TracksTracks by Louise Erdrich by Louise Erdrich

Body, Spirit, LandBody, Spirit, Land

Native Americans: Some HistoryNative Americans: Some History

500 original cultures in North America (note, 500 original cultures in North America (note, North North America) 10,000 BC at least, America) 10,000 BC at least, tribesmen crossed the Bering Strait and began tribesmen crossed the Bering Strait and began settlementsettlement

Initially, somewhere between 4-8 million Initially, somewhere between 4-8 million people speaking 500 distinct languagespeople speaking 500 distinct languages

Today, 315 "tribes" in the USToday, 315 "tribes" in the US

700,00 "full-bloods" also mixed bloods 700,00 "full-bloods" also mixed bloods (parents from different tribes) also those with (parents from different tribes) also those with one non-Indian parentone non-Indian parent

Today, about 80% of NA live on reservation Today, about 80% of NA live on reservation lands, a total of about 90 million acres, down lands, a total of about 90 million acres, down from the promised 140 million.from the promised 140 million.

Who is a Native American?Who is a Native American?

Working definition:a person with at least 1/4 Working definition:a person with at least 1/4 Indian blood and tribal membershipIndian blood and tribal membership

But many others suggests that being NA is But many others suggests that being NA is more a process of self-identification, among more a process of self-identification, among these N. Scott Momdaythese N. Scott Momday

NA were initially under the jurisdiction of the NA were initially under the jurisdiction of the Department of War--established Bureau of Department of War--established Bureau of Indian Affairs in 1824Indian Affairs in 1824

The history of NA with white America, The history of NA with white America, especially the government, was a constant especially the government, was a constant breaking of faith. breaking of faith.

Northwest Ordinance, 1787Northwest Ordinance, 1787

George Washington signed the Northwest Ordinance George Washington signed the Northwest Ordinance and the first words of the treaty were:and the first words of the treaty were:

““The utmost good faith shall always be observed The utmost good faith shall always be observed toward the Indians and their land and property shall toward the Indians and their land and property shall never be taken from them without their consent; and never be taken from them without their consent; and in their property, rights, and liberty, they shallin their property, rights, and liberty, they shall

never be invaded or disturbed. . .”never be invaded or disturbed. . .”

Black ElkBlack Elk

Black Elk, chief of the Ogalala Sioux, said of Black Elk, chief of the Ogalala Sioux, said of events in the 1870's: events in the 1870's:

““They were chasing us now because we They were chasing us now because we remembered and they forgot."remembered and they forgot."

Legal status of tribesLegal status of tribes

Today Native Americans hold the status of Today Native Americans hold the status of domestic dependent nations--they are nations domestic dependent nations--they are nations within a nation whose members are legally within a nation whose members are legally wards of the federal government, but remain wards of the federal government, but remain sovereignsovereign

Cultural GenocideCultural Genocide

In the 1950's, the federal governement began In the 1950's, the federal governement began the practice of "adopting out" NA children to the practice of "adopting out" NA children to boarding schools---a practice now identified as boarding schools---a practice now identified as cultural genocide, as the schools attempted to cultural genocide, as the schools attempted to strip the NA children of their heritage. strip the NA children of their heritage.

(Remember that Gordie was sent to one of (Remember that Gordie was sent to one of these schools.)these schools.)

NamingNaming

Imprecise--a problem, in its inexactnessImprecise--a problem, in its inexactness

Debate over NA, Indian, American IndianDebate over NA, Indian, American Indian

We need to remember that when we talk of We need to remember that when we talk of NA culture, we are speaking in English. For NA culture, we are speaking in English. For example, in most Indian languages there is not example, in most Indian languages there is not a separate word for religion.a separate word for religion.

TribesTribes

1. a native language1. a native language

2. an inheirited place2. an inheirited place

3. set of traditions such as speech, folklore, 3. set of traditions such as speech, folklore, ceremony, religionceremony, religion

4. a heritage passed from generation to 4. a heritage passed from generation to generation through songs, jokes, legends, generation through songs, jokes, legends, healing rituals, spiritual rites of passage, and healing rituals, spiritual rites of passage, and vision journeys.vision journeys.

Shared characteristicsShared characteristics

idealize ancestral bondsidealize ancestral bonds spiritual bondsspiritual bonds oral cultural traditionsoral cultural traditions tribal life-styles involving shared goods tribal life-styles involving shared goods

and responsibilitiesand responsibilities personal concerns are communal personal concerns are communal

concernsconcerns recognize ecological interdependencerecognize ecological interdependence

Varied cultures and traditionsVaried cultures and traditions

Imagine tribes from: Imagine tribes from: upstate New Yorkupstate New York Washington stateWashington state the New Mexico desertthe New Mexico desert Northern CaliforniaNorthern California South DakotaSouth Dakota

ColonizationColonization

NA have been colonized for over 500 yearsNA have been colonized for over 500 years

Original population of 900,000 at the time of Original population of 900,000 at the time of ColumbusColumbus

