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C++ Programming Languages

Lecturer: Omid JafarinezhadFall 2013

Lecture 3

Department of Computer Engineering

Sharif University of Technology

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Outline

• Differences between C and C++

• Extensions to C

• Namespaces

• String

• IOStreams (input, output, file)

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Differences between C and C++• Strict type checking// Ok in C , Error in C ++int main() { // Error : printf undeclared printf("Hello World\n"); }

// Ok in C++#include <stdio.h>int main() { printf("Hello World\n"); }

int main() { // Error in C++: return-statement with no value, in function returning 'int' return;}

// Ok in C++int main() { }

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Extensions to C• Function Overloading

#include <stdio.h> void show(int val) { printf("Integer: %d\n", val); }void show(double val) { printf("Double: %lf\n", val); } void show(char const *val) { printf("String: %s\n", val); } int main() {

show(12); show(3.1415); show("Hello World!\n");

}

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Extensions to C• Function Overloading:

– Do not use function overloading for functions doing conceptually different tasks.

– C++ does not allow identically named functions to differ only in their return values.

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Extensions to C• Default function arguments

#include <stdio.h>

int Sum(int a = 1, int b = 4) {return a + b;}

int main(){ printf("%d", Sum()); // arguments: 1 + 4 printf("%d”, Sum(20)); // arguments: 20 + 4 printf("%d", Sum(20, 5)); // arguments: 20 + 5 // Sum(,6); // Error}

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Extensions to C• Default function arguments– Default arguments must be known at compile-

time since at that moment arguments are supplied to functions. Therefore, the default arguments must be mentioned at the function's declaration, rather than at its implementation:

// sample header file extern void two_ints(int a = 1, int b = 4);

// code of function in, filename.ccpvoid two_ints(int a, int b) { ... }

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Differences between C and C++• NULL-pointers , 0-pointers and nullptr (C++ 11)

#include <stdio.h> void show(int val) { printf("Integer: %d\n", val); }void show(double val) { printf("Double: %lf\n", val); } void show(char const *val) { printf("String: %s\n", val); } int main() {

show(0); show(NULL); // show(0); show((char *)0);

show(nullptr); // in C++ 11}

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Differences between C and C++• The void parameter list

#include <stdio.h>

void show();

int main() {

show(10); }

void show(int val) { printf("Integer: %d\n", val); }

C ()C++ ()

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Differences between C and C++• The void parameter list

#include <stdio.h>

void show(void);

int main() {

show(10); // Error too many arguments to function}

void show(int val) { printf("Integer: %d\n", val); }

C ()C++ ()

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Differences between C and C++• Defining local variables

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {

for (int i = 0; i < 20; ++i) printf("%d\n", i);

switch (int c = getchar()){ ....}if (int c = getchar()) ….

}

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Differences between C and C++• typedef– The keyword typedef is still used in C++, but is not

required anymore when defining union, struct or enum definitions.

struct SomeStruct{ int a; double d; char string[80];};SomeStruct what; // in c : struct SomeStruct what; what.d = 3.1415;

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Extensions to C• The scope resolution operator ::

#include <stdio.h>int counter = 50; // global variableint main(){ int counter = 10; for (int counter = 1; // this refers to the counter < 10; // local variable counter++) { printf("%d\n", ::counter // global variable / // divided by counter); // local variable }}

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Extensions to C• cout, cin, and cerr

– cout, analogous to stdout

– cin, analogous to stdin

– cerr, analogous to stderr

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Extensions to C#include <iostream>using namespace std;int main(){ int ival; char sval[30]; std::cout << "Enter a number:\n"; // <<, insertion operator cin >> ival; // >>, extraction operator cout << "And now a string:\n"; cin >> sval;

cout << "The number is: " << ival << "\n" "And the string is: " << sval << '\n';}

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Extensions to C• Functions as part of a struct/* in C ++ */struct Person{ char name[80]; char address[80]; void print();};void Person::print(){ cout << "Name:" << name << "\n" "Address: " << address << "\n";}

Person person;strcpy(person.name, "Karel");person.print();

/* in C and C++*/typedef struct{ char name[80]; char address[80];} PERSON;

/* print information */void print(PERSON const *p){…}

/* etc.. */

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Extensions to C• References– the reference operator & indicates that ref is not

itself an int but a reference to one– synonyms for variables– A reference to a variable is like an alias

// c++int int_value;int &ref = int_value;

++int_value; ++ref;

