Business to Business E-commerce

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Business-To-Business E-CommerceJames A. Senn aa Director of the Information Technology Management Group at Georgia State University,Atlanta, and a member of the journal's Board of Advisers and Contributors.Published online: 21 Dec 2006.

To cite this article: James A. Senn (2000) Business-To-Business E-Commerce, Information Systems Management, 17:2, 19-28,DOI: 10.1201/1078/43191.17.2.20000301/31224.3

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/1078/43191.17.2.20000301/31224.3

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BUSINESS-TO-BUSINESSE-COMMERCE

James A. Senn

Business-to-business E-commerce represents a fundamental shift in the man-ner in which rms are interacting with buyers and suppliers. It is restructuring the very basis for conducting business by reducing geographic distance for both the largest multinational companies and the smallest entrepreneurial start-up.

ONDUCTING BUSINESS THROUGHelectronic commerce, the handling oftransactions over communications net-works, continues to grow in a seemingly

unabated fashion. The excitement surroundingthe explosive growth of many Internet compa-nies, coupled with a wide range of capabilitiesprovided through the World Wide Web areimportant drivers of this growth. So is a widepublic awareness of consumer-oriented elec-tronic commerce, including amazon.com, theInternet bookseller and merchandiser, theMicrosoft Expedia and Travelocity travel sites,and the online brokerage activities of E*Tradeand Charles Schwab.

While the business-to-consumer side ofelectronic commerce (E-commerce) offers tre-mendous entrepreneurial opportunities, theimpact of business-to-business commerce iseven broader. For instance,

Beginning late in 1996, the Boeing AirplaneCompany launched an E-commerce site onthe World Wide Web to assist its global air-line customers in acquiring spare parts. Theyare able to check pricing and availability ofparts, order parts, and track the status of theirorders. Within a year of opening the site, 50percent of Boeing customers were using thesite for parts orders and service inquiries. Notonly has usage of the site grown continually

since then, but Boeing has also been able togrow the parts business with some 20 percentmore shipments every month while maintain-ing stafng at 1996 levels.

In late 1998, the citynation of Singaporelaunched a plan to make it a global E-com-merce hub. Adding to its long-establishedglobal leadership in the use of electronicdata interchange, the Singapore governmentenvisions some $2.4 billion in products andservices, and one-half of the nations busi-nesses trading via E-commerce in less thanfour years.

Motorola, as well as Boeing and other compa-nies, has warned their suppliers that theymust develop an ability to conduct businessover the Web. The warning is explicit. Sup-pliers not changing to E-commerce over theWorld Wide Web within the next year willprobably be locked out as a supplier for thelong term.

Business-to-business commerce is a funda-mental shift in the manner by which rms areinteracting with buyers and suppliers. It is muchmore than an Internet-based phenomenon.Rather, E-commerce is a restructuring of thevery basis for conducting business. Unlike somany other business developments in the past,E-commerce is not an opportunity for only thelarge or multinational rms. Rather, the smallest

C

JAMES A. SENN is director of the Informa-tion Technology Manage-ment Group at Georgia State University, Atlanta, and a member of the jour-nals Board of Advisers and Contributors.

THE E-COMMERCE REVOLUTION

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entrepreneurial organizations can establish andbuild their businesses around E-commerce. Asthey do so, geographic distance disappears as abusiness barrier, for the global reach of underly-ing communications technologies becomes aneasily accessible resource for all rms.

This article explores the two forms of busi-ness-to-business electronic commerce:

1. Interorganizational systems, a long-estab-lished, but rapidly evolving part of businessprocesses in so many rms

2. Emerging electronic markets, an extremelyimportant vehicle for expanding the base ofbuyers and sellers

For some rms, interorganizational systemsare the basis for E-commerce activities as theunderlying technologies are evolving to makethese systems accessible to a greater number ofrms large and small than ever before.Others will gravitate toward electronic markets,capitalizing on a new opportunity to create aproduct, deliver a service, or get in touch withpotential customers. The public, global Inter-net, and its principle application, the WorldWide Web, provide a highly visible platform forelectronic markets.

As this article illustrates, E-commerce meritscareful consideration by executives and manag-ers alike.