250,000 in 1900250,000 in 1900

yet the cultures survivesyet the cultures survives

History behind History behind TracksTracks

1830 Indian Removal Act passed (under 1830 Indian Removal Act passed (under President Andrew Jackson)President Andrew Jackson)

Cherokees appealed this to Supreme Court: Cherokees appealed this to Supreme Court: Justice John Marshall declared the Cherokees “a Justice John Marshall declared the Cherokees “a domestic independent nation”domestic independent nation”

Marshall’s decision overturned the next yearMarshall’s decision overturned the next year

Trail of TearsTrail of Tears

1837 Trail of Tears1837 Trail of Tears

Cherokees from Georgia illegally removed Cherokees from Georgia illegally removed to “Indian Territory” (Oklahoma) to “Indian Territory” (Oklahoma)

4-8,000 died on the trip4-8,000 died on the trip

Trail of Tears: from Georgia to Trail of Tears: from Georgia to OklahomaOklahoma

Robert Lindneux, 1942Robert Lindneux, 1942

Trail of Tears Memorial: Jerome, Trail of Tears Memorial: Jerome, OKOK

Indian WarsIndian Wars

Occurred from about 1860 to the Wounded Knee Occurred from about 1860 to the Wounded Knee Massacre in 1890 (Lakotas, Ghost Dance). Massacre in 1890 (Lakotas, Ghost Dance).

Between 1881-83, the government hired marksmen to Between 1881-83, the government hired marksmen to decimate the buffalo remaining--only 2 and 1/2 decimate the buffalo remaining--only 2 and 1/2 million down from 15 millionmillion down from 15 million

One government official commented on the One government official commented on the decimation of the buffalo as a practical policy to get decimation of the buffalo as a practical policy to get the Indians to adapt to a different (read white) way of the Indians to adapt to a different (read white) way of life.life.

Dawes Allotment ActDawes Allotment Act

1887 Changed government policy to make it 1887 Changed government policy to make it easy to divide “Indian land” formerly held easy to divide “Indian land” formerly held communallycommunally and assign it individual Indians and assign it individual Indians who then had control over it. Land to be who then had control over it. Land to be held in trust for 25 years.held in trust for 25 years.

Results of AllowmentResults of Allowment

Before “allotment” Indians had 139 million Before “allotment” Indians had 139 million acresacres

By 1934, only 48 million acres remained.By 1934, only 48 million acres remained.

1886-701886-70 Outbreaks of smallpox in Outbreaks of smallpox in North DakotaNorth Dakota

189?-1901189?-1901 Outbreak of tuberculosis in Outbreak of tuberculosis in North DakotaNorth Dakota

1906 1906 Burke Act: allowed the Burke Act: allowed the commissioner commissioner of Indian Affairs to shorten the of Indian Affairs to shorten the length of trust length of trust time for “competent” Indianstime for “competent” Indians

19171917 Declaration of PolicyDeclaration of Policy

Commissioner of Indian Affairs Cato Sells Commissioner of Indian Affairs Cato Sells defined “competent” Indians as those with defined “competent” Indians as those with more than ½ white blood) who could then more than ½ white blood) who could then sell or lease their landsell or lease their land

Thinking about Thinking about TracksTracks

Narrative strategiesNarrative strategies

NA figures of myth and religion: Trickster & NA figures of myth and religion: Trickster & BerdacheBerdache

Role of religion in the novelRole of religion in the novel

Characters of Fleur and Pauline: their roles, contrasts; Characters of Fleur and Pauline: their roles, contrasts; similaritiessimilarities

TricksterTrickster

Erdrich relies on the figure of the Trickster, a Erdrich relies on the figure of the Trickster, a prominent figure in NA culture. prominent figure in NA culture.

Tricksters can be sacred clowns, or non-sacred Tricksters can be sacred clowns, or non-sacred clowns, but are not humanclowns, but are not human

They are clever, very sexual and lustful; They are clever, very sexual and lustful; irresponsible, foolishirresponsible, foolish

They embody contradictions, but aren’t They embody contradictions, but aren’t contradictorycontradictory

They can take human form or animal formThey can take human form or animal form They can cross boundaries (mind/body) but They can cross boundaries (mind/body) but

their actions simultaneously their actions simultaneously showshow boundaries boundaries They are amoral, clever, very sexual and They are amoral, clever, very sexual and

lustful; irresponsible, foolishlustful; irresponsible, foolish

BerdacheBerdache

Another common figure in NA culture: term most Another common figure in NA culture: term most used today is “two-spirit people”used today is “two-spirit people”

Lucky, independent, practices medicine and magic (a Lucky, independent, practices medicine and magic (a gift) distinct from sorcery or witchcraft which is gift) distinct from sorcery or witchcraft which is conscious, can be learned, and in NA traditions, conscious, can be learned, and in NA traditions, always harmfulalways harmful

Gender is suspended in the berdache; if a man, Gender is suspended in the berdache; if a man, dresses as a woman; if a woman, dresses as a man)dresses as a woman; if a woman, dresses as a man)