies is favored in this situation because they reducethe likelihood of satiation by encouraging brandswitching.

The use of a multibrand strategy for brands withexperiential concepts encourages cannibalization. In-terestingly, cannibalization in the case of experientialbrands is desirable because it helps to retain targetcustomers within the firm while simultaneously re-ducing the likelihood of satiation with any one brand.As indicated before, however, use of a multibrandstrategy for brands with functional concepts is dis-couraged because the value of each brand is reduced.

Positioning Strategies at the FortificationStageThe goal in fortifying a brand concept is to reinforceand strengthen the elaborated brand image by extend-ing its meaning to products outside the initial productclass. Here the positioning strategies of the new prod-ucts should emphasize their linkage to the original brandconcept/image. The strategy for linking the brand im-age to that of brands outside the product class is termed"image bundling" (see Figure 1). The goal is to createa single, overarching image (consistent with the con-cept) that pulls together the individual brand images.In some cases this overarching image may representthe image of the firm, whereas in other cases it mayreflect a general image for all products within a prod-uct line (e.g., Sears Craftsman tools). The positioningimplication of this strategy is that the firm must thinkbroadly in terms of positioning the unit of products,not simply individual brands. Abrupt changes in oneimage could have implications for the global image.The marketing mix activities performed by new brands

Strategic Brand Concept-Image Management / 143

are used to create the desired linkage and hence de-velop image bundles.

The basis for reinforcing the image of brands witha functional concept via an image-bundling strategyshould be the brand's relationship to other perfor-mance-related products. For example. Arm and Ham-mer Baking Soda's image is fortified by Arm andHammer soap powder, deodorant, and all-purposecleaners. As indicated in Table 1, Vaseline fortifiedthe image of its petroleum jelly brand by linking thebrand name to beauty care products (such as VaselineIntensive Care Bath Beads) and baby care products(such as Vaseline Wipe 'N Dipes and Vaseline BabyPowder).

For brands with symbolic concepts the image isgeneralized to referent-based products. For example,Lenox fortified its china products by introducing crys-tal, candles, soaps, and jewelry (see Table 2). BrooksBrothers has done the same with its line of suits, hats,shirts, and umbrellas (see Table 2). The image-bun-dling strategy for products with symbolic concepts helpsto create a lifestyle image, an image consumers thenuse to communicate information about themselves orto make inferences about others.

A brand with an experiential concept can be rein-forced by a bundling strategy that links the brand im-age to that of other experiential products. For exam-ple. Lego could fortify its line of children's buildingblocks by introducing a line of do it-yourself desks,chairs, and bookshelves for the teenage consumer (seeTable 3). Barbie is an example of a brand that ap-peared to follow a fortification strategy with the in-troduction of Barbie Magazine and the Barbie game.In all these cases the initial brand was fortified by itslinkage to other products. Their complementary re-lationship helps to reinforce the meaning of each in-dividual brand.

DiscussionA brand concept should be viewed as a long-term in-vestment developed and nurtured to achieve long-runcompetitive advantage. Whereas previous treatmentsof brand image generally have been restricted to dis-cussions of positioning, the BCM provides a long-termframework for the management of a brand image.Management of the image is a process of selecting ageneral brand concept (functional, symbolic, or ex-periential) and then introducing, elaborating, and for-tifying the concept over time.

In the course of selecting a concept the firm mustconsider resource capabilities, the firm's image, andcurrent product offerings. At the introductory stage,the firm considers how best to operationalize the con-cept using elements of the marketing mix. As marketsand needs change, elaborating the brand concept be-

comes important. Through positioning strategies at theelaboration stage, management can convey a consis-tent yet more valued image, insulate the brand fromcompetition, and directly influence the fmancial per-formance of the brand. Finally, the image can be rein-forced at the fortification stage by extending it to new,complementary products. Thus, the successful devel-opment of an initial brand image can have lasting ef-fects on both the life of the brand (e.g., long-termsales) and other products produced by the firm. Theimages of these other products, in turn, reinforce theimage of the elaborated brand. They also contributeto the formation and reinforcement of the image ofthe firm and/or the entire product line. Synergies arethus realized in the management of brand images.

When a particular brand image is introduced, elab-orated, and fortified, the costs associated with intro-ducing other products become lower and the time re-quired to move from introduction to elaboration forthe new products is reduced. Consider, for example,the ease with which Ivory Shampoo and liquid Tidehave been established given their linkage to Ivory Soapand powdered Tide. In general, the relative time fromimplementing introduction to fortification strategiesdepends on such factors as the effectiveness and ef-ficiency of positioning efforts and the competitive en-vironment.

It has been proposed that adopting a BCM frame-work enhances the long-term viability of a brand inthe market, but this does not mean that every properlymanaged brand can or will have an indefinite life. Evena brand whose image has been managed successfullycan decline if the brand concept ceases to be valuedby target customers. Thus, the concept itself sets anupper limit on the life of a given brand. For example,a brand of jeans that has been associated with a func-tional concept and valued by target customers as fit-ting that concept may have a problem if customers'preferences change from functional to symbolic needs(e.g., designer jeans). When the value of the brandconcept changes, the firm has two options. One is tochange the brand concept and reposition the brand.Changing the concept is a formidable task because itrequires changing strongly entrenched brand percep-tions that may be very resistant to change. A secondoption is to remove the brand from the market andintroduce a new brand whose concept is consistent withmarket trends.

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