Body Systems Project

Pious Patel

Digestive System

Function

• To digest food and convert it into usable forms for the rest of the body– Glucose, proteins, nucleic acids, different lipids,

etc.

Organs and Their Functions

• Mouth (alimentary canal)– Begins digestion• Physical- teeth, saliva• Chemical- saliva initiates carbohydrate digestion

• Pharynx (alimentary canal)– Swallowing mechanism

• Esophagus (alimentary canal)– Passageway between pharynx and stomach

Organs and Their Functions

• Stomach (alimentary canal)– Digestion

• Physical- violent shaking• Chemical- gastric juice (HCl, pepsin, and mucus)

– Begins protein digestion (and butterfat)

• Duodenum (alimentary canal)– Receives chyme from stomach and mixes with pancreatic

juices and bile from liver• Jejunum (alimentary canal)– Majority of digestion here, longest segment

• Ileum (alimentary canal)– Higher bacterial population

Organs and Their Functions

• Cecum (alimentary canal)– Connects ileum with ascending colon

• Appendix (alimentary canal)– Vestigial cecum, main site of enteric digestion in other

animals• Colon– Ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid colons– Absorbs 90% of water entering in chyme– Houses many bacteria that break down fiber

• Synthesize Vitamin K and B12, thiamine, and riboflavin for us

Organs and Their Functions

• Rectum (alimentary canal)– Triggers defecation reflex – Makes internal anal sphincter relax

• Anus (alimentary canal)– External opening of alimentary canal– Constricted by both anal sphincters

• Salivary glands (accessory)– Parotid, submandibular, and sublingual glands– Secrete saliva for digestion in mouth

Organs and Their Functions

• Liver (accessory)– Breaks down fats, converts amino acids, produced

bile, detoxifies alcohol, and many other catabolic and anabolic processes

• Pancreas (accessory)– Secretes pancreatic juice into duodenum• Pancreatic amylase, pancreatic lipase, trypsin,

chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase, and many other enzymes

Organs and Their Functions

• Gallbladder (accessory)– Stores bile and injects into duodenum– Not necessary, liver injects bile into duodenum as

well• Internal anal sphincter (alimentary canal)– Smooth muscle, involuntary control

• External anal sphincter (alimentary canal)– Skeletal muscle, voluntary control

Why is digestion essential?

• Breaking down large food molecules is needed so that the body can actually get the energy and nutrients needed to function

• Enzymes are needed to actually go through the process of breaking down and simplifying the large food molecules. They are the final digestion tools to simplify food into usable units

Physical vs. Chemical Digestion

• Physical- not chemically changing food– Only breaking it down into smaller pieces

• Chemical- changing chemical composition of food– Chemical reactions actually take place to change

the molecules and other chemical species involved

Where certain digestion takes place

• Carbohydrate- begins in mouth– Continues throughout alimentary canal– Amylase (salivary and pancreatic), sucrase, lactase

• Protein- begins in stomach with denaturing– Pepsin, trypsin, chymotrypsin

• Fat- begins in mouth– Vast majority in small intestine– Lipase (lingual and pancreatic) and bile

Colorectal Cancer

• Fourth most common cancer– 143,460 estimated new cases for 2012– 56,000 annual deaths in U.S.

• Symptoms- change in frequency or consistency of B.M.’s, blood in feces, abdominal pain, weight loss, fatigue, vomiting

• Treated by surgical excision and common anticancer treatments

Liver Cancer

• Cancer of the liver• 28,720 estimated new cases for 2012– 20,550 estimated deaths for 2012

• Symptoms- very subtle, some include unexplained weight loss or fevers and sudden complication in a cirrhosis patient

• Common anticancer treatments and surgery can be used to treat it

Sources

• Medicinenet.com• National Cancer Institute

•Professor Chad Caldwell’s Human Anatomy Notetaking Guide

Cardiovascular System

Functions of

• The overall system- transporting nutrients and other raw materials to the body cells, as well as serving as a highway for the immune system and maintaining homeostasis

• Arteries- made of thick, strong smooth muscle– To transport oxygenated blood (except for

pulmonary arteries) to the body cells– Strong muscle helps maintain blood pressure and

moves oxygenated blood quickly and effectively to the body

Functions of

• Capillaries- very small and thin vessel– “The end of the branch”– Gives nutrients and materials to cells as of one of the very

many small streams that the giant rivers (arteries) fork out into

• Veins- Loose, large volume, many valves– Transports deoxygenated blood (except for pulmonary

veins) back to heart– Sort of the blood reservoir– Valves help control the flow of blood against gravity by

preventing backflow

How the blood goes through the heart

• Deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium by the inferior and superior vena cavas (veins)

• As soon as the tricuspid valve opens, the right atrium pumps the blood into the right ventricle