// c and c++int int_value;int *ref = &int_value;

++int_value; ++(*ref);

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Extensions to C• References

// c++void increase(int &valr){ valr += 5;}

int main(){ int x; increase(x);}

// c and c++void increase(int *valp) {

*valp += 5;}

int main(){ int x; increase(&x); }

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Extensions to C• References

extern int *ip; extern int &ir;

ip = 0; // reassigns ip, now a 0-pointer ir = 0; // ir unchanged, the int variable it refers to is now 0

int &q; // Error : declared as reference but not initialized

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Extensions to C• References could result in extremely ugly code

int &func(){ static int value; return value;}

int main(){

func() = 20;func() += func();

}

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Extensions to C• Rvalue References (C++11)– lvalue reference (typename &)– rvalue references (typename &&)

int intVal(){ return 5;}

int &ir = intVal(); // fails: refers to a temporaryint const &ic = intVal(); // OK: immutable temporaryint *ip = &intVal(); // fails: no lvalue available

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Extensions to C• Rvalue References (C++11)

void receive(int &value) // note: lvalue reference{ cout << "int value parameter\n";}void receive(int &&value) // note: rvalue reference{ cout << "int R-value parameter\n";}int main(){ receive(18); // int R-value parameter int value = 5; receive(value); // int value parameter receive(intVal()); // int R-value parameter}

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Memory leak#include <stdlib.h> void function_which_allocates(void) { /* allocate an array of 45 floats */ float * a = malloc(sizeof(float) * 45); /* additional code making use of 'a' */ /* return to main, having forgotten to free the memory we malloc'd */} int main(void) { function_which_allocates(); /* the pointer 'a' no longer exists, and therefore cannot be freed, but the

memory is still allocated. a leak has occurred. */}

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Extensions to C• Memory leak

struct Data{ char *text; size_t size; void copy(Data const &other) { text = strdup(other.text); size = strlen(text); }};Data dataFactory(char const *txt){ Data ret = {strdup(txt), strlen(txt)}; return ret;}

int main(){ Data d1 = {strdup("hello"), strlen("hello")};

Data d2; d2.copy(d1);

Data d3; d3.copy(dataFactory("hello")); }

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Extensions to C• Rvalue References (C++11)

struct Data{ // …. void copy(Data &&other) { text = other.text; other.text = 0; }};Data dataFactory(char const *txt){ Data ret = {strdup(txt), strlen(txt)}; return ret;}

int main(){ Data d1 = {strdup("hello"), strlen("hello")};

Data d2; d2.copy(d1);

Data d3; d3.copy(dataFactory("hello")); }

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Extensions to C• Strongly typed enumerations (C++11)

enum class SafeEnum{ NOT_OK, // 0, by implication OK = 10, MAYBE_OK // 11, by implication};

enum class CharEnum: unsigned char{ NOT_OK, OK};

// CharEnum::OK

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Extensions to C• enumerations in c and c++

#include <iostream>using namespace std; enum Color{ RED, // 0 BLUE // 1}; enum Fruit{ BANANA, // 0 APPLE // 1};

int main(){ Color a = RED; Fruit b = BANANA; // The compiler will compare a and b as integers if (a == b) // and find they are equal! cout << "a and b are equal" << endl; else cout << "a and b are not equal" << endl; return 0;}

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Extensions to C• Strongly typed enumerations (C++11)

#include <iostream>using namespace std; enum class Color{ RED, // 0 BLUE // 1}; enum class Fruit{ BANANA, // 0 APPLE // 1};

int main(){ Color a = Color::RED; Fruit b = Fruit::BANANA;

/* compile error here, as the compiler doesn't know how to compare different types Color and Fruit */

if (a == b) cout << "a and b are equal" << endl; else cout << "a and b are not equal" << endl; return 0;}

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Extensions to C• Type inference: auto and decltype (C++11)

auto variable = 5; // int x = 4;auto d = 2.5; // d will be type doubleauto z = d; // z will be type doubleauto w = "hi"; // w will be type const char*

decltype(5) x; // x will be type int because 5 is an intdecltype(x) y = 6; // y will be type int because x is an intauto z = x; // z will type type int

int multiply (int x, int y){…}auto multiply (int x, int y) -> int{…}

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Extensions to C• function declaration using auto (C++11)