INTERORGANIZATIONAL SYSTEMSThrough interorganizational systems, buyersand sellers arrange for routine exchange of busi-ness transactions without the necessity of directnegotiation. Because information is exchangedover communications networks using prear-

ranged formats (see Exhibit 1), there is no needfor telephone calls, paper documents, or busi-ness correspondence to create and carry outtransactions. Although interorganizational sys-tems at one time involved proprietary commu-nication links exclusively, throughout the lastdecade rms have opted to use public networksfor these business-to-business systems.

Emergence of Interorganizational SystemsInterorganizational systems were driven bybusiness needs and facilitated through informa-tion technologys continuing advances. Thesystems are a direct result of the growing desir-ability of interconnecting business partners tostreamline business processes by:

reducing the costs of routine business trans-actions

collapsing cycle time in the fulllment ofbusiness transactions, regardless of geo-graphic distance

eliminating paper and the inefciencies asso-ciated with paper processing

creating application-to-application businessprocesses between buyer and seller

Networks that interconnect the diverse desk-top and data systems facilitated pursuit ofthese objectives by business partners. Bothproprietary network solutions and the servicesof value-added network carriers ensured thatany rm wishing to link up could do so.

Types of Interorganizational SystemsThe term interorganizational system describes avariety of business activities rather than a single

EXHIBIT 1 Interorganizational System for Electronic Data Interchange (EDI)

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entity. Following are ve of the most promi-nent types of interorganizational systems:

1. Electronic Data Interchange (EDI).Computer-to-computer (or application-to-application) exchange of standard, formattedbusiness documents transmitted over computernetworks where translation systems overcomedifferences in information technology used bytrading partners.

2. Electronic Funds Transfer (EFT).Automated exchange of money between partiesin a commercial transaction or between banksrepresenting businesses responsible for con-ducting the settlement portion of a businesstransaction.

3. Electronic Forms. Online completion andtransmission of business forms (e.g., claimsforms and contracts, complete with electronicsignature) that the recipient can route to theappropriate in-house destination for properhandling.

4. Integrated Messaging. Delivery of elec-tronic mail and facsimile documents through asingle electronic transmission system; it mayinclude the combining of EDI, electronic mail,and electronic forms for transmission.

5. Shared Databases. Information stored inrepositories shared between trading partnersand accessible to both; such databases are oftenused to reduce elapsed time in communicatinginformation between parties as well as toarrange cooperative activities.

Other types of interorganizational systemswill undoubtedly evolve as businesses reneand capitalize on their IT capabilities.

Scope of Interorganizational SystemsAll interorganizational systems share commoncharacteristics (see lefthand column ofExhibit 2). The principal activities of the sys-tems are business-to-business or business-to-government in nature. In many instances,intermediaries operate the networks that carrythe information or provide transaction process-ing services or database access.

The communications infrastructure of aninterorganizational system is predetermined. Allparties know the links over which transactionswill be transmitted and where and how they willbe received, including the use of electronic mail-boxes. Whether public or private networks areused varies from situation to situation.

Parties participating in electronic commerceinteract on the basis of a relationship that isdened and preestablished. Terms and condi-tions of that relationship are often set fortheither as contracts or in briefs that specify theexpectations and responsibilities of each party.

Interorganizational systems are rmly estab-lished in business. The transfer of funds elec-tronically is becoming the norm for suchsystems, both nationally and internationally. Inthe United States alone, approximately 100,000rms conduct business by way of electronicdata interchange. Such well-known companiesas Wal-Mart, The Home Depot, and CircuitCity, known for dominating their business cate-gory, could not operate as they do without theirEDI capability and interorganizational systemsoperating between them and their suppliers.

Although some businesses use the term EDIvery broadly, electronic commerce encompassescapabilities much broader than EDI. All formsof interorganizational systems promise to con-tinue growing at an accelerating rate.

Firms seeking to establish ongoing businessrelationships with buyers or sellers, where infor-mation will be exchanged regularly, shouldbuild interorganizational systems. If business-to-business activity, however important, is notrecurring in a predictable manner, electronicmarkets may be a more appropriate tool.

THE BUSINESS CASE FOR ELECTRONIC MARKETS

Electronic markets are rapidly emerging along-side interorganizational systems as a vehicle forbusiness-to-business E-commerce. A market isa network of interactions and relationshipswhere information, products, services, and pay-ments are exchanged. When the marketplaceis electronic, the business center is not a physi-cal building, but rather a network-based loca-tion where business interactions occur.

