Building Brick

30 the construction specifi er | may 2009

BRICK MASONRY HAS BEEN A PRIMARY TECHNIQUE OF THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT FOR AT LEAST SEVEN MILLENNIA, MAKING IT ONE OF THE OLDEST CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGIES IN COMMON USE. ITS LEGACY IN EXISTING ARCHITECTURE STILL MAKES IT A DESIRABLE, IF NOT REQUIRED, ARCHITECTURAL CHOICE IN MANY LOCATIONS.

Although the term applies to a range of materials such as mud brick and cementitious block, the most familiar formthe image North Americans typically associate with the word brickis fi red clay brick, a technology more than 2000 years old. This longevity stems from benefi cial performance properties, widespread availability of clay, and the fundamental simplicity of brick production.

Recently, clay brick has come under a different kind of fi re due to its environmental impact. While fi red

clay brick has certain inherent, sustainable properties (e.g. durability, high thermal mass, and, often, local extraction and manufacture1), the kilning process fundamental to its manufacture has raised some sustainability concerns because of energy consumption and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.

The brick industry has sought new ways to address sustainability, altering certain time-honored practices. Some brick manufacturers have incorporated recycled content into conventional brick. Smokestack scrubbing technologies reduce particulate, and, in some cases, sulfur dioxide and sulfur trioxide (smog-producing) pollution. A few brick plants have switched to alternative fuel sources.

Sustainable challengesAlthough these efforts are laudable, they do not address what some consider the most urgent environmental threatsthe intensive consumption

by Michael Chusid, RA, FCSI, Steven H. Miller, CSI, and Julie Rapoport, PhD, PE, LEED APPhoto Steven H. Miller

The Building Brickof Sustainability

may 2009 | the construction specifi er 31

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of non-renewable energy and associated emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO

2),

considered to accelerate climate change. As a vitrifi ed or semi-vitrifi ed ceramic, clay brick

achieves a crystalline or semi-crystalline structure due to the action of heat.2 It becomes hard and durable by fi ring in a kiln. In the United States, most modern clay brick is produced in tunnel kilns operating continuously at about 1090 C (2000 F), where the brick is fi red for up to three days. During normal operations, these kilns are practically never shut down except for maintenance; they must be kept hot even when not full. The kilns heat energy is generally produced by burning natural gas, coal, or petroleum cokeall of which emit CO

2

in their combustion. The seriousness of the carbon dioxide

problem is

evident in a recent proposal by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) of the fi rst comprehensive national system for reporting emissions of CO

2 and other greenhouse gases

produced by major sources in the country. According to EPA:

reporting requirements would apply to suppliers of fossil fuel and industrial chemicals, manufacturers of motor vehicles and engines, as well as large direct emitters of greenhouse gases with emissions equal to or greater than a threshold of 25,000 metric tonnes [27,558 U.S. tons] per year. This threshold is roughly equivalent to the annual greenhouse gas emissions from just over 4500 passenger vehicles.3

Brick masonry is deeply rooted in architectural tradition. It is often used as a way for modern structures to fi t into locations dominated by older brick buildings, creating visual harmony and unity. Photo Steven H. Miller


EPA estimates the program will cover approximately 13,000 facilities, accounting for about 85 to 90 percent of GHGs emitted in the United States. This program would apply to an estimated 85 percent of U.S. clay brick production capacity.

One concept for understanding the carbon footprint and environmental impact of a product is its embodied energythe cumulative energy consumed in the products entire lifecycleas CO

2

emission is often a by-product of energy consumption. According to the National Institute for Standards

and Technologys (NISTs) Building for Environmental and Economic Sustainability (BEES) database, the average embodied energy for a common fi red clay brick is about 9.3 MJ (8800 Btus). It is estimated a state-of-the-art brick plant operating at optimal effi ciency might be able to reduce this fi gure below 5.3 MJ (5000 Btus); however, this would only be possible in a handful of plants currently in operation. Each common clay brick fi red using fossil fuel is responsible for the release of about 0.6 kg (1.3 lb) of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.