#include <iostream>#include <string>

// simple function with a default argument, returning nothingvoid f0(const std::string& arg = "world") { std::cout << "Hello, " << arg << '\n';} // function returning a pointer to f0, (C++11 style)auto fp11() -> void(*)(const std::string&) { return f0;}// c and c++ (pre-C++11 style)// function returning a pointer to f0void (*fp03())(const std::string&) { return f0;}

int main(){ f0(); fp11()("test"); fp03()("again");}// outputHello, world Hello, test Hello, again

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Extensions to C• Range-based for-loops (C++11)

struct BigStruct{ double array[100]; int last;};

BigStruct data[100]; // assume properly initialized elsewhere

int countUsed(){ int sum = 0; // const &: the elements aren't modified for (auto const &element: data) sum += element.last; return sum;}

// assume int array[30]for (auto &element: array) statement

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Extensions to C• binary constant – e.g. int i = 0b101;

• data types– void, char, short, int, long, float and double

– bool, wchar_t, long long and long double

– char16_t and char32_t

– size_t (typedef long unsigned int size_t)

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Extensions to C• Bool

bool bValue; // true (!=0) or false (0)

bool bValue1 = true; // explicit assignmentbool bValue2(false); // implicit assignmentbool bValue1 = !true; // bValue1 will have the value falsebool bValue2(!false); // bValue2 will have the value true

bool bValue = true; // bool bValue = 30; cout << bValue << endl; // 1cout << !bValue << std::endl; // 0 if (!bValue) cout << "The if statement was true" << endl;else cout << "The if statement was false" << endl;

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Extensions to C• The static_cast conversion

– static_cast<type>(expression);

int x = 19;int y = 4;sqrt(x / y);

sqrt(static_cast<double>(x) / y);

• The dynamic_cast conversion

• The const_cast conversion

• The reinterpret_cast conversion

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Namespaces• Defining namespaces

// in file1.cpp namespace CppNS { double cos(double argInDegrees) { ... } }

// in file2.cpp namespace CppNS { double sin(double argInDegrees) { ... } }

// same as file3.ccp namespace CppNS { double cos(double argInDegrees) { ... } double sin(double argInDegrees) { ... } }

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Namespaces• Referring to namespaces

#include <file3>#include <iostream>#include <cmath>using namespace std;

int main(){ cout << "The cosine of 60 degrees is: " << CppNS::cos(60) << ::cos(60); // call the standard std::cos(60) function}

// same as file3.ccpnamespace CppNS{ double cos(double argInDegrees) { … } double sin(double argInDegrees) { … }}

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Namespaces• Referring to namespaces

#include <file3>#include <iostream>#include <cmath>

using namespace std;

int main(){ using CppNS::cos; /* ... */ cout << cos(60) // calls CppNS::cos() << ::cos(60); // call the standard std::cos(60) function}

// same as file3.ccpnamespace CppNS{ double cos(double argInDegrees) { … } double sin(double argInDegrees) { … }}

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Namespaces• The standard namespace

– The std namespace is reserved by C++

– The standard defines many entities that are part of the runtime available software • e.g., cout, cin, cerr

• the templates defined in the Standard Template Library

• the Generic Algorithms

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Namespaces• Nesting namespaces

#include <file3>

int main(){ CppNS::value = 0; CppNS::Virtual::pointer = 0;}

// same as file3.ccpnamespace CppNS{ int value; namespace Virtual { void *pointer; }}#include <file3>

using namespace CppNS;int main(){ value = 0; Virtual::pointer = 0;}

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Namespaces• Nesting namespaces

#include <file3>using namespace CppNS; using namespace Virtual;int main(){ value = 0; pointer = 0;}

// same as file3.ccpnamespace CppNS{ int value; namespace Virtual { void *pointer; }}#include <file3>

using namespace CppNS ::Virtual;int main(){

CppNS ::value = 0; pointer = 0;}

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Namespaces• Namespace aliasing

#include <file3>namespace CV = CppNS::Virtual;int main(){

CV::pointer = 0;}

// same as file3.ccpnamespace CppNS{ int value; namespace Virtual { void *pointer; }}#include <file3>

namespace CV = CppNS::Virtual; using namespace CV;int main(){

pointer = 0;}

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Namespaces• Defining entities outside of their namespaces

#include <file3>namespace CppNS{ namespace Virtual { void *pointer; typedef int INT8[8]; INT8 *squares(); }}// out side the namespace such as in cpp fileCppNS::Virtual::INT8 * CppNS ::Virtual::squares(){ /* … */}

namespace CppNS{ namespace Virtual { void *pointer; typedef int INT8[8];

