Teaching Reading

WellA Synthesis of

the International Reading AssociationsResearch on Teacher Preparation

for Reading Instruction

STATUS OF

ReadingInstructionInstitute

IRA BOARD OF DIRECTORS

Timothy Shanahan, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, President Linda B. Gambrell, Clemson University,Clemson, South Carolina, President-elect Barbara J. Walker, Oklahoma State UniversityStillwater/Tulsa, Tulsa, Oklahoma,Vice President David Hernandez III, Camelview Elementary School, Madison School District, Phoenix, Arizona Susan DavisLenski, Portland State University, Portland, Oregon Jill Lewis, New Jersey City University, Jersey City, New Jersey DianeBarone, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada Maureen McLaughlin, East Stroudsburg University of Pennsylvania, EastStroudsburg, Pennsylvania Karen K. Wixson, The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan Adelina Arellano-Osuna,University of the Andes-Mrida, Mrida, Venezuela Lloyd Neale Hardesty, Colorado Springs, Colorado Maryann Manning,University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama Alan E. Farstrup, Executive Director

NATIONAL COMMISSION ON EXCELLENCE IN ELEMENTARY TEACHER PREPARATION FOR READINGINSTRUCTION

James V. Hoffman, University of Texas at Austin, Chair Cathy M. Roller, International Reading Association, Newark,Delaware, Commission Director Diane Barone, University of Nevada, Reno Deborah Eldridge, Hunter College, New York,New York Joyce Fine, Florida International University, Miami Amy Seely Flint, Indiana University, Bloomington DeniseLittleton, Norfolk State University, Virginia Rachelle Loven, University of Sioux Falls, South Dakota Beth Maloch, Universityof Texas at Austin Miriam Martinez, University of Texas at San Antonio

TEACHER EDUCATION TASK FORCE

Victoria J. Risko, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, Chair Patricia L. Anders, University of Arizona, Tucson Rita M.Bean, University of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Cathy Collins Block, Texas Christian University, Fort Worth Carrice Cummins,Louisiana Tech University, Ruston Alan Farstrup, International Reading Association, Newark, Delaware James Flood, SanDiego State University, California Richard Long, International Reading Association, Washington, D.C. Lesley MandelMorrow, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey P. David Pearson, University of California, Berkeley Timothy V.Rasinski, Kent State University, Ohio Cathy M. Roller, International Reading Association, Washington, D.C.

The International Reading Association acknowledges the work of Susan Pimentel, who wrote this report.

Copyright 2007 by the International Reading Association, Inc.All rights reserved.

Putting a quality teacher in every classroom iskey to addressing the challenges of readingachievement in schools. Knowledgeable,strategic, adaptive, and reflective teachers make adifference in student learning.

This basic premise permeates the current policyenvironment in the United States. The No ChildLeft Behind Act, the most recent reauthorization ofthe Elementary and Secondary Education Act,mandates no less than a qualified teacher in everypublic school classroom. Since colleges and univer-sities prepare the majority of teachers, they have apivotal role to play in achieving this goal. The chal-lenge is particularly great in schools that servehigh-poverty populations.

The International Reading Association (IRA), theworlds foremost organization of reading profession-als, has focused significant research efforts on iden-tifying essential qualities of effective teacherpreparation programs. IRA completed a major pro-grammatic study of the preparation of classroomteachers in reading through its National Commissionon Excellence in Elementary Teacher Preparation forReading Instruction (IRA, 2003a). The Commissionspecified the features that were common to eight ex-cellent programs identified through a competitive ap-plication process (Harmon et al., 2001). IRAsTeacher Education Task Force (TETF) followed thatresearch with a comprehensive review of the empiri-cal literature in the area of teacher education in read-ing (Risko et al., in process). The findings of theseresearch efforts are synthesized in this document.Teacher educators from across the country can usethe knowledge and insights generated from these in-vestigations to spur reflection and to improve theirteacher preparation programs in reading.

Together, the IRA Commission and Task Forceefforts identified six essential features for creatingand sustaining preparation programs that produceteachers who teach reading well:

Content The programs draw on an inte-grated body of research focusing on how stu-dents become successful readers and howteachers support students with instruction.

Faculty and teachingThe faculty is com-mitted to effective instruction that deliversappropriate content and models successful in-structional techniques for students.

Apprenticeships, field experiences, andpracticaThe programs move teachersthrough systematically arrayed field experi-ences that are closely coordinated with theircoursework and expose them to excellent mod-els and mentors.

DiversityThe programs are saturated withan awareness of diversity, their faculties andstudents reflect diversity, and they produceteachers who know how to teach diverse stu-dents in diverse settings.

Candidate and program assessmentTheprograms intentionally and regularly assesstheir students, graduates, faculty, and curricu-lum to guide instructional decision makingand program development.

Governance, resources, and visionThe pro-grams are centered on a vision of qualityteaching that produces a community of futureleaders in reading education. The governancegives faculty appropriate control for realizingthat vision.

To experienced teacher educators, none of thesecomponents will come as a surprise, but achievingexcellence in all six components is difficult. In theCommission study, for example, IRA (2003a) notedsignificant variation among the eight participatingprograms with respect to the components, despitethe fact that all eight had been identified as excellent.Because colleges and universities play a significant

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Teaching Reading WellA Synthesis of the International Reading AssociationsResearch on Teacher Preparation for Reading Instruction

role in placing a quality teacher in every classroom,they must examine seriously the content and struc-ture of their teacher preparation programs in light ofthe portrait of excellence these components present.Only when programs are intentionally striving forexcellence will they produce teachers who can meetthe demands of todays classroom environments.

What do we know about teacher education pro-grams and the quality of preparation they provide?What do we know about the success of beginningteachers as they move from undergraduate programsinto full-time teaching responsibilities? While gapsremain, the research summarized here brings theoverall picture into focus. Outstanding reading edu-cation programs are grounded by content, poweredby teaching, energized by apprenticeships, enrichedby diversity, evaluated by assessment, and sustainedby vision and good governance. Read on to discoverwhat the future of teacher education in readingshould look like.

Feature 1: Content

R E S E A R C H F I N D I N GEffective teacher educators design the readingcomponents of their preparation programsaround findings from research on how students

become successfulreaders and how teacherssupport their learning.

The core curriculum forreading education shouldequip graduating teachers toproduce readers who aresuccessful in the classroomand on standardized testsand use reading effectively tonegotiate the world. There isgrowing consensus around aset of six foundational ele-ments that teachers must use

to produce proficient readers and that should be in-cluded in any systematic program of study:

Foundation in research and theoryTeachersmust develop a thorough understanding oflanguage and reading development as well asan understanding of learning theory and moti-

vation in order to ground their instructionaldecision making effectively.

Word-level instructional strategiesTeachersmust be prepared to use multiple strategies fordeveloping students knowledge of wordmeanings and strategies for word identifica-tion. This includes the study of the phonemicbasis for oral language, phonics instruction,and attention to syntax and semantics as sup-port for word recognition and self-monitoring.

Text-level comprehension strategiesTeachers must be prepared to teach multiplestrategies that readers can use to constructmeaning from text and to monitor their com-prehension. They must understand the ways inwhich vocabulary (word meaning) and fluencyinstruction can support comprehension anddevelop the capacity for critical analysis oftexts that considers multiple perspectives.

Reading writing connectionsTeachersmust be prepared to teach strategies thatconnect writing to the reading of literary and information texts as a support for compre-hension. This includes attention to teachingconventions of writing.

Instructional approaches and materialsTeachers must be prepared to use a variety ofinstructional strategies and materials selective-ly, appropriately, and flexibly.

AssessmentTeachers must be prepared touse appropriate assessment techniques to sup-port responsive instructional decision makingand reflection.

A closer look at each of these elements of thecore curriculum reveals a system of practices, proce-dures, and materialssupported by research find-ingsthat beginning teachers should master andapply to increase the reading proficiency of theirstudents.

Element 1: Foundation in Researchand TheoryResearch is the bedrock of excellent preparationprograms. Research informs theories, and theoriesguide decision making. Without research and

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I found that when I startedout, the research that I wastaught was very current.Other people who graduatedat the same time as me fromother schoolsthey werentlearning that currentresearch.

BEGINNING TEACHER, GRADUATE OFTHE UNIVERSITY OF SIOUX FALLS

theory as a base, practice is doomed to fall short.Beginning teachers must have a thorough com-mand of language and reading development as wellas deep understanding of learning and motivationtheory. One finding from the IRA Commissionsstudy was that excellent preparation programs areorganized around a profound sense of mission andare guided by a powerful vision of teaching (IRA,2003a). Strong theoretical foundations provide the guiding principles that give such programscoherence.