To understand the meaning of these numbers, consider the fact an average-sized house in the United States uses about 20,000 bricks. This quantity translates to an embodied energy of 185,700 MJ (176 million Btus) to make the homes brick cladding. By comparison, the same quantity of energy used elsewhere would be enough to operate an average, single-family home for 17 months.4

Innovative products are being created to emulate traditional brick in performance and appearance, yet reduce environmental burdens. In general, they seek to satisfy the performance standard applying to clay brick, ASTM International C 216, Standard Specifi cation for Facing Brick (Solid Masonry Units Made from Clay or Shale). However, like the greening efforts of traditional brick manufacturers, these new products each focus on particular sustainability issues with rather different impacts on the planets future. (See Aspects of Sustainability, page 34.) It is also

COMPARING DIFFERENT TYPES OF BRICK

Clay Brick Concrete Brick Fly Ash Brick

Standard ASTM C 216 ASTM C 1634 Meets or exceeds

performance of ASTM C 216

for SW Clay Brick

Embodied Energy 9.3 MJ (8800 Btus) 1.3 MJ (1240 Btus) 0.891.31 MJ

(8501250 Btus)

CO2 Footprint 0.59 kg (1.3 lb) 0.34 kg (0.75 lb) 0.11 kg (0.25 lb)

Recycled Material 06% Not typical 3599%

Shrinkage/Expansion Expands 0.08% Shrinkage 0.065% Shrinkage 0.065%

Dimensional Consistency Can vary due to fi ring and

warpage

Very consistent if cured to

ASTM C 55 before shipping

Projected to be very consistent

due to manufacturing process

Initial Rate of Absorption/

Ability to Absorb Mortar

230 25 114

Pigmentation Mineral oxides in clay plus

natural and synthesized

mineral oxide pigments

Natural and synthesized


Natural and synthesized


Brick made from fl y ash utilizes a high proportion of recycled content and has very low embodied energy and carbon dioxide emission associated with production, offering a green material choice. Colored brick is achieved by pigmenting with colorfast mineral oxides.Photo courtesy Calstar Cement


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worthwhile to distinguish how green a product is from the kind of green it isa distinction that enables design professionals to specify materials meeting desired sustainability objectives and priorities.

Fired brickSustainability strategies applied to traditional brick manufacturing employ alternative fuels, recycled materials, or reduced materials. Innovative, non-clay bricks made by fi ring also offer green benefi ts.

Alternative fuels A few plants employ methane gas captured from landfi lls as part of their fi ring fuel. Methane is frequently referred to as natural gas, and its capture for benefi cial use is a valuable contribution. Presently, only a handful of plants utilize captured gas fuel. These plants still consume large quantities of energy, emitting CO

2 in

the process.Petroleum coke, an inexpensive by-

product of oil refi ning, is also used as a fi ring fuel in a few instances. Although this product also reduces energy resource depletion, it still consumes energy and emits about as much carbon dioxide as the highest carbon-content coal.

Recycled materialsSeveral conventional clay brick manufacturers claim to employ a percentage of recycled materials. In some cases, however, this recycled material is actually reclaimed virgin clay excavated from the top layers of other mining operations, as opposed to material previously used by industry or consumers and then recycled for a second use. Both reclaimed and recycled content address material consumption issues. Use of recycled material can help a project earn credit under the U.S.


Green Building Councils (USGBCs) Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) program.5 Unfortunately, they have little, if any, impact on the more fundamental concerns of energy consumption and CO

2 emission.

Reduced materialsAnother strategy entails reducing the amount of clay per brick. Brick standards allow for coring and deep frogs. Coring refers to holes through the section that may amount to 25 percent of the beds surface area, and deep frogs are recessed panels in the bearing surface of the brick. Deep frogs require increased quantities of mortar, which compromises their environmental benefi t.