Exhibit 2 summarizes how electronic mar-kets differ from interorganizational systems. Inelectronic markets, the principal participants transaction handlers, buyers, and sellers arenot only at different locations, but they seldomeven know one another. Nor are relationshipsbetween buyers and sellers likely to be predeter-mined by agreements. The means of intercon-nection varies between parties and may changefrom event to event, even between the sameparties. The interactions themselves are man-aged by a broad array of IT applications (seeExhibit 3).

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EXHIBIT 2 Distinguishing Features of Interorganizational Systems and Electronic Markets

Interorganizational Systems Electronic MarketsBuyer Relationships

Buyer/supplier relationship is determined in advance with the anticipation it will be an ongoing relationship based on multiple transactions.

Buyer RelationshipsTwo types of relationships may exist: 1. Buyer/seller linkage is established at time of

transactions and may be for one transaction only (i.e., purchase transaction).

2. Buyer/seller purchase agreement is established whereby the seller agrees to deliver services or products to buyer for a defined period of time (i.e., a subscription transaction).

NetworksInterorganizational systems may be built around

private or publicly accessible networks.

NetworksElectronic markets are typically built around

publicly accessible networks.

When outside communications companies are involved, they are typically value-added carriers (VANs).

When outside communications companies are involved, they are typically online service providers (which function as market makers).

Buyer/Seller AgreementsAdvance arrangement results in agreement on the

nature and format of business documents that will be exchanged.

Buyer/Seller AgreementsSellers determine, in conjunction with the market

maker, which business transactions they will provide.

Advance arrangement results in agreement on the nature and format of business documents that will be exchanged.

Buyers and sellers independently determine which communication networks they will use in participating in the electronic market. The network used may vary from transaction to transaction.

Joint guidelines and expectations of each party are formulated so each knows how the system is to be used and when transactions will be submitted and received by each business partner.

No joint guidelines are drawn in advance.

EXHIBIT 3 Electronic Markets

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Executives and managers should evaluatethe potential of electronic markets on the basisof ve business benets:

1. Extending the rms reach2. Bypassing traditional channels3. Augmenting traditional markets4. Boosting service5. Advertising

Each of these benets is described below.

Extending the Firms ReachThe ability of a rm to interact with customersor with business partners is dened by its reach.The ultimate objective is to be able to reachany potential buyers, regardless of location,without the need for prior arrangement. Eventhough they are valuable business tools, interor-ganizational systems cannot achieve this objec-tive because they depend on predenedrelationships and communications paths.

Firms are often limited in their ability toreach buyers by their sales and marketing pro-cesses. The size and location of their salesforce, the breadth and depth of their distribu-tor network, the extent of their dealer chain,the number of business locations, or the sizeand effectiveness of the mailing list all deter-mine a rms reach. These factors also deter-mine the nature and extent of informationexchange. On the other hand, the innovativeuse of communications networks for electronicmarkets can create the most dynamic form ofreach: anyone, anytime, anywhere.

Bypassing Traditional ChannelsHeightened competition and shareholder pushfor return on investments make it increasinglyimportant for a rm to assess the value added,as well as the costs incurred, in working with itsbusiness partners. This is particularly true fordistribution channels. If the services of a bro-ker, representative, or distributor do not addvalue, rms will seek to bypass them to elimi-nate costs, delays, and other inefciencies.

Largely for this reason, a growing number ofrms are attempting to deal directly with man-ufacturers, passing along savings to buyers inthe form of lower prices. Electronic marketsfacilitate bypass if they enable rms to dealdirectly with actual and potential buyers. More-over, rms can enter the market even when theydo not have, do not wish to create, or cannotestablish access to traditional channels.

Augmenting Traditional MarketsCatalog companies have competed successfullyagainst traditional retailers for many years bybypassing both traditional channels and mar-kets where items are bought and sold (i.e., retailstores and other types of sales centers). Elec-tronic markets are a natural evolution of catalogselling and direct dealing, except that both thecatalog and order-entry process, and in somecases, actual fulllment, are online. In fact, thebest known catalog companies, including L.L.Bean, Lands End, and Spiegel, are expandingwell beyond their traditional markets to com-pete in electronic markets.

Among the most effective electronic marketalternatives are

Direct sales outlets Electronic storefrontswhere buyers deal directly with the supplierto create and carry out a sales transaction.