The TETF review (Risko et al., in process) alsosupports the notion that strong theoretical under-pinnings provide coherence. Indeed, the largestgroup of studies in the review addresses theoreticalfoundations. The review suggests that excellentteacher education programs are successful in chal-lenging the traditional theories of instruction stu-dents often hold initiallythat is, a view ofinstruction as transmission and rote learning.Through methods courses in particular, these pro-grams shift their students to more constructivistunderstandings of learning as creating knowledge.While the studies in the review were not unani-mous in adopting this stance, the constructivist ap-proach was by far the most common theoreticalorientation. Several studies attributed studentschanging orientations to the consistency withwhich such theory guided coursework and field ex-periences.

The ability of beginning teachers to sustainthese theoretical beliefs in the face of practice set-tings that were inconsistent with them was a topicof concern both in the Commission study (IRA,2003a) and the TETF review (Risko et al., inprocess). While often beginning teachers appearedto abandon the orientations of their preparationprograms, strong students from the eight Com-mission programs were able to maintain their theo-riesand, in fact, to convince others in their schoolsettings to change their theoretical orientations andtheir practice.

Element 2: Word-Level InstructionalStrategiesThese are an essential component of readingand,thus, of reading instruction. Teacher candidates re-port a strong desire to learn how to provide explicit

instruction in word identification, including pho-nemic awareness and phonics (Fielding-Barnsley &Purdie, 2005). The eight Commission programs allincluded strong instruction related to word-levelstrategies (IRA, 2003a). In exemplary programs,teacher candidates are taught to apply their under-standing of phonics and phonemic awareness toword-recognition instruction.

Phonemic awareness and phonics. Within this areaof word-level strategies, the research is extensive andunambiguous. Children who are systematicallytaught to manipulate spoken phonemes show signif-icant improvement in both their spelling and word-recognition ability (National Institute of ChildHealth and Human Development [NICHD], 2000,pp. 78). Knowledge of phonemic awareness mustbe considered foundational. Further, explicit phonicsinstruction supports children of all backgrounds andskill levels in learning the alphabet, improving theirspelling, and decoding new wordsleading to gainsin their reading ability (NICHD, p. 8). Whenphonics instruction is systematically incorporatedinto the reading curriculum such that children auto-matically apply phonics skills when encounteringnew words, word recognition and reading compre-hension increase (NICHD, pp. 811).

Syntax and semantics. Research on the developingreaders use of syntax and semantics to support wordrecognition and self-monitoring is found throughoutthe literature. Developing readers use these systemsas they grow toward automaticity and fluency.

Making meaning. The focus on word-level strate-gies is not limited to word recognition but also in-cludes attention to word meanings. A strongprogram attends to the ways in which reading, writ-ing, listening, and speaking are mutually supportivesystems in effective vocabulary development.

Element 3: Text-Level ComprehensionStrategies

Comprehension and word-level strategies workin concert. Driven by research in vocabulary devel-opment, fluency, comprehension strategies, andcritical literacy, the best programs teach multiple in-structional approaches for enhancing student com-

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prehension of all types of text, including those incore content areas.

Vocabulary development. Scientific studies showthat vocabulary development is critically importantfor reading instruction and plays a crucial role incomprehension. By repeatedly exposing readers torich content materials and to multiple strategies forlearning new words, teachers foster an active, inten-tional reading process that engages students withtext (NICHD, 2000, pp. 1314). Beginning teach-ers who have graduated from the best programsknow a variety of strategies, from direct instructionto contextual decoding of text, for fostering vocabu-lary development in their students, and they linkvocabulary to text comprehension.

Fluency. Data on the effects of teachers employingguided oral reading to improve fluency point in thesame direction: Students who receive intentionalguidance and habitual feedback from the teacherwhen practicing reading aloud increase their read-ing speed and accuracy. Research shows both suc-cessful and struggling readers benefit from guidedoral reading; readers who improve their fluency dobetter in recalling and situating text they have readand in demonstrating enhanced expression, greaterword recognition, and increased reading compre-hension (NICHD, 2000, pp. 1112; Worthy &Patterson, 2001).

Comprehension strategies. Equally important arefindings demonstrating that when students engagein intentional strategic reasoning, comprehension ismarkedly improved in the areas of recall, summa-rization, and responding to and forming questionsabout text (NICHD, 2000, p. 15). Students whohave been formally taught by their teachers how toemploy multiple reading comprehension strategiesshow gains on standardized tests and other meas-ures (Alderman, Klein, Seeley, & Sanders, 1993;NICHD, pp. 1415).

Strategies for content area reading. Students needto be provided in-depth instruction in readingstrategies for core content areas (Bean, 1997;NICHD, 2000, p. 15). Several studies have shownthat specific reading instruction in areas such as sci-ence, social studies, and math leads to improvedreading comprehension in students. Teachers need

intensive, focused preparation in how to provide in-struction and feedback to students so that they ac-quire and use these strategies for reading text fromspecific disciplines (Bean; Stevens, 2002).

Critical literacy. Finally, students must be encour-aged to take a critical stance toward text in terms ofjudging its accuracy and validity. Critical readersanalyze text for multiple meanings and multipleperspectives. These text-level comprehensionstrategies are developed across many different typesof texts including narratives, informational texts,and electronic texts.

Element 4: ReadingWritingConnectionsWriting instruction is connected to the reading ofliterary and informational text and to discussionand writing about those texts. Outstanding readingeducation programs take advantage of these kindsof readingwriting activities as occasions to teachstandard writing conventions, and they connect thepreparation teachers receive in writing competen-cies to an understanding of how to manage readinginstruction across grade levels.

Research shows that employing an integratedsystem of reading, discussion, and writing about lit-erary and informational text is a key element in im-proving comprehension. The role of storytelling inbuilding language is well established, as is the pow-er of drama and illustration for engaging readers ininterpreting text. Studies also show that teacherswho incorporate discussion and writing as a meansof shaping and enriching readers responses to textfurther enhance comprehension.

Instruction in the conventions of language usedin speech and writing is also a key element. Forexample, students must be taught how to punctuatetheir prose and to develop sentence and paragraphstructures that accurately convey their meaning.As they engage with content area learning, studentsmust learn the conventions of texts that may benonlinear (e.g., graphs, charts, webpages). Studentsalso need to be immersed in a classroom environ-ment that prizes both reading and writing, and be guided by teachers in their compositional efforts with rubrics and texts to serve as models and guides.

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Element 5: Instructional Approachesand MaterialsThese are the fundamental tools of reading instruc-tion (NICHD, 2000, pp. 1618). Studies in this areareveal that too often, teachers emerge from theirpreparation programs equipped with the latest in-formation regarding word-recognition and compre-hension strategies and familiarity with instructionalmaterials, but they cannot implement approachesand use materials effectively in the reading class-room (Fielding-Barnsley & Purdie, 2005; Mottley& Telfer, 1997; Pearson & Gallagher, 1983; Wham,1993). However, there are encouraging data as well:The research literature demonstrates that teachers inpreparation can be taught how to use both the bestmethods and a range of materials for instruction.They can learn to implement good reading instruc-tion based on the knowledge gained from theirpreparation programs (Alderman et al., 1993; Fazio,2000; Grisham, 2000; Lonberger, 1992; Many,Howard, & Hoge, 1998; Matanzo & Harris, 1999;Risko, 1992; Risko, Peter, & McAllister, 1996;Roskos & Walker, 1993, 1994).

The information available regarding improvingbeginning teachers delivery strategies is diverse andcomplex, but key trends are clearly discernable.First and foremost, teachers need to be taught theart of reading instruction. Just because a teacher is agood reader does not mean he or she will be a goodteacher of reading; instruction in how to teachreading is required (Draper, Barksdale-Ladd, &Radencich, 2000; Many et al., 1998; Tercanlioglu,2001). This does not mean that teacher educatorsshould deliver instruction in how to use mechanicalprocedures, but rather that beginning teachers mustbe engaged in processes that teach them how tocreate a dynamic learning environment for their fu-ture students (Walker & Ramseth, 1993; Wilson,Konopak, & Readence, 1993). The research indi-cates that learning to teach reading cannot happenafter a single course, but requires intensive study ofinstructional methods and materials over several se-mesters (Roskos & Walker, 1993; Walker &Ramseth; Wolf, Carey, & Mieras, 1996b). Begin-ning teachers also need to be informed about ad-vances in incorporating technology in instruction(Boling, 2003; Roberts & Hsu, 2000). When theyare provided with this array of instructional ap-

proaches and tools, graduates become thoughtful,articulate, and effective teachers of reading(Hoffman et al., 2005; Maloch et al., 2003).

Excellent preparation programs provide stu-dents with in-depth knowledge of literary and in-formational texts and other reading materials.Effective literacy instruction does not occur in avacuum. Teachers engage learners with instruction-al materials and other textsinside a rich literacy envi-ronment that supports theirteaching. They know andcan apply strategies to cre-ate this high-quality class-room environmentthatincludes attention to chil-drens and young adult liter-ature, commercial readingseries, electronic-based in-formation sources, and lo-cally created materialsandto engage students within it. Effective teachers arecritical in the ways in which they analyze, adapt,and use instructional materials for the purposes ofinstruction in a particular teaching context.Sometimes all the intervention work done with astruggling reader, for example, comes togetherwhen the right bookor magazine or websiteignites him or her (Wolf, Carey, & Mieras, 1996a,1996b).