Neither of these strategies has signifi cant impact on energy consumption or CO

2 emission; the bricks take

up the same amount of space in the kiln as solid brick, so the number of bricks produced relative to the quantity of fuel consumed remains the same.

ASPECTS OF SUSTAINABILITYSustainability is an umbrella concept that has come to encompass efforts to address a multitude of environmental sins. Sustainability issues surrounding brick manufacture (and construction processes in general) include: raw materials consumption; recycled content; embodied energy; and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Raw materials consumption deserves attention to preserve limited natural resources for future generations. Use of recycled material helps reduce raw materials consumption, and the associated environmental impact of extraction processes (e.g. mining and quarrying). It also relieves the burden on landfi lls and other disposal sites. These are important challenges to mitigating human impact on the natural ecosystem.

The concept of embodied energy has been used to quantify the energy consumed during extraction, processing, and manufacture of a building product. Lowering consumption of fi nite energy resources such as fossil fuels not only mitigates resource depletion, but also lightens the environmental burden of resource extraction.

Furthermore, embodied energy relates to greenhouse gases, as fossil fuel energy consumption is associated with signifi cant carbon dioxide emissions. It is not an absolute relationship, however, because the quantity of CO2 emitted varies by fuel type. For example, the coal used to fi re many conventional clay brick kilns emits approximately twice the CO2 per Btu as natural gas.

Although use of captured fuels (e.g. methane gas from landfi lls) or by-product fuels (e.g. petroleum coke) helps slow depletion of fossil fuel reserves, it does not lessen CO2 emissionsarguably the most urgent of the sustainability challenges.

CO2 emissions also result from other construction-related activities besides energy consumption. Portland cement production has a very large carbon footprint, emitting almost a ton of CO2 per ton of product. Surprisingly, the energy required for this process accounts for less than half the CO2 emitted.

When limestone (i.e. calcium carbonate [CaCO3]) is fi red in cement kilns, a chemical transformation takes placefor every molecule of calcium oxide (CaO) produced, a molecule of CO2 is released. This means every ton of portland cement production releases about 500 kg (1100 lb) of CO2 from the chemical reaction alone, independent of energy consumption. Energy consumed for cement kiln-fi ring emits the remaining CO2 of the ton-for-ton calculation. Therefore, more energy-effi cient kilning processes can never address even half of the CO2 problem associated with portland cement. This limitation presents a strong incentive to identify other cementitious materials for brick production. cs

Using recycled material in brick can help a project earn credit under the USGBCs LEED program. Unfortunately, these materials have little, if any, impact on the more fundamental concerns of energy consumption and CO

2 emission.

To be viable in the industry, innovative brick must meet the same performance standards as conventional brick. Here, compressive strength of a fl y ash brick is tested. It exceeded the ASTM International standard, and passed the freezethaw test for severe weather (SW) brick as well.Photo courtesy Calstar Cement


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Innovative non-clay brickA new process uses 100 percent recycled or reclaimed materials. This mixture consists of: processed sewage wastes; recycled iron oxides; recycled glass; and virgin ceramic scrap. These materials are generally ceramic in nature and sourced from wastestreams of other processes. They are fi red in a traditional clay brick plant in a somewhat atypical manner. Although the products recycled material content is laudable, the resulting brick have embodied energy and a carbon footprint similar to that of conventional fi red clay brick.

Another recycled-content product pioneered in the United Kingdom, is made of 97 percent recycled ground glass and cathode ray tube plate glass that is vacuum-pressed, combined with a binder. It is kilned at up to 680 C (1256 F) for a maximum of three hours. This approach addresses materials consumption, recycling, and to some extent, energy consumption and CO

2 emission. The kiln temperature

is approximately one-third lower than that of typical clay brick kilns; fi ring time is also less than fi ve percent of that taken for typical clay brick.