Online catalogs A special case of the salesoutlet where companies can create databasesthat can be browsed by buyers and used bythe rm to distribute information.

Direct service centers Electronic locationsfrom which customer service, advertising, mar-keting, and technical support are provided.

Electronic shopping malls (cybermalls) havealso been developed as some rms tried to emu-late the traditional malls encompassing a vari-ety of stores, services, and information guides.Business-to-business and business-to-consumerversions generally fail, an indication that tradi-tional, nonelectronic business forms, do notnecessarily transfer to an E-commerce format.

Boosting ServiceService knows no boundary when markets areelectronic. Time windows are eliminatedbecause online services can be delivered 24hours a day. Important buyer and supplierinformation is available around the clock. Yetinquirers need not wait for an assistant to pro-vide the details. Careful and creative use ofinformation technology also means that theinformation can consist of much more thannarrative explanations, for drawings, photo-graphs, animated descriptions, and full multi-media presentations are all within the scope ofservice support in the electronic market.

Other important service options includeonline sections that provide answers to themost frequently asked pre- and post-sale ques-tions. Support can go well beyond trouble-shooting concerns. Organizations have foundthat their descriptions of product updates or

he ultimate objective is to reach any potential buyers, regardless of location, without the need for a prior arrangement.

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new service features can be much more detailedand offer better explanations when provided inthis manner. Of course, e-mail and fax-backresponses are easily provided as well.

Even if a company chooses to never make asingle sale by way of electronic commerce, it canstill build its business. Boosting service by wayof electronic markets has the potential to bemuch more than just another business tactic.

AdvertisingAwareness, visibility, and opportunity all-important benets of advertising take onspecial importance when markets are elec-tronic. Firms are not constrained by the bound-aries of a printed document or by the length ofa time slot, both common constraints of adver-tising through conventional broadcast media.

Carefully chosen listings in online catalogsand databases enable a rms buyers to learnabout the company and its products even whenthey lack prior knowledge of their existence.Electronic links make it possible for shoppers tojump from the advertising spot to the rmslocation in the market. There is a seeminglyunlimited range of alternatives that can be usedto inform, educate, and perhaps convince thecustomer of the companys capabilities. Prod-uct samples and colorful demonstrations, deliv-ered electronically, are highly effective vehiclesfor gaining attention and garnering goodwillwhile building the business.

CREATING ELECTRONIC MARKETS USING THE INTERNETThere is little doubt that both the expandingreach of the Internet and the accelerating inter-national interest in national information infra-structures will stimulate creation of electronicmarketplaces. As more and more rms takesteps to move the electronic marketplace fromconcept to reality, a broad array of innovationswill emerge, making it possible for rms andindividuals to capitalize on communicationsnetworks and overcome the traditional businessbarriers of time and distance.

Because the Internet has captured the atten-tion of many IT users and observers, it is usefulto examine the Internets value in terms of elec-tronic markets. The following sections explorethe reasons why rms may want to include theInternet in their electronic market plans.

Internet FeaturesThe characteristics of the Internet are widelydocumented, but a moving target (see

Exhibit 4). Some have predicted that it willsurpass the global telephone network by theyear 2006. More than 80 percent of the CEOsin the worlds largest companies expect E-com-merce to signicantly reshape the way the com-panies in their industry compete.

Six key features are of greatest importance tobusinesses interested in participating in elec-tronic markets.

1. Public Resource. The very public natureof the Internet is among its most important dis-tinguishing features. Thus, the vast majority ofbusiness practitioners are aware of the Internetand its widespread accessibility, even thoughmany have not yet considered its businessvalue. The skyrocketing attention to the Inter-net by the print and broadcast media is certainto fuel the growth in public awareness. Poten-tial customers and business partners will expectrms to be accessible on the Internet.

Because virtually anyone can participate inthe Internet as a business by making only amodest start-up investment, the number anddiversity of rms participating will continue toincrease rapidly. Moreover, the opportunities toannounce new products and services and toreach potential customers or partners (televi-sion home shopping services pale by compari-son) are abundant.

2. Global Reach. Approximately 30 percentof the worldwide Internet user population isestimated to originate from outside of theUnited States (see Exhibit 4). In addition, asubstantial number of host sites reside in non-U.S. cities, making it a truly international net-work. Both sectors are growing rapidly.