Element 6: Assessment Not only do beginning teachers need to learn howdifferent assessment strategies, models, and ap-proaches test student learning, they also need to betaught how to interpret assessment data criticallyand adjust classroom instruction accordingly.Instruction regarding implementing multiple evalu-ation strategies that assess all aspects of reading isessential for teachers (Briggs, Tully, & Stiefer,1998). Proficiency with a set of formal and informalassessment tools to determine students strengthsand weaknessesfrom checklists to standardizedtestsis critical for measuring student progress,and it also provides the teacher with much-neededfeedback regarding his or her instructional ap-proach (Briggs et al.; Foegen, Espin, Allinder, &Markell, 2001; Traynelis-Yurek & Strong, 2000).

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The Hunter Collegeteachers are so wellprepared. Teachers fromother schools can espouse thephilosophy, but its theimplementation that theyhave trouble with.

PRINCIPAL, NEW YORK CITY PUBLICSCHOOL

Studies show that, without formal preparation inassessment methodology, beginning teachers strug-gle with translating diagnostic data into effectiveteaching strategies; with such preparation, thosesame teachers are able to pinpoint areas of concernand weaknesses in their own teaching and to pro-vide multiple learning environments that meet theneeds of all students (Kaste, 2001; Roskos &Walker, 1994; Shefelbine & Shiel, 1990; Wolf,Ballentine, & Hill, 2000; Wolf, Hill, & Ballentine,1999; Xu, 2000a, 2000b).

The importance of this two-pronged approachtoward student assessment and instructional adjust-ment becomes particularly clear when beginningteachers are given specific guidance in evaluatingdifferent reading strategies. They learn how to de-termine which approach will be most effective in agiven situation. When they were taught how in-

structional decisions can be informed by evaluativediagnoses of student reading ability, beginningteachers were more effective at providing a learningenvironment that generated measurable gains inreading ability (Massey, 2003; Morgan, Gustafson,Hudson, & Salzberg, 1992).

Putting the Pieces TogetherResearchers have found that the most successfulprograms follow the approach of organizingpieces of knowledge into overarching systems ofstudy that faculty and students return to again andagain. These broad principlessuch as assessment-driven instruction, responsive and adaptive teach-ing, and explicit content deliverymake concretethe theoretical connections between content knowl-edge and classroom skills.

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Content in Action Students enrolled in the teacher preparation program at Hunter College in New York City pursue arigorous curriculum aligned with the International Reading Associations (2003b) Standards forReading Professionals. Having established a collateral major in a liberal arts discipline, the typicalstudent in the preparation program takes a four-semester sequence of courses in her or his juniorand senior years, with extensive field experiences that match content knowledge with appropriateinstructional strategies.

In the first semester, students are introduced to foundational theories and knowledge about theprocesses of reading; the interrelation of goals, methods, and assessment linked to the principlesof instruction; and the creation of a literate environment. In the second semester, students learnabout childrens and adolescent literature, reading and writing across the curriculum for meaning,and integrating themes for focused study. Students pursue topical area studies in educationalpsychology and mathematics methodology in the third semester, while continuing to develop theirunderstanding of the processes of teaching reading. In their final semester of study, students takeadditional courses that deepen their understanding of the theoretical basis of reading instruction,assessment and the identification of reading difficulties, phonics strategies for word identification,and vocabulary and comprehension development. Throughout this sequence of courses andfieldwork, students continue to take liberal arts courses in their major as well as courses ineducational technology, visual arts, music education, and the social foundations of education.

Like all outstanding programs, Hunter Colleges preparation program does not merely focus oncoverage of content. Instead, teacher educators work with the preservice teachers in their classeson learning multiple instructional strategies for communicating what they have learned, preparingthose teachers to use, adapt, and transform professional knowledge into the many challenging andunconventional situations they will face in classrooms.

In the best programs studied, undergraduateslearn about teaching reading by developing an inte-grated set of content knowledge and applicationskills that incorporates

Conceptual understandings about the founda-tions of language development

Proficiency with formal and informal assess-ment tools to determine readers readingstrengths and weaknesses

Expertise with instructional strategies andmaterials for readers of all backgrounds andabilities

This kind of principled approach to developing con-tent knowledge calls for visiting important topics re-peatedly and building a depth of knowledgesystematically throughout the course of study.

Moving ForwardImproving preparation programs for teachers ofreading may require that they devote more time toreading methods, beyond the national average of sixhours a semester, so that students can develop adepth of content knowledge. Many outstandingprograms do go beyond six hours, and they neverlose sight of the goal of linking content knowledgewith classroom application.

Further, excellence in teacher education does notresult from courses taken in random sequence.Improving the reading components of teacher prepa-ration programs necessitates careful study and co-ordination of the topics covered by faculty in theprescribed course sequence. Several sites studied byIRAs Commission and its Teacher Education TaskForce have systematically developed comprehensivematrices that spell out the content covered in eachcourse and the links among courses. Additionally,study of the program curriculum in terms of stan-dards for reading professionals should not be a one-time event, but rather an ongoing process thatinvolves dialogue among faculty members.

Feature 2: Faculty and Teaching

R E S E A R C H F I N D I N GExemplary programs that produce outstandinggraduates have faculty members who are

committed to providing a sophisticatedknowledge base and to modeling successfulinstructional techniques for their students.

The quality of the instruction provided is a criticalfactor in the success of preparation programs.Excellent programs go beyond delivering contentand evaluating studentlearning with tests:Excellence demands adopt-ing a pedagogy that demon-strates and producesknowledge in action.Teacher educators knowthat their students must beable to use what they learnto tackle the challenges oftodays classrooms. Teacher educators themselvesmodel good teaching as they teach both theory andpractice to undergraduates; they understand thatthe impact of coursework can be both profound andlong lasting (Grisham, 2000; Lonberger, 1992).

In outstanding programs, faculty members as-sume the primary responsibility for teaching cours-es and supervising field experiences. The teachingfaculty in such programs is largely comprised of in-dividuals holding doctoral degrees in reading, lan-guage arts, or a closely related field, who haveextensive experience in classroom teaching or inworking as reading specialists or curriculum super-visors. They are committed educators, engaging inongoing professional development, service, andscholarship in the field, and the tenure and promo-tion criteria at their universities take these aspectsof their work into account. Teacher educators in ex-cellent programs know more than the principlesand practices most successful in reading instruction;they also model a command of content and peda-gogical excellence. They are not merely masters ofknowledge; they embody that knowledge as well.

Explicit Teaching Preparation for reading instruction requires thatteachers master a sophisticated body of knowledgeand that they put this knowledge into action inclassrooms. The IRA research efforts suggest thatexplicit teaching (Pearson & Gallagher, 1983) thatincludes clear explanation with good examples,

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We treat our students as weexpect them to treat theirstudentsas individualswith needs andexpectations.

FACULTY MEMBER, UNIVERSITY OFSIOUX FALLS

modeling, and extensive opportunities for practiceis effective in producing beginning teachers whohave and use necessary knowledge in classrooms.While not every situation calls for all three compo-nents of explicit teaching, the TETF review (Riskoet al., in process) found a very strong relationship

between effect strength andthe number of componentsincluded.

Undergraduate studentsdemonstrate real change intheir own approach toteaching when the instruc-tion they receive providesclear explanations of con-cepts and instructionalpractices using good exam-ples. This includes present-ing varied examples andcounter-examples so preser-vice teachers are able to de-duce the defining featuresof the approach understudyas well as juxtapos-ing examples that differ inmany ways but are the samein others, and that provideopportunities for these un-

dergraduate students to apply their knowledge.The Commission study (IRA, 2003a) showed thatwithin outstanding teacher education programs,faculty members structure the information theypresent around central concepts and ideasandteach beginning teachers how to structure informa-tion for their students as well.

However, clear explanation is only one elementof explicit instruction. Equally important is model-ing diverse instructional formats using a wide rangeof materials. The best pedagogy in colleges of edu-cation no longer revolves around the twin poles oflecture and discussion. It incorporates alternativeapproaches, including case studies and multimediamaterials, and demonstrates the strategies understudy. Teacher educators in these programs neverrely on a single method of instruction; they usemultiple approaches to convey content (NICHD,2000; Roberts & Hsu, 2000).