INT8 *squares() { /* … */ } }}

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String• std::string

#include <iostream>#include <string>using namespace std;int main(){

string sString;sString = string("One");cout << sString << endl; // Oneconst string sTwo("Two");sString.assign(sTwo);cout << sString << endl; // TwosString = "Three"; // Assign a C-style stringcout << sString << endl; // ThreesString.assign("Four");cout << sString << endl; // FoursString = '5'; // Assign a charcout << sString << endl; // 5string sOther; // Chain assignmentsString = sOther = "Six";cout << sString << " " << sOther << endl; // Six Six

}

public class string{ /* … */ string& string::operator= (const string& str); string& string::assign (const string& str); string& string::operator= (const char* str); string& string::assign (const char* str); string& string::operator= (char c); /* … */}

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String• std::string assignment and swapping

const string sSource("abcdefg");string sDest;sDest.assign(sSource, 2, 4); cout << sDest << endl; // cdefsDest.assign("abcdefg", 4);cout << sDest << endl; // abcdsDest.assign(4, 'g');cout << sDest << endl; // gggg

string sStr1("red");string sStr2("blue);cout << sStr1 << " " << sStr2 << endl; // red blueswap(sStr1, sStr2);cout << sStr1 << " " << sStr2 << endl; // blue red sStr1.swap(sStr2);cout << sStr1 << " " << sStr2 << endl; // red blue

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String• std::string inserting

#include <iostream>#include <string>using namespace std;int main(){ string sString("aaaa"); cout << sString << endl; // aaaa sString.insert(2, string("bbbb")); cout << sString << endl; // aabbbbaa sString.insert(4, "cccc"); cout << sString << endl; // aabbccccbbaa const string sInsert("01234567"); // insert substring of sInsert from index [3,7) into sString at index 2 sString.insert(2, sInsert, 3, 4); // aa3456bbccccbbaa cout << sString << endl;}

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String• std::string appending

string sString("one");sString += string(" two"); // sString += " two";string sThree(" three");sString.append(sThree);cout << sString << endl; // one two three

string sString("one ");const string sTemp("twothreefour");// append substring of sTemp starting at index 3 of length 5sString.append(sTemp, 3, 5); cout << sString << endl; // one three

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String• std::string Member functions– http://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/string/basic_string

at access specified character with bounds checking clear clears the contents insert inserts characters erase removes characters compare compares two strings replace replaces specified portion of a string substr returns a substring copy copies characters find find characters in the string rfind find the last occurrence of a substring find_first_of find first occurrence of characters find_last_of find last occurrence of characters /* … */

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String• std::string Member functions– http://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/string/basic_string/at

#include <stdexcept>#include <iostream> int main(){ std::string s("message"); // for capacity s = "abc"; s.at(2) = 'x'; // ok std::cout << s << '\n'; std::cout << "string size = " << s.size() << '\n'; std::cout << "string capacity = " << s.capacity() << '\n'; try { // throw, even if capacity allowed to access element s.at(3) = 'x'; } catch (std::out_of_range& exc) { std::cout << exc.what() << '\n‘; }}

abxstring size = 3string capacity = 7basic_string::at

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String• std::string Convert from strings– C++11 added several string conversion functions

stoi Convert string to integerstol Convert string to long intstoul Convert string to unsigned integerstoll Convert string to long longstoull Convert string to unsigned long longstof Convert string to float stod Convert string to doublestold Convert string to long double

int stoi (const string& str, size_t* idx = 0, int base = 10);

std::string str_bin = "-10010110001";int i_bin = std::stoi (str_bin,nullptr,2); std::cout << str_bin << ": " << i_bin; // -10010110001: -1201

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IOStreams• Input/output in C++– istream class, extraction operator (>>)– ostream class, insertion operator (<<)

#include <iostream>using namespace std;int main() { cout << "Enter your age: " << endl; // print text to the monitor int nAge; cin >> nAge; // get input from the user if (nAge <= 0) { // print an error message cerr << "Oops, you entered an invalid age!" << endl; return 1; } cout << "You entered " << nAge << " years old" << endl; return 0;}

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IOStreams• extraction operator (>>)

char buf[10];cin >> buf; // what happens if the user enters 18 characters?