The broad international reach of the Inter-net means much more than business access toindividuals and rms in developed countries,even though that alone is sufcient for manyrms to integrate E-commerce over the Inter-net into their businesses. For the rst time,individual shops in many underdevelopedcountries can interact online as telephone linksto the Internet make it possible to span vastgeographic distances. No one knows how largethis vastly undeveloped market will be.

3. Capability to Link. The Internets capa-bility to link rms has not been fully discov-ered. Many business users of the Internet stillview it primarily as an electronic mail or pub-lishing system that is, a communicationstool. Hence, only a fraction of companies con-

arefully chosen listings in online catalogs enable buyers to discover a company and its products.

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nected to the Internet have sought to capitalizeon its vast capabilities.

When viewed as a connection tool, ratherthan as a communications network, many otherintriguing possibilities emerge. A variety of dif-ferent business-to-business transactions can bepassed through the network, and EDI docu-ments are increasingly being transmittedthrough the Internet. Several traditional EDIvendors have developed capabilities to supportInternet EDI.

4. Shared Ownership. No company, society,association, or individual owns the Internet.Rather, some thousands of independentlyowned and operated networks are intercon-nected to form the Internet. As a result, theInternet is distinguished by collaboration, notproprietary designs. The broad base of publicparticipation means that new initiatives can besuccessful only if the majority of participants areinterested in using them. Even more, it means

that virtually every individual and rm, large orsmall, has the opportunity to participate.

Shared ownership does mean, however, thatthe Internet has some awkward features, espe-cially in the areas of security and reliability.

5. Platform Flexibility/Diversity. There arefew limits on the nature of the computing andcommunications that can be interconnectedwith the Internet. Companies are thus free touse the systems of their choosing (e.g., UNIX,NT, Windows, Linux, and Macintosh). Yet thechoice of system platform places no restrictionon others using the system or wishing to inter-connect with them.

In many instances, the computing systemsattached to the Internet are less sophisticatedthan those used in proprietary systems. Net-working and applications software compensatesfor differences in systems capabilities even asthey accommodate the diverse computing andcommunications platforms.

EXHIBIT 4 Internet Characteristics

Internet Growth and Usage Hosts on the Internet 44 million Estimated Internet users 150 million

United States/Canada 70%Europe 19%Asia 12%

Worldwide percentage of Internet user population

Rate of Internet growth Number of pages doubling annually since 1988

Number of users estimated to exceed 300 million (5% of global population) by year 2000

Expected to exceed size of global telephone network by 2006

Business-to-Business CharacteristicsE-commerce Sales Volume Forecast 1998/1999 2000

($50 Billion) ($1.317 Trillion) Business-to-Consumer 30% 14% Business-to-Business 70% 86%

CEO ExpectationsPricewaterhouseCoopers World Economic Forum;

sample of 377 CEOs of worlds largest 2,000 companies (1998) Global CEOs expecting E-commerce to significantly reshape

competition in their industry 80% European and Asian CEOs expecting E-commerce to

completely transform their industries 28% North American CEOs expecting E-commerce to completely

transform their industries 16%Sources: CommerceNet Consortium/A.C. Nielsen; International Data Corp.; The Internet Society; Vinton

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6. Cost Advantages. The cost of conductingbusiness on the Internet is quite modest. Theprincipal requirement is to create a businesssite, typically on the World Wide Web(WWW) portion of the Internet. Getting onthe WWW may cost as little as $100. Low-cost kits are readily available to construct thenecessary features (such as home pages, onlinecatalogs, and communication links). For amodest fee, the development of such featurescan be contracted.

Because of the many companies that haveemerged to provide access to the World WideWeb or other portions of the Internet, it is notnecessary to even operate a computer networkto be able to participate in business-to-businessE-commerce (see Exhibit 5). These companies,which in effect function as on ramps to thenetwork, will provide all services, at a cost thatdepends on the frequency of use for the service.Representative companies providing E-com-merce service are listed in Exhibit 6. Somecompanies are investing heavily in their Inter-net resources, dedicating several staff membersand a signicant hardware and software invest-ment into supporting their presence on the net-work. They are choosing to do so because,compared to other alternatives, includingdeveloping and maintaining a proprietary com-puter network or supporting a direct dial-upbulletin board, they view the Internet as a cost-effective resource.