Underlying this approach to teaching is the be-lief that, in everything they do, faculty members are

consciously modeling outstanding pedagogicalpractices for their undergraduate students. Studiesshow that what beginning teachers learn is signifi-cantly increased when their teachers directly modelthe instructional format under investigation (Fox,1994). Faculty members who consistently and re-peatedly embody in their own teaching the kinds ofdiverse strategies they are presenting to their stu-dents are more effective than those who do not. Bymodeling a commitment to diverse and focusedpedagogical strategiesand adopting a critical atti-tude toward their own teachingthese teacher ed-ucators produce graduates who are better equippedto provide creative classroom environments thatstimulate learning (Stevens, 2002).

But a commitment to this kind of teaching goesbeyond encouraging students to imitate their pro-fessors. True models are mentors who value whateach individual brings to the learning context andwho engage their students in opportunities to puttheory into practice, helping teachers of all back-grounds apply what they are learning within newcontexts (Risko, 1995; Wolf, Ballentine, & Hill,2000; Wolf, Hill, & Ballentine, 1999). They create alearning environment that demonstrates their com-mitment to the education of each and every begin-ning teacher in the class and that actively supportsthe efforts of everyone. Just as they expect class-room teachers to find and build upon the strengthsin each young reader, they demand the same ofthemselves with each of their undergraduate stu-dents. Such teachers intentionally create opportuni-ties where their students can try out new strategies,ask questions about their instruction, and receivefocused feedback that is both critical and construc-tive (Bean, 1997). Often they provide practice op-portunities within the university classroom. Thesein-class opportunities are followed by observationand carefully structured and closely supervised fieldexperiences.

Teacher educators gradually release responsi-bility as their students competence grows (Pearson& Gallagher, 1983). They promote collaborativelearning environments involving guided peer in-struction, which research has shown effective inhelping beginning teachers acquire, shape, and re-inforce content (Mallette, Maheady, & Harper,1999; Morgan et al., 1992; Nierstheimer, Hopkins,Dillon, & Schmitt, 2000). These professors en-

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Good teacher educatorshave mastered the gradualrelease of responsibility.They give goodexplanations, provideexcellent models, and allowtheir students to practice,often in the protectedenvironment of theuniversity classroom andultimately in highlystructured and carefullysupervised field settings.

RESEARCHER, NATIONALCOMMISSION ON EXCELLENCE IN

ELEMENTARY TEACHERPREPARATION FOR READING

INSTRUCTION

courage their students to reflect about their ownbeliefs regarding pedagogical practices while lead-ing discussions regarding those beliefs. They helpbeginning teachers interpret the data they gatherabout the progress young readers are making sothat they can adjust their teaching where necessary(Fox, 1994). By approaching their teaching role asmentors who model, these faculty members nur-ture the next generation of educators, who thenfollow the best practices they have learned andteach with a conscious awareness of their own cru-cial role in contributing to student learning(Leland, Harste, & Youssef, 1997).

Moving ForwardThere is a need for broad implementation of bestpractices in undergraduate teaching. Faculty in

preparation programs often are pressured to em-phasize skill and content acquisition by stakehold-ers who fail to recognize that these are merelymeans to the end (NICHD, 2000). Given thesevery real pressures and the limited time they haveavailable in their courses, teacher educators some-times lose sight of the myriad ways differentiatedinstruction can be implemented in their own class-rooms, and they fall back on more traditional onesize fits all approaches to instruction (Kaste, 2001;Walker & Ramseth, 1993; Wilson et al., 1993).

In order to address these concerns, teacherpreparation programs must recruit and retain fac-ulty who are committed to excellence, who keepabreast of the latest research in the field of readingeducation and in the area of instructional strate-gies. These teachers must work together to create

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Faculty and Teaching in ActionAt the University of Texas at Austin, careful planning and coordination of coursework and fieldexperiences provide an optimal setting for explicit teaching and the gradual release ofresponsibility.

In a reading course, the professor demonstrates the use of literature circles by conductingliterature circles at intervals throughout the semester, each time providing a different option fororganizing them. First, the university students themselves choose particular bookssometimesbooks for children or adolescents, sometimes professional books, and sometimes adult tradebooksto read and discuss. The circle discussions begin in different ways: choosing particularsections of a book to share with a group, having readers keep response journals and begindiscussions by sharing a section from them, having students bring a question about the book toask their classmates. The professor also models different ways to orchestrate the discussion and avariety of ways to end a literature circle.

Students have lots of opportunities to practice the use of literature circles in their universityclasses, but at the same time, they are engaged in field experiences where they observe classroomteachers conducting literature circles. Sometimes they assist the teacher and help with one of thecircles. Finally, they have opportunities to run literature circles in their field placements. When theybegin their student teaching, they are confident and competent to use literature circles to achievetheir instructional goals.

Similarly, beginning teachers at Norfolk State University in Virginia spend significant timelearning about childrens and young adult literature and students book choices in their readingcoursework. Many of the teachers then have an opportunity to apply their learning by working inthe Reading Partners Clinic and participating in the Reading Is Fundamental (RIF) bookdistribution program. They learn about the literature and about students interests and havechances to explorefirst in coursework, then in activities in the university classroom, and finally inthe field with RIF.

a program of study that not only informs under-graduate students about learning strategies for allkinds of readers but about appropriate assessmentstrategies, tooand they must model these prac-tices in the university classroom (Briggs et al.,1998; Mallette, Kile, Smith, McKinney, &Readence, 2000). Faculty at outstanding programsconstantly evaluate their own teachingnot onlyto determine whether the content they are teach-ing is understood by their students, but whetherthe students can effectively implement what theyare learning.

Feature 3: Apprenticeships, FieldExperiences, and Practica

R E S E A R C H F I N D I N GExcellent teacher education programs engagebeginning teachers in a variety of fieldexperiences in which they have opportunities touse their coursework and interact with excellentmodels and mentors.

Nearly every research study that has examined ap-prenticeships in teacher preparation programs em-phasizes that student teaching and otherfield-based experiences are critical to developingexpertise in future teachers. The value of fieldteaching is that it gives undergraduates practicalexperience in using their newly acquired knowl-edge and skills to assess student needs and to plan,organize, and manage lessons for reading.

The value of that experience is diminishedconsiderably, however, ifthe fieldwork experiencedby beginning teachers runscontrary to the knowledgebase and instructionalmodeling they have re-ceived in the college class-room. Hence, outstandingpreparation programs donot leave field placement tochance. The leaders ofthese programs pair theirstudents with excellentpracticing teachers who act

as models, and they situate them in classroomsthat transcend the typical student-teaching sce-nario. They present beginning teachers with care-fully arranged hands-on field experiences inreading instruction, including tutoring, diagnosticassessments, and small-group and whole-class in-structionall of which mirror and reinforce thecoursework and preparation provided in the uni-versity setting.

Putting Learning Into PracticePerhaps unsurprisingly, the best practices in in-structing teachersexplicit explanation of the ma-terial, modeling thinking processes to produceactive and engaged student learning, followed bymultiple practice opportunitiesturn out to bethe best practices for K12 classrooms. And just aspedagogy in preparation programs has moved be-yond the traditional lecture and discussion format,so has classroom teaching in schools shifted to in-clude multiple instructional formats. The bestprograms design their placement policies and pro-cedures with this in mind. Teacher educators atthese institutions know that the two factors mostinfluential in determining the success of field ex-periences are exposure to classroom environmentswhere explicit references to course and case con-tent are madeto help beginning teachers applythe knowledge they have learned in their studiesand guidance from master teachers with explicitfeedback to further learning during fieldwork(Maheady, Mallette, & Harper, 1996; Mallette etal., 1999). In fact, research shows that early expo-sure to a classroom environment that illustratesthe material under study and where the teachermodels appropriate instructional methodologiesstrongly affects the future effectiveness of teachers(Grisham, 2000; Lonberger, 1992). At the core ofevery outstanding apprenticeship program, then, isa commitment to provide a practical foundationfor future teaching through field experiences thatdemonstrate proven, established, and successfulstrategies for teaching readingand a mentoringrelationship that involves regular debriefing offieldwork activities for greater understanding andfuture effectiveness in the classroom (Clift &Brady, 2005; Fazio, 2000, 2003).

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The fieldwork is soimportant. You can learnit, you can hear it, you canread itbut if you arentexperiencing it, its notgoing to be the same.... Youhave to really be doing it tounderstand it.

BEGINNING TEACHER, GRADUATE OFHUNTER COLLEGE

The basis for successful fieldwork is a closelink with coursework. Excellent teacher educationprograms provide field opportunities for their un-dergraduates that are carefully crafted and closelysupervised so that their students can experiencehow course content comes to life in the classroom(NICHD, 2000, pp. 1516). For example, an in-tentional apprenticeship program would place apreservice teacher taking a course in comprehen-sion instruction in a tutoring or other positionwhere she or he had the opportunity to work withstudents to improve their reading comprehensionusing strategies under study in the college class-room. In this way, field experiences are strategical-ly designed to reinforce practices and helpbeginning teachers become self-aware and inten-tional about their pedagogy. They trigger deeperreflection on the reasons behind use of a particularlearning strategy in a particular context (Matanzo& Harris, 1999). As teachers move through an in-tegrated program of study, they participate in fieldexperiences that highlight the different aspects ofliteracy teaching they are learning about in theclassroom. These experiences become more so-phisticated, comprehensive, and demanding asstudents progress in their education, ensuring thatbeginning teachers are exposed to the full readingcurriculum. Their growing knowledge base is but-tressed with real-world applications of it in theclassroom.