/* * C++ provides a manipulator known as setw (in the iomanip.h header) that can * be used to limit the number of characters read in from a stream. */

#include <iomanip.h>char buf[10];cin >> setw(10) >> buf;/* Any remaining characters will be left in the stream until the next extraction */

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IOStreams• extraction operator (>>)

/* The one thing that we have omitted to mention so far is that the extraction operator works with “formatted” data — that is, it skips whitespace (blanks, tabs, and newlines)*/char ch;while (cin >> ch) input : Hello my name is Omid cout << ch; output: HellomynameisOmid

while (cin.get(ch)) input : Hello my name is Omid cout << ch; output : Hello my name is Omid

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IOStreams• extraction operator (>>)

char strBuf[11];// only read the first 10 characterscin.get(strBuf, 11); input : Hello my name is Omidcout << strBuf << endl; output : Hello my n

/* One important thing to note about get() is that it does not read in a newline character! This can cause some unexpected results */char strBuf[11];cin.get(strBuf, 11); input : Hello! cout << strBuf << endl; output : Hello

cin.get(strBuf, 11);cout << strBuf << endl;/* Consequently, getline() like get() but reads the newline as well */

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IOStreams• extraction operator (>>)

/* If you need to know how many character were extracted by the last call of getline(), use gcount() */

char strBuf[100];cin.getline(strBuf, 100);cout << strBuf << endl;cout << cin.gcount() << " characters were read" << endl;

// A special version of getline() for std::stringstring strBuf;getline(cin, strBuf);cout << strBuf << endl;

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IOStreams• insertion operator (<<)

/* To switch a flag on, use the setf() function To turn a flag off, use the unsetf() function */cout.setf(ios::showpos); // turn on the ios::showpos flagcout << 27 << endl; // output : +27cout.unsetf(ios::showpos); // turn off the ios::showpos flagcout << 28 << endl; // output : 28cout.setf(ios::showpos | ios::uppercase);

// basefield : “oct”, “dec”, and “hex”cout.unsetf(ios::dec); // turn off decimal outputcout.setf(ios::hex); // turn on hexadecimal outputcout << 27 << endl; // output : 1b

cout << hex << 27 << endl; // print 27 in hex : 1bcout << 28 << endl; // we're still in hex : 1ccout << dec << 29 << endl; // back to decimal: 29

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IOStreams• insertion operator (<<)

cout << true << " " << false << endl; // 0 1 cout.setf(ios::boolalpha);cout << true << " " << false << endl; // true false cout << noboolalpha << true << " " << false << endl; // 0 1 cout << boolalpha << true << " " << false << endl; // true false

cout << fixed << endl; // Use decimal notation for valuescout << setprecision(3) << 123.456 << endl; // 123.456cout << setprecision(4) << 123.456 << endl; // 123.4560

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IOStreams• insertion operator (<<)

showpos Prefixes positive numbers with a +noshowpos Doesn’t prefix positive numbers with a +fixed Use decimal notation for valuesscientific Use scientific notation for valuesshowpoint Show a decimal point and trailing 0 s for floating-point values′noshowpoint Don’t show a decimal point and trailing 0 s for floating-point values′setprecision(int) Sets the precision of floating-point numbers (iomanip.h)precision() Returns the current precision of floating-point numbersprecision(int) Sets the precision of floating-point numbers and returns old precisioninternal Left-justifies the sign of the number, and right-justifies the valueleft Left-justifies the sign and valueright Right-justifies the sign and valuesetfill(char) Sets the parameter as the fill character (iomanip.h)setw(int) Sets the field width for input and output to the parameter (iomanip.h)fill() Returns the current fill characterfill(char) Sets the fill character and returns the old fill characterwidth() Returns the current field widthwidth(int) Sets the current field width and returns old field width

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IOStreams• insertion operator (<<)

cout << -12345 << endl; // print default value with no field widthcout << setw(10) << -12345 << endl; // print default with field widthcout << setw(10) << left << -12345 << endl; // print left justifiedcout << setw(10) << right << -12345 << endl; // print right justifiedcout << setw(10) << internal << -12345 << endl; // print internally justified

cout.fill('*');cout << -12345 << endl; cout << setw(10) << -12345 << endl; cout << setw(10) << left << -12345 << endl; cout << setw(10) << right << -12345 << endl; cout << setw(10) << internal << -12345 << endl;