Non-fi red brickNon-fi red brick can be made of concrete, and more recently, fl y ash.

Concrete brickMade from sand, crushed rock, water, and about 15 percent by weight of ordinary portland cementthe same types of materials as standard concreteconcrete brick can have strength and density similar to fi red clay brick.

Concrete brick is made in various colors, using either gray or white portland cement. Pigmenting is generally achieved with mineral oxides. Iron oxide, for example, is used to pigment red concrete brick, and is chemically identical to the iron oxide that gives fi red clay brick its familiar red color. Mineral oxide pigments produced in accordance with ASTM C 979, Standard Specifi cation for Pigments for Integrally


Colored Concrete, have been successfully used to integrally color concrete for decades, and are considered stable and colorfast.

Some masons have reported a practical problem with the initial rate of absorption (IRA) of concrete brick. IRA is important in relation to mortars ability to adhere to brick and form a bond that will minimize moisture intrusion. Concrete brick is said to suck up the mortar too readily. ASTM C 216, Note 6 (Initial Rate of Absorption [Suction]) states:

Both laboratory and fi eld investigation have shown that strong and watertight joints between mortar and masonry units are not achieved by ordinary

FLY ASHWhen coal is burned, approximately fi ve to 10 percent of it is turned into ash. Fly ash is a lighter ash product that would fl y away if not captured in the smokestack (which it is, for all U.S. coal-fi red power plants). The heavier ash that does not rise is called bottom ash. Fly ash is defi ned in ASTM C 618, Standard Specifi cation for Coal Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined Natural Pozzolan for Use in Concrete, as the fi nely divided residue that results from the combustion of ground or powdered coal and that is transported by fl ue gases. It is a powdery substance composed of glassy-smooth particles.

In 2007, about 72 million tons of fl y ash were produced in the United States. Less than 45 percent of it was used in benefi cial applications. During the past decade, approximately half of utilized fl y ash was mixed into concrete; other uses range from soil stabilization to fi llers for paint and plastics.* The remainder is sent to landfi lls or kept in retention ponds.

Two classes of fl y ash are defi ned by chemical composition. Class F generally contains less than 10 percent calcium oxide (lime), and is used as a pozzolanic additive to replace a percentage of portland cement in concrete. Class C can contain 20 percent lime or more, and has both cementitious and pozzolanic properties.

Fly ash is known to contain trace amounts of mercury and other heavy metals. In the ash produced by the vast majority of American power plants, these quantities fall far below the thresholds used by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to defi ne a hazardous material. It has been used in concrete for decades, and has been historically included in conventional fi red clay brick in portions ranging from six to 35 percent. The trace heavy metals present in fl y ash are effectively bound and immobilized when incorporated in a construction material such as concrete or brick. Environmental groups have endorsed the use of fl y ash in construction materials such as concrete and asphalt.** cs

* For more information on the properties and uses of fl y ash, see Turning LEED into LeadsCoal Combustion Products in Building Materials, by Michael Chusid, RA, CSI, CCS, and Kelly McArthur Ingalls, CSI, CDT, LEED AP, in the April 2003 issue of The Construction Specifi er.** For example, see testimony of Lisa Evans, project attorney, Earthjustice, before the Subcommittee on Energy And Mineral Resources, Committee on Natural Resources, U.S. House of Representatives, June 10, 2008.

Concrete bricks relatively high carbon footprint is not primarily attributable to energy consumption in the brick-making process. However, production of the portland cement used in this brick emits large quantities of carbon dioxide.

Fly ash is a fi ne, powdery substance scrubbed from the smokestacks of coal-fi red power plants (top). As seen in the electron microscope image on the bottom, it is composed of glassy-smooth particles. Some fl y ashes are high in calcium oxide (lime) and silica, which react with water to form a hard cementitious matrix.Photo courtesy American Coal Ash Association

Photo courtesy Calstar Cement


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construction methods when the units as laid have excessive initial rates of absorption. Mortar that has stiffened somewhat because of excessive loss of mixing water to a unit may not make complete and intimate contact with the second unit, resulting in poor adhesion, incomplete bond, and water-permeable joints of low strength.