But teaching is not merely the process of apply-ing the right content to the right situationitsalso about selecting the best available instructionalapproach and materials (Risko, 1995; Wolf,Ballentine, & Hill, 2000; Wolf, Hill, & Ballentine,1999). In field experiences, beginning teacherslearn how to make pedagogical theory come aliveby being exposed to real studentsnot the hypo-thetical students of their methods textbooks. Fieldexperiences provide an opportunity to couple un-derstanding of material with the task of teaching it.Beginning teachers learn to use their understand-ing of which instructional formats and materialsare best suited for the situation at hand. They gainfirst-hand knowledge of how to respond flexiblyand opportunistically with the best approach forinstructing individuals or groups of students(NICHD, 2000, p. 16).

To provide supportevery step of the way, edu-cators in the placementclassroom provide the guid-ance and feedback necessaryto help student teacherslearn how to turn theircoursework into applicablestrategies for teaching read-ing. Research shows thatguided demonstrations inplacement scenarios are akey factor in molding theapproach teachers take intheir own classrooms aftergraduation (Bean, 1997;Stevens, 2002). Hence,feedback in outstandingplacement programs means more than requiringapprentice teachers to go into classrooms and re-port back on what happened. It means explicit de-briefing of what the student teacher saw during theplacement and reflection about how that knowl-edge coupled with diagnostic data will shape futureinstruction (Leland et al., 1997). Professor feed-back regarding learning logs, lesson plans, and dia-logue journals has been shown to have an impacton student teaching. Peer coaching and collabora-tion also provide important avenues for students toexplore their understanding of classroom pedagogyand to examine explicitly their practices and beliefsagainst their knowledge background (Anderson,Caswell, & Hayes, 1994; Mallette et al., 1999;Morgan et al., 1992).

Providing support to beginning teachers meansopening up instructional spaces where they can askquestions and make multiple attempts with differ-ent instructional approaches. There must be a sys-tem of observations and guided feedback forundergraduates entering the classroom as studentteachers (Mallette et al., 1999; Massey, 2003;Morgan et al., 1992). In sum, when students areprovided the opportunity to debrief and processtheir fieldwork with seasoned and experiencedteachers and university faculty, research shows thattheir pedagogy evolves to reflect an effective andobjective methodological approach toward readinginstruction (Levin, 1995; Morgan et al.).

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I value the practicum that Ihad with [two teachers]because they were using thestrategies I was learningand that was very helpful.Just being able to observehow the strategies werebeing used and also havingthe opportunity to trythem.... I probablywouldnt have used some ofthem otherwise.

BEGINNING TEACHER, GRADUATE OFTHE UNIVERSITY OF SIOUX FALLS

Model MentoringThe quality of the teaching models in field settingsclearly influences what beginning teachers learn.The research literature indicates that placing stu-dents with ineffective models may lead them to ig-nore the content and strategies presented in theirteacher preparation program, substituting insteadthe inefficient and ineffective practices they ob-

serve (Dowhower, 1990).On the other hand, placingundergraduates in contactwith classroom teacherswho serve as excellent mod-els of the vision and teach-ing philosophy of theteacher education programproduces good results.

Outstanding reading ed-ucation programs recognizethat placement should bedeliberate, not haphazard, ifapprenticeships are to gen-erate experiences that resultin better teachers (Roskos& Walker, 1994; Shefelbine& Shiel, 1990). In suchprograms, the teacher edu-

cators responsible for fieldwork are actively in-volved in placing students into a systematic andintegrated progression of classroom experienceswhile simultaneously ensuring that the classroomteachers share the programs vision and teachingphilosophy and that they model effective teachingpractices for undergraduates. Some programs workactively to develop the mentoring skills of cooper-ating teachers, while others recruit teachers whoare program graduatesbut every apprenticeshipopportunity is rooted in supporting beginningteachers by providing exemplary modeling. Theprofessionals they are shadowing in the classroomprovide outstanding instruction to their studentsand therefore serve as templates for beginningteachers.

Researchers report that, without supportive andeffective models, graduates of reading educationprograms are much less likely to use the instruc-tional strategies they have been taughtor sharethem with their students (Bean, 1997; Dynak &

Smith, 1994). It is critical, then, that new teachersreceive the appropriate instruction and have thatreinforced in classroom settings with effectiveteachers who can guide them in applying theirknowledge base (Risko, 1995; Wolf, Ballentine, &Hill, 2000; Wolf, Hill, & Ballentine, 1999). Goodmodels are visibly intentional about how theyteach; they provide clear demonstrations duringfield placements. They care deeply about improv-ing instruction each and every day, and they triggercritical reflective moments by questioning closelythe student teachers placed in their classrooms(Risko, Roskos, & Vukelich, 2002). In sum, theyprovide the structure and supervision necessary toproduce the next generation of mentor models inthe classroom.

Moving ForwardApprenticeship experiences vary the contexts androles in which undergraduates learn. The bestteacher education programs offer extensive fieldexperiences, consistent with the teacher educationliterature that calls for more and earlier field expe-riences. But the best programs also know that ap-prenticeships must be systematically developed,with undergraduates often requiring hundreds ofhours of classroom experiences prior to studentteaching. Without careful placement that linksclassroom learning with student teaching, studiesshow that the effectiveness of apprenticeship pro-grams diminishes considerably (Irvine, 2001;Sleeter, 2001). Fieldwork placement thereforemust be embedded in the narrative of the begin-ning teachers overall educational experience.Further, effective apprenticeship entails carefulobservation, honest critiquing, clear communica-tion, and meaningful guidance. Beginning teach-ers will not become good teachers if feedback islimited to affirmation. Positive support by the su-pervising teacher and university faculty, then, takesthe form of affirmation with direction (Mallette etal., 2000).

Finally, programs, like teachers, must subjectthemselves to critical assessments concerning howwell their apprenticeship activities are meeting theneeds of the students they serve, and make adjust-ments accordingly (Anderson et al., 1994).

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One of the biggestturnarounds for ourprogram came when Istarted taking personalresponsibility for choosingthe cooperating teacherscarefully. I knew what wewanted our students to see,and now I dont leave it upto chance. I choose theirteacher, and we follow theteacher.

FACULTY MEMBER, UNIVERSITY OFTEXAS AT AUSTIN

Feature 4: Diversity

R E S E A R C H F I N D I N GExcellent teacher education programs aresuccessful in sensitizing their students to allforms of diversity.

Educators recognize that U.S. classrooms are be-coming increasingly diverse, and classroom teacherssee differences among students that run the gamutfrom concerns related to academic ability and learn-ing styles to challenges regarding competence inEnglish, language dialects, and differences in cul-tural backgrounds and experiences. In schools to-day, diversity is the norm, not the exception.

Effective teachers must respect and respond tothese differences while they help children learnhow to read. It is only through a shared visionstrengthened by a communal sense of purpose that the best programs produce these effective

teachers, preparing them to meet the needs ofdiverse learners.

Cultural DiversityThe eight excellent programs studied by the IRACommission shared a commitment to preparinggraduates to reach readers with diverse back-grounds (IRA, 2003a). In these programs, admin-istrators, faculty, and students agree that they mustadapt and respond to the needs of readers as indi-viduals. The administration does not simply reactto student circumstances, but rather promotes ac-tive strategies that value diversity and differences;stronger programs are built because of this stance.The faculty uses the latest research to stress theimportance of family narratives in developing lit-eracy and makes connections between the instruc-tion teachers provide in classrooms and childrenshome experiences (Clark & Medina, 2000; Foote

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Apprenticeships in Action At Indiana University in Bloomington, undergraduates conduct reading and writing conferenceswith students at three local elementary schools as part of an inquiry-based learning approach. Withmodeling and mentoring assistance, these preservice teachers investigate the strengths andweaknesses of each child with regard to reading ability. Then, they take active steps to institute anindividualized program to reinforce positive strategies and provide the child with additional skills todevelop fluency and comprehension.

At Florida International University, undergraduates learn about the writing process in class andthen take a group of children through the process in a field experience. Part of this programincludes conferences at which student teachers and children meet with parents to discussprogress in writing and share written work. The cooperating teacher sits in on the conferences andprovides feedback to the beginning teacher, helping him negotiate the complex field ofparentchild relationships and build an understanding of the connections between family andschool literacy.