CAPITALIZING ON THE INTERNET FOR ELECTRONIC MARKETSOngoing monitoring of rms using the Internetprovides growing evidence that those who arecapitalizing on the networks electronic marketpotential appear to follow several principles:

They treat the Internet as a new medium. They use the Internet to leverage existing

business and support capabilities. They formulate clear business objectives for

Internet use.

The Internet as a New MediumMany businesses tend to consider the Internetsfeatures as supplementary to what they alreadydo. Although this approach may offer attrac-tive possibilities, greater opportunities may befound by taking a fresh approach to the Inter-net as a medium for reaching out, linking up,and delivering something entirely different.Hence, management should raise stimulatingdiscussion by asking questions that will unleashcreative possibilities, such as:

What are the current limitations in linking upwith business partners or supporting custom-ers? What is the impact of those limitations?

What new products, services, or supports canbe offered?

What opportunities exist to aid the rmscustomers in being more successful with theircustomers?

EXHIBIT 5 Architecture of the Global Internet

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How can the rms current competitors turnthe Internet into a competitive weapon thatis detrimental to the rm?

What new businesses can be developed as ameans of offering Internet capabilities to others?

Leveraging Existing Business and Support CapabilitiesFirms creating value through the Internet aredoing so because they are able to leverageresources and expertise already present in therm. Hence, it is vital that rms directlyaddress these important questions:

What is it that the rm does best theproducts or services that it delivers andhow can they be leveraged into new businessarenas or as new products and services to adifferent market?

What important resources is the rmunderutilizing and how can they be put tonew or extended use by making them avail-able through electronic markets?

How can the knowledgebase of the rm beenhanced through access to new customersor business partners who are willing to share

their insights and needs in an interactiveenvironment?

How can the knowledgebase be leveragedinto a product or service that will be accessi-ble to virtually every individual rm throughthe power of electronic markets?

Formulating a Business CaseUnless a companys journey onto the Internet isdesigned to be nothing more than an explor-atory adventure or distraction, any rationale formoving onto the network should be formulatedas a business case. This means establishing andthen measuring against clear objectives, prefer-ably with a timetable describing expected mile-stones. The business case should identifypoints of success, whether they be potentialcustomer contacts, information inquiries, reve-nue generation, or prot margins. It shouldclearly answer two key questions:

1. What will the company gain?2. How will success be measured?

It is all too easy to seek to justify new initia-tives through such nebulous terms as visibility,

EXHIBIT 6 Representative Commercial Electronic Market Providers on the Internet

Firm World Wide Web AddressBest Internet CommunicationsMountain View, CA

http://www.best.com

CyberGate, Inc.Deerfield Beach, FL

http://www.gate.net

CTS Network ServicesSan Diego, CA

http://www.cts.com

Icon CMP Corp.Weehawken, NJ

http://www.icon.com

The Internet Access Company, IncBedord, MA

http://www.tiac.net

iXL EnterprisesAtlanta, GA

http://www.ixl.com

Macquarium, Inc.Atlanta, GA

http://www.macquarium.com

MCIWorldcomJackson, MS

http://www.wcom.com

MindSpring Enterprises, Inc.Atlanta, GA

http://www.mindspring.com

Open Market, Inc.Cambridge, MA

http://www.openmarket.com

Teleport Internet ServicesPortland, OR

http://www.teleport.com

Web CommunicationsSanta Cruz, CA

http://www.webcom.com

XMission Internet AccessSalt Lake City, UT

http://www.xmission.com

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public relations, advertising, and public aware-ness. Yet if these are important reasons forjoining the network, as they often are, theyshould be cast in measurable business termsthat will enable even the strongest (or weakest)supporter to gauge success.

CONCLUSION

Electronic markets and the Internet are in theirinfancy. Although it is not clear how either willevolve, both represent fundamental shifts inelectronic commerce with signicant implica-tions for business in general. An ever-greater

portion of business will be conducted online,with extensive reliance on communicationsnetworks.

Waiting to see how the promise and possi-bilities of electronic markets will evolve mayappear the safest strategy in the short term,particularly for mangers averse to high risk.Yet, organizations must have ample time togain insight into the potential of electronicmarkets and to create the necessary experienceand knowledge to capitalize on the opportuni-ties that may emerge. Organizations that beginlearning early may gain long-term advantagesthat latecomers will never overcome.

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Business to Business E-commerce