-12345 -12345-12345 -12345- 12345-12345****-12345-12345********-12345-****12345

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IOStreams• Stream classes for strings– One of the primary uses of string streams is to

buffer output for display at a later time, or to process input line-by-line

#include <sstream>stringstream os;os << "en garde!" << endl; // set the stringstream buffer to "en garde!“os.str("en garde!"); // set the stringstream buffer to "en garde!“cout << os.str();os.str(""); os.str(std::string()); os.clear(); // erase the bufferos << "12345 67.89"; // insert a string of numbers into the streamstring strValue;os >> strValue;string strValue2;os >> strValue2;cout << strValue << " - " << strValue2 << endl; // 12345 - 67.89

int nValue;double dValue; os >> nValue >> dValue;

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IOStreams• Stream states (Flags)• Operations on streams may fail for various reasons. Whenever an

operation fails, further operations on the stream are suspended. It is possible to inspect, set and possibly clear the condition state of streams, allowing a program to repair the problem rather than having to abort.

ios::goodbitEverything is okay (none of the other three condition flags)

ios::badbitSome kind of fatal error occurred (eg. the program tried read past the end of a file)

ios::eofbitThe stream has reached the end of a file

ios::failbitA non-fatal error occurred (eg. the user entered letters when the program was expecting an integer)

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IOStreams• Stream states - Member function

good() Returns true if the goodbit is setbad() Returns true if the badbit is seteof() Returns true if the eofbit is setfail() Returns true if the failbit is setclear() Clears all flags and restores the stream to the goodbitclear(state) Clears all flags and sets the state flag passed inrdstate() Returns the currently set flagssetstate(state) Sets the state flag passed in

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IOStreams• Stream states - Member function

void state() { cout << cin.bad() << cin.fail() << cin.eof() << cin.good() << '\n';}int main() { string line; int x; cin >> x; // omid state(); // 0100 cin.clear(); cin >> line; // omid state(); // 0001 getline(cin, line); // state(); // 0001}

/* Whenever an operation fails, further operations on the stream are suspended */

// cin.clear(); cin >> line; // suspended state(); // 0100 getline(cin, line); // suspended state(); // 0100

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IOStreams• Stream states

if (cin) // if (not cin.fail())if (cin >> x) // if (not (cin >> x).fail())if (getline(cin, str)) // if (not getline(cin, str).fail())

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IOStreams• Input validation

Function Return value----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------isalnum(int) non-zero if the input is a letter or a digitisalpha(int) non-zero if the input is a letteriscntrl(int) non-zero if the input is a control characterisdigit(int) non-zero if the input is a digitisgraph(int) non-zero if the input is printable character that is not whitespaceisprint(int) non-zero if the input is printable character (including whitespace)ispunct(int) non-zero if the input is neither alphanumeric nor whitespaceisspace(int) non-zero if the input is whitespaceisxdigit(int) non-zero if the input is a hexadecimal digit (0-9, a-f, A-F)

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IOStreams• Input validation

cout << "Enter your age: ";string strAge;cin >> strAge;

// Check to make sure each character is a digitfor (unsigned int nIndex=0; nIndex < strAge.length(); nIndex++) if (!isdigit(strAge[nIndex])) { …. }

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Your practice: run it int nAge; string str; while (1) { cout << "Enter your age: "; cin >> nAge; // user enter the following : 23dncdlklkd if (cin.fail()) // no extraction took place { cin.clear(); // reset the state bits back to goodbit so we can use ignore() cin.ignore(1000, '\n'); // clear out the bad input from the stream continue; // try again } cin.ignore(1000, '\n'); // clear out any additional input from the stream

if (nAge <= 0) // make sure nAge is positive continue; cin >> str; break; }

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IOStreams• File– ifstream (derived from istream)• file input

– ofstream (derived from ostream)• output file

– fstream (derived from iostream). • input/output file

– fstream.h

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IOStreams• File output

#include <fstream> #include <iostream> // ofstream is used for writing files. // We'll make a file called Sample.dat ofstream outf("Sample.dat"); // If we couldn't open the output file stream for writing if (!outf) // Print an error and exit { … }

// We'll write two lines into this file outf << "This is line 1" << endl; outf << "This is line 2" << endl;

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IOStreams• Output File

– ifstream returns a 0 if we’ve reached the end of the file (EOF) #include <fstream> #include <iostream> // ifstream is used for reading files // We'll read from a file called Sample.dat ifstream inf("Sample.dat"); // If we couldn't open the output file stream for writing if (!inf) // Print an error and exit { … } // While there's still stuff left to read while (inf) { // read stuff from the file into a string and print it std::string strInput; inf >> strInput; getline(inf, strInput); cout << strInput << endl; }

70

Reference

• http://en.cppreference.com/w/

• http://www.cplusplus.com/reference/