The University of Nevada at Reno carefully aligns the curriculum and field experiences for thereading components of its teacher preparation program with the International ReadingAssociations (2003b) Standards for Reading Professionals. Further, the College of Educationcollaborates with the universitys College of Arts and Sciences, where future teachers are expectedto take courses in such content areas as English, math, and science, and thereby develop contentknowledge in other academic disciplines. The placement program then taps into the curricularbackground of undergraduates, linking them according to their particular interests and strengths tocontent area classrooms with teachers who model effective reading instruction strategies.

& Linder, 2000; Kidd,Sanchez, & Thorp, 2000;Mottley & Telfer, 1997).They identify institutionalpractices and attitudes thatmight impede studentlearning, and they practiceinstructional methodologiesthat reach diverse popula-tions in their own collegeclassrooms (Wolf,Ballentine, & Hill, 2000;Wolf, Hill, & Ballentine,1999). Beginning teacherstake up the challenge asthey reinforce these beliefsand approaches in theirfieldwork: They intention-ally make connections to

their students by engaging in discussions, and theycritique these with faculty and peers (Mora &Grisham, 2001; Xu, 2000a, 2000b).

The end result of a commitment to reaching di-verse learners is a program that instills in its gradu-ates an abiding respect for the individuality of eachchild and a belief that everyone can learn to read ifgiven the right instruction by the right teacher.Beginning teachers in excellent programs strive tobe such teachers. With the guidance of administra-tors, faculty, and peers, they seek to make a differ-ence in the lives of those they teach (Wolf, Carey,& Mieras, 1996a).

Exemplary programs take an active positionaround issues of diversity. For instance, theUniversity of Texas at San Antonio responded tostudent and community needs with the creation ofits downtown campus and literacy center (Keehn,Martinez, Harmon, Hedrick, Perez, & Steinmetz,2003). The teaching faculty negotiated with cityofficials, identified a suitable location, and con-vinced university administrators that the planwould be valuable in preparing teachers for readinginstruction. They targeted funds to support thecenter and solicited reading materials from pub-lishers. Today, through the literacy center, theteacher preparation program is directly linked topublic schools in the area and to the predominantlyMexican American population. The programs vi-sion of preparing teachers to work with diverse

populations is realized in careful placement of stu-dents in field experiences, outreach to surroundingschools, and courses that address issues and topicsof diversity. Through the literacy center, facultymembers work collaboratively with local schools,helping them obtain funding, conduct staff devel-opment, and design, implement, and evaluate liter-acy programs.

Differentiating InstructionA clear manifestation of a focus on diversity is acommitment to reaching struggling readers. TheTETF review (Risko et al., in process) found thatfor novice teachers, acting as tutors for strugglingreaders was a powerful way to learn how to differ-entiate instruction. Teacher educators know thateffective tutoring of struggling readers is a complexactivity that requires a very high level of structuredsupport. Despite the complexity, results areremarkable when beginning teachers are given that support.

Consider, for example, deficit views regardingstruggling learners. Research has shown that suchviews on the part of teachers are among the great-est impediments struggling readers face. Findingsin multiple studies have shown that eliminatingthis deficit mentality is critically tied to the guidedinstruction beginning teachers receive when work-ing with struggling readers (Irvine, 2001; Malletteet al., 2000; Massey, 2003; Nierstheimer et al.,2000; Worthy & Patterson, 2001). Other studieshave shown conclusively that maintaining the be-lief that struggling readers can be successfullytaught how to read is linked to the relationshipsbetween future teachers and the mentors who in-still such beliefs in them (Nierstheimer et al.). Theintensity of the apprenticeship program is also akey ingredient in changing the outlook of begin-ning teachers (Massey, 2003; Nierstheimer et al.,2000; Worthy & Patterson, 2001). Reinforcingnew beliefs with feedback from both the teacherand the students peers is necessary to accomplish a transformation in outlook (Massey; Morgan etal., 1992; Roskos & Walker, 1994; Shefelbine &Shiel, 1990).

The focus on struggling readers in exemplaryprograms is strong. Researchers have found thatthe best instructional practices regarding the teach-

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We have a lot of studentswith diverse backgroundsand unique experiencescoming to the United Statesand the community asforeigners. They know theimmigrant experience, andthey are successful. I wantthem to feel that they havesomething very valuable topass on to their children.They can serve to inspireothers.

FACULTY MEMBER, FLORIDAINTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY

ing of children with learning differences mirror theprinciples articulated abovethat is, it is necessaryfor the teacher to understand the challenges facingthese learners and for both the student and theteacher to have high expectations that reading in-struction will be successful (Massey, 2003;Shefelbine & Shiel, 1990). Compassion for theselearners does not dictate lowered expectationsindeed, it often requires teachers to revise theirpreconceptions regarding what struggling readersare capable of (Irvine, 2001; Wolf, Carey, &Mieras, 1996b).

Teachers in preparation must apply their under-standing of diagnostic tools to interpret the datathey gather in order to offer appropriate differenti-ated instruction that adapts to individual studentneeds (Kaste, 2001; NICHD, 2000, p. 11; Roskos& Walker, 1994; Shefelbine & Shiel, 1990; Xu,2000a, 2000b). By having high expectations of boththemselves and their students, teachers learn thebenefits of offering clearly articulated lessons with

vivid examples and of modeling the best practices inthe field. As a result, they become not merely out-standing teachers, but genuine mentors to their stu-dents (Nierstheimer et al., 2000; Worthy &Patterson, 2001).

The support given to beginning teachers mani-fests itself in many forms. Teacher educators showsupport in how they value what each individualbrings to the learning context. Just as they expectclassroom teachers to find and build upon thestrengths in each young reader, they work activelyto find the strengths in each of their undergradu-ate students (Massey, 2003; Nierstheimer et al.,2000; Worthy & Patterson, 2001). Awareness ofthe diversity of the student body in reading educa-tion programs plays out in field placements, whereundergraduates often work in schools that servediverse populations. But it also means providingthese students with specific, targeted feedback tohelp them make changes in their approach whennecessary (Fazio, 2003; Grisham, 2000; Gupta,

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Diversity in ActionFlorida International University is located in urban, multicultural Miami. Its College of Education, likethe university as a whole, prepares students to succeed in this environment. Faculty members arecommitted to mentoring a diverse student body and nurturing a passion for teaching. They modelpedagogy that is both engaging and rigorous.

The core curriculum for the first two years at the university includes a comparative culturescourse, in which teachers in the college classroom expose undergraduates to a variety ofethnicities to promote respect for and understanding of diverse backgrounds. All educationmajors are required to take a course in teaching diverse populations, during which they studyspecific strategies and skills for implementing instruction that facilitates student learning. Theelementary education program incorporates the teaching competencies developed by Teachers ofEnglish to Speakers of Other Languages, and requires two classes in methods specific toteaching second-language learners. Teacher educators in these courses use the latest research insecond-language acquisition to provide in-depth instruction to beginning teachers. In addition toregular literacy classes, undergraduates also are offered explicit instruction in teachingexceptional students, during which they discover how to modify literacy lessons to meet the needsof advanced readers.

Faculty members at Florida International University offer a well-rounded education that givesteachers the opportunity to learn and practice reading education techniques effectively in a widevariety of contexts. Acting on the belief that students come first, the outstanding teachers at FloridaInternational University constantly adapt instruction to the needs, interests, and strengths of theirstudentsmodeling precisely the kind of teaching they inspire in their graduates.

2004; Many et al., 1998;Matanzo & Harris, 1999;Wolf, Carey, & Mieras,1996b).

Beginning teachersneed to see how skilledmentors adjust instructionto meet the needs of stu-dents and how those ad-justments are made usingcarefully interpreted diag-

nostic information (Grisham, 2000; Matanzo &Harris, 1999; Roskos & Walker, 1994; Shefelbine& Shiel, 1990; Wolf, Carey, & Mieras, 1996a).Implementing those instructional strategies ex-plicitly after seeing them modeledand tracingthe improvements in student learning as a resulthas an enormous impact on beginning teachersattitudes toward teaching struggling readers(Mallette et al., 2000; Nierstheimer et al., 2000;Worthy & Patterson, 2001). Study after studyshows that teachers who initially had deficit views of struggling readers revised their views after undergoing a carefully supervised teachingexperience.

Moving ForwardAll children regardless of background or ability de-serve the opportunity to flourish as readers, and re-search shows that an explicit, holistic, andintegrated approach is essential for successful indi-vidualized instruction. Faculty in outstanding read-ing education programs are committed to modelingthe strategies that reach struggling readers, as wellas to mentoring teachers as they grow in their ap-preciation of the challenges and opportunities pre-sented by todays diverse reading classrooms(Massey, 2003; Nierstheimer et al., 2000; Worthy &Patterson, 2001).

Feature 5: Candidate andProgram Assessment

R E S E A R C H F I N D I N GTeacher educators at outstanding preparationprograms intentionally and regularly assess their

students, their program, their graduates, andthemselves, and use information gleaned fromthese assessments to guide instructionaldecision making and program development.