Concrete bricks relatively high carbon footprint is not primarily attributable to energy consumption in the brick-making process. The embodied energy of a concrete brick is only about 1.3 MJ (1240 Btu), or 15 percent of a fi red clay brick. However, production of the portland cement used in this brick emits large quantities of carbon dioxide. A common, non-cored, concrete brick, weighing about 2.5 kg (5.5 lb), is associated with approximately 0.34 kg (0.75 lb) of CO

2 released into the atmosphere.

Fly ash brickFly ash brick (FAB) is a composite of non-clay materials, a high percentage of which is ash recycled

from coal-fi red electrical power plants. (See Fly Ash at left.) According to some manufacturers in the United States, fl y ash-based brick and products may be available in commercial quantities before the end of this year.

At least one FAB manufacturing process contains up to 50 percent Class C fl y ash, a self-cementing material. Class C fl y ash is composed of high proportions of silicon dioxide, aluminum oxide, and calcium oxide. Adding a small amount of water initiates a chemical reaction between these materials similar in both process and product to cement hydration. The remaining volume of this brick includes sand, recycled coal bottom ash, or other fi ne, recycled materials.

FAB tests to meet or exceed ASTM C 216 performance standards for conventional clay brick; it is also within the allowable shrinkage limits for concrete brick in ASTM C 55, Standard Specifi cation for Concrete Building Brick. Professional mason fi eld testing has determined FAB has good mortar adhesion, is easy to build with, and can be cut more


cleanly than conventional fi red clay brick. FAB is expected to be available in a range of brick sizes and surface textures. A palette of colors can be achieved using stable, colorfast mineral oxide pigments.

Fly ash brick prototypes have achieved embodied energy and CO

2 emission levels in the range of 15 to

20 percent that of clay brick, and may drop below 10 percent in full production.

Of the 72 million tons of fl y ash produced in the United States each year, more than half is dumped in ponds and landfi lls. FAB production diverts fl y ash from landfi lls or retention ponds. Making it into brick binds and immobilizes it, transforming fl y ash from an environmental burden into a useful material. Both the National Resources Defense Council (NRDC) and Earthjustice recognize and encourage the benefi cial use of fl y ash in concrete and other construction materials.

Samples of fi red clay brick (left) and concrete brick (right). Both are associated with high levels of carbon dioxide emission. Photo Steven H. Miller. Photo courtesy Calstar Cement.

Fly ash brick testing has determined it is a safe product. It passes by a wide margin in EPA-mandated tests for potentially hazardous materialslandfi ll simulation and rainwater (acid rain) leaching testswith no detectable mercury. Although not required by regulatory agencies for construction materials, a dermal exposure test also revealed no detectable mercury levels.

CostsPricing of conventional clay brick varies widely depending on regional factors. For example, a basic brick at a warehouse chain store in Fremont, California, costs approximately 40 percent more than one at the same chain in Los Angeles, California. Style also infl uences pricing. In the Chicago market, different styles of commercial/architectural brick range from $0.40 to $0.80 each. Transportation costs can increase prices by a high percentage relative to cost of the material itself. Consequently, clay brick manufacturing is widely dispersed, and brick bought close to the source is signifi cantly less costly than material trucked a few hundred miles.

Concrete brick typically costs about 20 percent less than basic clay brick. Fly ash brick is expected

Concrete brick typically costs about 20 percent less than basic clay brick. Fly ash brick is expected to be competitively priced with red clay brick, and may possibly be less expensive once in full production.


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to be competitively priced with fi red clay brick. Once in full production, FAB may possibly be less expensive than clay brick, if purchased similarly close to its source.