The focus on improving student achievement in theUnited States has spotlighted assessmentnot justof students, but also of their teachers and the pro-grams that produce them. The Commission re-search indicated that exemplary programs takethoughtful, creative, and integrated approaches to-ward assessment at all stages (IRA, 2003a). The in-tention is not merely to identify potentially goodteachers, but to help improve the quality of currentundergraduates, future classroom teachers, and fac-ulty members themselves.

Multiple comprehensive measures, in additionto mandated external tests, should be used to as-sess students and programsbut the way the bestprograms use the assessment information is in-structive. By paying systematic attention to assess-ments and using them in untraditional ways,excellent programs do not merely measure thequality of their students, teaching faculty, andcurriculum. Instead, they strive to identify ways to improve every aspect of their programs.Assessments are not used as barriers to hold peo-ple back, but rather as diagnostic tools to help un-dergraduates and faculty improve their teachingand learning. By taking this stance, these programsmodel for beginning teachers the positive ways inwhich multiple forms of assessment, used on acontinual basis, can inform program decisions andenhance teaching effectiveness.

Assessments That WorkFormal and informal assessments have a long tra-dition of use in reading education. Professionalwisdom has embraced informal measures such asthe reading inventory, checklists, and attitude sur-veys. In addition, reading has been a basic compo-nent of most standardized tests. With the currentfocus on accountability, assessment is critically im-portant at district, state, and national levels. It has had a major impact on classrooms across the nation.

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My vision is for mystudents to become teacherswho are able to look at achild as an individual andplan instructionaccordingly.

FACULTY MEMBER, UNIVERSITY OFSIOUX FALLS

In similar fashion, research shows that out-standing programs in teacher education for readinginstruction consistently use a variety of assess-ments at multiple stages to evaluate studentprogress. In turn, the faculty members in theseprograms realize that measurements of studentprogress are also evaluations of the program andthe faculty. A closer look at the various points at

which assessments occur reveals the dual functionof student assessment and how both students andteachers benefit from an intentional focus on as-sessments that work.

Admission to the program. In keeping with the re-newed emphasis on higher academic standards forfuture teachers, outstanding reading education pro-

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Assessment in Action A student whose native language is Spanish entered the teacher preparation program at FloridaInternational University after spending three years working and earning an associates degree inarts at Miami-Dade Community College. Strictly by the numbers, Hortenses prospects were lessthan stellar: She had a GPA of 2.8, which she earned after taking remedial reading and mathclasseshigh enough to meet the universitys 2.5 GPA minimum, but hardly extraordinary. Althoughshe easily passed all parts of the College Level Academic Skills Test required for students totransfer to state universities in Florida, her SAT score of 940 and ACT score of 17 put her belowthe universitys requirements.

Florida International University uses a continuum of assessments to ensure academicaccountabilityand to give students like Hortense every opportunity to succeed. And Hortense wasdetermined to succeed. In her application essay, she wrote movingly about her commitment toteaching and her volunteer work with children in her community, and she explained convincingly thejourney she was on to reach her goal of becoming a teacherincluding how she enrolled in severalelementary education classes and had recently applied for both a substitute and teacher aideposition in order to gain more experience and knowledge. The university and the College ofEducation saw her potential both as an educator and as a community member, and offered herprovisional admission to the program.

Once admitted on a waiver, her academics began to improve, in no small part due to thefeedback she received on assessments. Among those assessments was a culminating portfolio inwhich she collected samples of her work to demonstrate outcomes for each stage of her program,as well as her meeting of the Florida Department of Educations standards. These samplesincluded lesson plans, written papers for assignments, reflections from classroom experiences,student work samples with her comments, and audio- and videotape of her own teaching. Not onlydid she demonstrate her success in the classroom, but she was able to reflect critically on herexperience as both a teacher and a student.

After graduation her ties to the university were not cut, but strengthened. She was paired with amentor in the masters program in reading education and attended graduate classes in readinginstruction. She excelled in her student teaching and met state and national licensing standards,and is now seen as a modelnot only of teaching excellence, but also of how an integratedassessment system can serve to identify talents and improve skills to produce an outstandingteacher. A faculty member at the university summed up her experience: We have many studentswith diverse backgrounds and unique experiences...they know the immigrant experience, and theyare successful. They have something very valuable to pass on...they can serve to inspire others.

grams all require minimumgrade point averages(GPAs). But rather than re-lying only on numbers totell the story, program direc-tors gather a wealth of in-formation on potentialcandidates, including essaysand personal interviews.This extensive applicationprocess acts as a screeningmechanism but also helpsadmissions officers uncoverqualities of excellence thatmay not be revealed in

GPAs aloneand provides critical information tofaculty about how to shape the program to respondto student needs that are not articulated throughinterpretation of grade scores alone.

Monitoring during the course of study. The bestteacher preparation programs use tests and gradesto assess their students knowledge and skills in spe-cific courses, but assessment strategies have evolvedbeyond a series of quizzes used to determinewhether undergraduates have learned the material.Outstanding programs reflect this evolution. In ad-dition to setting exams, these programs review stu-dent progress from a holistic point of view atcritically determined stagesat the end of semes-ters, to be sure, but also during the term in theclassroom and in field settings. Doing so allowsteacher educators to judge the readiness of theirstudents for the next stage of the program and tooffer corrective feedback in a timely way so thatstudents can make adjustments.

Assessments also serve as gauges of programsuccess in meeting student needs: If students regu-larly struggle to meet a certain proficiency level, thispoints to a gap in program instruction that needs tobe remedied.

Benchmarking achievement at graduation. Theend of the program is almost always a critical as-sessment period, but research shows that, in thebest programs, graduation is not simply perceived asa final measure of student achievement, but as a pe-riod for reflection on the program of study as awhole. The ability to discuss the preparation they

have received in a systematic fashion with potentialemployers is a vital interview skill for beginningteachers, and final evaluations that challenge stu-dents to look critically at their accomplishmentswithin the program are enormously beneficial.Many exemplary programs require students to pre-pare final portfolios of their projects and progress.These portfolios serve job candidates well as theybegin to search for a position in the education mar-ket, and they also serve as useful benchmarks forfaculty within preparation programs, since any gapsthey reveal prompt teacher educators to rethink thecourse of study and modify instruction accordingly.

Evaluating graduates in the teaching profession.Once one class graduates, education programstypically shift their energies to the next group ofundergraduates and do not track the effectivenessof their former students as they move into class-rooms of their own (NICHD, 2000, p. 17). Butthe best programs realize that just as instructionmust reach beyond the university setting to be ef-fective, so too must the programs extend beyondgraduation to continue the pursuit of excellence.Outstanding programs systematically collect dataabout the performance of their graduates in theworkplace to evaluate their own effectiveness inpreparing the next classes of future teachers. Theteaching experiences of recent graduates providecritical information for program assessment, butprogram administrators caring about what is hap-pening to graduates also serves to sustain the senseof community built during the undergraduateyears. Nurturing those relationships creates analumni network that new graduates can tap intoupon entering the job market. It also creates aready pool of educators that faculty can accesswhen they are seeking mentors for future field-work and speakers for informational sessions forcurrent students.

Moving ForwardOutstanding programs put assessment at the fore-front of their agenda. Assessment is critical be-cause it reveals both the strengths and theweaknesses of a program, and recent research inusing multiple assessments reveals opportunitiesfor improving instruction that do not surface with-

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Our program is changingconstantly based on whatwe are learning from ourexperience with teacherpreparation.... We havebecome open to a lot moredata sources, and we havebecome a lot moresystematic about studyingourselves.

FACULTY MEMBER, UNIVERSITY OFTEXAS AT SAN ANTONIO

out this focus. Other studies have revealed a lackof coherence between classroom content in prepa-ration programs and the fieldwork performed bybeginning teachers, leading programs to redoubletheir efforts at alignment (Wideen, Mayer-Smith,& Moon, 1998). Assessment is a critical compo-nent of an outstanding education program, andpreservice teachers need to receive focused, inten-sive feedback about their own progress as well asinstruction in how to measure the progress of theirfuture students.

Feature 6: Governance,Resources, and Vision

R E S E A R C H F I N D I N GThe mission of outstanding teacher educationprograms is to create and sustain programscentered on a vision of quality teaching thatproduces a community of future leaders in readingeducation. The governance system ensures thatfaculty are able to implement the vision.

Designers of outstanding reading components inteacher education programs consciously adopt a vi-sion of the purpose and goals inherent in qualityteacher education generally. These values are in-fused in the content, pedagogy, and direction of theprogram, and are embedded in the thinking, ac-tions, and expectations of the programs administra-tors, faculty, and students, and the communitiesthey serve. The educators in these programs knowwho they are, what they believe, and how to leadtheir programs to accomplish their goals by activelyplanning the realization of their vision. Their ambi-tions reflect a set of values that provides not onlyguidance, but also passion and energy to help edu-cators maintain their focus in carrying out theirmission. As leaders in reading education, adminis-trators and faculty in outstanding programs take anactive role in deciding how to make the best use ofresources while seeking new avenues of support,knowing that adequate funding is critical for suc-cess. They enthusiastically encourage the profes-sional development and scholarship of their faculty,

while channeling funds toward innovative curricu-lum development and clinical work.

But truly excellent teacher preparation requires aprogram that is more than the sum of its parts. Thegovernance models at outstanding programs fullysupport the innovations of faculty while offeringprincipled leadership that reflects the values of theprogram. And these values do not simply stay in theclassroom: Faculty in exemplary programs workpurposefully to integrate students, professors, class-room teachers, graduates, and the public they serveinto a larger learning community. Students fromthese programs emerge having learned the value ofparticipating in a comprehensive education plan.Their learning communities not only enhance theirknowledge and instructional skills, but shape theminto future role models for other educators.

It is the combination of values, mission, andcommunity that constitute the overall vision of tru-ly remarkable preparation programs and the gradu-ates they produce (Hoffman et al., 2005; Maloch etal., 2003). A closer look at how these interrelatedaspects of vision and governance are manifestedreveals common themes found in all outstandingprograms.

Valuing Education While no two programs have exactly the same val-ues, the commonalities among exemplary programsfar outweigh the differences. Such programs have acore vision and message that is inherent in everycourse, shared among the faculty, and built intoteaching and learning experiences throughout theprogram. Many of the programs share curricularfeatures and operate from similar sources of profes-sional knowledge. They seethe beginning teacher as afacilitator who is beingtaught how to create a car-ing classroom environmentthat reaches all students byintegrating the childrenscultures, languages, andheritages into classroom in-struction. While outstand-ing programs express thesevalues differently, they all

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We want teachers to beskilled, strategic,purposeful, reflective,creative, responsive,innovativeall of theseare what we envision goodteaching is.

FACULTY MEMBER, UNIVERSITY OFTEXAS AT AUSTIN

agree that teachers should serve learners and thatoutstanding teaching is measured by what studentslearn.

Two examples illustrate this point. TheUniversity of Sioux Falls inSouth Dakota is a Christianliberal arts college thathighly values service to thewider community. The uni-versity supports this ap-proach by evaluating,promoting, and awarding

tenure to faculty members based primarily on theirteaching and contribution to the community.While research is valued and reviewed, there is nopublish or perish mindset. The department of ed-ucation recognizes faculty service to students andothers at the university, as well as contributions atthe local, state, and national levels. The teacher ed-ucation program at the University of Texas atAustin aligns its schedule not with the universitybut with the local public schools. Undergraduatesstart their fall semester in early Augusta fullthree weeks before the universitys fall schedule be-

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We want our teachers to beinstructional leaders anddecision makers who aremodeling good practices.

FACULTY MEMBER, HUNTERCOLLEGE

Governance, Resources, and Vision in Action Indiana University/Purdue University in Indianapolis holds a vision of creating learner-centeredenvironments in which children can pursue their own interests while being guided in their optionsand choices by teachers who have the very latest understanding of reading education. This visionemphasizes the social and personal nature of learning, wherein teachers are expected to developthe knowledge and skills they need to be advocates and leaders in promoting student opportunitiesto learn.

The program has done away with traditional course structures, opting instead for a model inwhich several professors teach their courses together, encouraging students to think holisticallyabout their learning rather than to consider courses in isolation. It employs a cohort model in whichgroups of students progress with the same faculty director or team throughout the program.Community is emphasized by having the teacher development program centered at a local school,tapping the talents of cooperating teachers as well as students and faculty members. The programfaculty takes responsibility for both undergraduate teacher preparation and the entire professionaldevelopment program, playing a central and active role in governance at the school. Themultifaceted approach to promoting shared values and accomplishing the mission demonstratesfaculty members wide-ranging commitment to a communal vision of excellence.

Norfolk State University in Virginia prepares teachers to teach in schools characterized bypoverty and cultural change. The children in these schools often struggle to learn, but NorfolkStates teacher preparation program is driven by a no excuses vision: Teachers will not usestudents poverty, family background, or cultural heritage as a pretext for their not learning to read.To the contrary, these conditions are seen by the faculty and students in the program as the veryreasons why qualified teachers are essential.

As part of their commitment to reaching every student, Norfolk State University runs a ReadingPartners Clinic for K6 children. Undergraduates screen and test children, observe tutoringsessions, and participate in special reading programs sponsored by the clinic, such as Read AcrossAmerica and parent workshops. Students participate in the America Reads Challenge Project andthe Reading Is Fundamental Free Book Distribution Projectinitiatives sponsored by the universityadministration because they support the teacher preparation program. By extending the communityto include families and the broader social institutions of the neighborhood, Norfolk StateUniversitys teacher preparation program demonstrates its integrated vision centered on values ofcommunity and of excellence regardless of background or socioeconomic status.

ginsbecause thats when K12 schools open forthe academic year. Students use the extra time topursue field teaching until their university coursesget underway. Though quite different in their sub-stance, both examples illustrate how student learn-ing is valued in the design and execution of theprogram.

Excellent programs also share common groundin the requirements they set for their students:

They adapt to meet students needs by, for ex-ample, scheduling classes to accommodatethose who are working their way through col-lege or caring for families.

They involve their students in decision mak-ing, from helping shape seminars of interest toidentifying schools for their field experiences.

They emphasize the value of each personthrough an inquiry-based approach to curricu-lum, instruction, and professional develop-ment, and the critical role each individual playsin his or her own education.

While not by any means an exhaustive list ofprogram values, these all point in the same direc-tion. Indeed, program visions capture what theideal program looks like in their desire to embodyand communicate these goals. Undergraduates arenot left to make sense of competing visions oragendas. Instead, they are guided by well-qualifiedfaculty in their development of a coherent under-standing of teaching that they take with them intothe workplace after graduation.

While the vision of exemplary programs clearlyfocuses on achieving noble goals, it is neither loftynor esoteric. These programs are driven by a strongconcept of the nature of quality literacy instructionthat springs from research and is grounded in reali-ty. Rather than producing students whose under-standing of teaching is abstract and conceptual,these programs give students real-world knowledgeand experience that translate into their becomingeffective teachers. The vision they are given pro-vides a framework they can draw upon when facingchallenges in the classroom.

Finally, all the outstanding programs agree thatgovernance and vision are not static. One of thekey qualities of an effective program is that its gov-ernance evolves and changes. Vision is, by nature,

dynamic, responding to new insights from self-examination, research, and experiencesand en-couraging bolder dreams of what could be.

Governing the MissionValues are hollow if they are not put into action.The faculties in outstanding programs know thatplanning courses is only part of their role. Unlessthey set sail and navigate the waters (tumultuous attimes) in order to achieve their goals, their gradu-ates will be left behind. Hence, administrators ofexemplary programs must see that there are suffi-cient resources to put plans into action. Facultymembers in outstanding programs share a set of be-liefs that they act on to make their vision a reality:

They advocate for a fairshare of the tuition,state funding, and spe-cial fees that their stu-dents generate.

They take an activerole in matching allo-cations to programs,including generatingadditional resourcesand making creativeuse of what is available.

They target resourcesto support the develop-ment and enhancement of critical or new fea-tures of their programs.

For instance, when the state legislature inFlorida determined that a teacher education pro-gram should incorporate 120 credit hours, teachereducators at Florida International University tookaction. Deciding that they wanted to require addi-tional credit hours, they successfully petitioned thelegislature for an increase beyond the mandated120, and they have worked to find creative ways tosupport staff and to fund their ambitious programof study. In another instance, after participating inan exhaustive program review process, faculty at theUniversity of Texas at San Antonio decided to in-crease the required semester hours in reading cours-es to 15 and fieldwork to 60 (Keehn et al., 2003).Both examples reflect creative solutions generated

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I spend time in the schoolsand investing in theteachers so that the schoolsare ready for myundergraduates.... It isalways about caring forthem so that they, in turn,can care for our students.

FACULTY MEMBER, UNIVERSITY OFSIOUX FALLS

by innovative thinking on the part of administratorsand faculty.

Beyond the nuts and bolts of preparation pro-grams, the governing administrative body in out-standing programs specifically and intentionallysupports the faculty in the pursuit of excellence.This support comes in many forms: salaries com-mensurate with those of other faculty at the college

or university, teaching loadsthat recognize the time-intensive nature of coursesin reading instruction, andfunding for professional de-velopment. In these pro-grams, expectations forfaculty research and publi-cation are realistic, as arefaculty-to-student ratios,which reflect the demandsof the programespeciallyin courses with intensivefield-based experiences thatrequire direct observationand meaningful feedback

for students. Classroom teachers are recognized,valued, and supported in tangible ways for theircontributions to the program. In sum, faculty m