ConclusionThe masonry industry continues to seek ways to make its products more sustainable, using alternative fuel sources and incorporating recycled content. However, the fundamental process for fi red clay brickfusion under intense heatmakes a high carbon footprint inevitable. Innovative brick makers are attempting to break through this barrier by lowering the heat of fi ring, if not eliminating it altogether. Non-fi red fl y ash brick achieves strength via chemical reaction instead of heat fusion, while employing a high percentage of recycled material.

Brick construction can help a project earn several credits under LEED, including recycled-material content, and regional materials.6 However, LEED does not currently provide credits for reducing embodied energy content or CO

2 emissions

associated with building materials.

Brick masonry has been a part of the built environment for at least seven millennia, making it one of the oldest construction technologies still in common use. Its longevity stems from performance properties, the availability of clay, and the simplicity of brick production.Photo BigStockPhoto.com


Many clay brick manufacturers also make pavers. Additionally, a large number of concrete brick producers make pavers and concrete masonry units (CMUs). Although performance standards for these products differ from brick, the sustainability issues are largely the same. Some fl y ash brick makers produceor are expected to producepavers and block as well. These products offer the same sustainability advantages as their brick.

Such advances enable brick masonry to keep its traditional place in the repertoire of architectural expression without compromising sustainable practice in building construction. cs

Notes1 See Clad in Green, by Charles (Chip) B. Clark Jr., PE, AIA, LEED AP, in the October 2008 issue of The Construction Specifi er.

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION

AuthorsMichael Chusid, RA, FCSI, is president of Chusid Associates, a consulting fi rm specializing in technical and marketing services for advanced construction products and materials. A member of the Los Angeles Chapter of the U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC), Steven H. Miller, CSI, is an award-winning freelance journalist and photographer specializing in issues of the construction industry. He is also a consultant to Chusid Associates. Chusid and Miller can be contacted via www.chusid.com. Julie Rapoport, PhD, PE, LEED AP, is director of product development at Calstar. She received her PhD in civil engineering specializing in cementitious materials from Northwestern University. Rapoport is a licensed professional engineer in California and a LEED-Accredited Professional. She has investigated cementitious materials in both research and industry for more than a decade. Rapoport is a member of American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) and American Concrete Institute (ACI), and sits on the latters Technical Committee on Sustainability. She can be reached at [email protected].

AbstractBrick production has three major issues determining its environmental impactmaterial usage, energy consumption, and associated CO2 emissions. Recent advances address these concerns with the development of fl y ash brick, a composite of non-clay materials. This article explores the technology, delving into possible applications.

Masterformat No.04 20 00Unit Masonry32 14 16Brick Unit Paving

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Key Words

Field testing demonstrates fl y ash brick is easy to build with. The photo on the right shows the material has good mortar adhesion.Photos courtesy Calstar Cement

Divisions 04, 32Carbon footprintConcrete brick

Fired brickFly ash brickSustainability


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2 The word ceramic is said to derive from the Indo-European word ker, which means heat. High heat is a fundamental element of ceramic manufacture.3 See the EPA press release, EPA Proposes First National Reporting on Greenhouse Gas Emissions, March 10, 2009.4 The EPA estimates 124 million Btus per year are consumed by the average single-family home.5 Points can be earned under LEEDs Materials and Resources (MR) Credit 4, Recycled Content. It is expected a revision of the program, LEED 2009, will be released shortly. Under the current draft of the revision, this credit remains unmodifi ed. However, it is still subject to change, and should be checked against the fi nal published version when available. USGBC states all new project registrations will be required to use LEED 2009 as of August this year.6 Projects employing regional materials can earn points under LEEDs MR Credit 5, Regional Materials. These credits are the same in the current draft of LEED 2009, but still subject to revision. See note 5.

Durability is part of bricks enduring appeal. This warehouse leverages bricks reputation and a castle aesthetic to project a sense of safety and security.Photo Steven H. Miller

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