• The right ventricle pumps the blood into the pulmonary trunk, which branches into the right and left pulmonary arteries

• The pulmonary arteries carry the blood to the lungs to be oxygenated

How the blood goes through the heart

• The pulmonary veins bring the oxygenated blood back to the heart into the left atrium

• The left atrium pumps the blood into the left ventricle once the mitral valve has been opened

• The left ventricle then pumps the blood for the last time, sending it to the aorta and onwards to the rest of the body

Composition of blood

• Plasma- 55% of blood volume– Watery portion containing dissolved proteins

• Thrombocytes- platelets, cell fragments that stick to broken surfaces to make a plug that stops bleeding

• Leukocytes- white blood cells, fight against foreign invaders

• Erythrocytes- red blood cells, carry oxygen to the body cells

Erythrocyte structure

• Anucleated- nucleus removed from cell so as to increase surface area to maximize oxygen capacity

• Oxygen complexes to hemoglobin in a weak, temporary bond that is broken when erythrocyte reaches a body cell that needs it

Open vs. Closed Circulatory Systems

• Closed- ours, along with most vertebrates– Blood closed at all times inside vessels

• Open- most invertebrates, such as crayfish– Blood still pumped by heart, but fills body cavities

and surrounds tissues– Not contained by vessels, blood is freer to move

around the body

Four Circulatory System Variations

Fish

• Overall very similar to mammalian• Oxygenation of blood is done by gills, not lungs• Structure of organs is obviously different from

ours, but same basic concepts• Blood is moved through contraction

hypobronchial muscles when being oxygenated• Very similar to ancestral circulatory system• Sinus venosus- initial collecting chamber in heart

Amphibian

• Very similar overall system to ours• Three-chambered heart– Two atria, one ventricle– The one ventricle means oxygenated and

deoxygenated blood mixing occurs• Unlike fish, blood is always under full pressure

Reptiles

• Very, very similar to amphibians– Three-chambered heart– But, have a septum that closes in the ventricle to

reduce mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood

Mammals

• Four-chambered heart, double circuit pump• Most complex and sophisticated• No primitive sinus venosus• Basically all the same as humans’

Leukemia

• Cancer of white blood cells• Symptoms- fever, persistent infections,

weakness, fatigue, weight loss, easy bleeding, tiny red spots on skin

• 44,600 estimated to have it in 2011• Treated by basic cancer therapies

(chemotherapy, radiation, etc.)

Atherosclerosis

• Cholesterol and saturated fats form plaques on artery walls that restrict blood flow

• Symptoms- chest pains, weakness, high blood pressure

• Treated by change in diet and exercise and medication

• About 4.6 million people in U.S. are affected by it

Sources

• http://www.earthlife.net/fish/blood.html• http://www.shsu.edu/~bio_mlt/Chapter12.ht

ml• Talktalk.co.uk• Seer.cancer.gov• Mayoclinic.com• Bettermedicine.com• Professor Chad Caldwell’s Human Anatomy

Notetaking Guide

Respiratory System

Functions

• To exchange gases between body and atmosphere

• Maintaining homeostasis• Providing oxygen for respiration and carbon

dioxide to maintain pH of blood

Alveoli

• Very high surface area to volume ratio to increase gas exchange

• Capillaries cover 70% of surface area• Great Alveolar Cells secrete surfactant to

increase gas exchange

How O2 and CO2 are transported

• Diffused into blood through lungs– Most of O2 transported by hemoglobin– CO2 transported as bicarbonate, by hemoglobin,

and in plasma• Blood carries O2 to cells and CO2 away from

cells

How air is drawn in

• Inhalation– Contraction of diaphragm increases lung volume– This decreases pressure in lungs– Higher atmospheric pressure causes air to enter

lungs• Exhalation– Inverse of above process, diaphragm rests,

increases lung pressure, air leaves lungs

Emphysema

• Cigarette smoking causes bronchioles to lose elasticity, cause alveoli to burst

• Shortness of breath, fatigue• 18/1000 people have it• 15 times more likely in people who smoke at

least a pack a day• Antibiotics, bronchiodilators, other drugs

Lung Cancer

• Cancer that invades the lungs• Symptoms- unusual coughs, chest pain,

coughing blood, wheezing, weight loss• Prevalence- 226,160 people will get it in 2012• Treatments- radiation, chemotherapy, drugs,

etc.

Sources

•Professor Chad Caldwell’s Human Anatomy Notetaking Guide

• http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/298283-overview• http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/types/lung

Immune System

• Function- To protect the body from foreign invaders

Organs of Immune System

• Bone Marrow- create leukocytes• Thymus- produce mature T-lymphocytes• Spleen- hub of immune system– As blood passes, hordes of leukocytes attack and

destroy all foreigners• Lymph node- filters lymph– Contains lymphocytes and macrophages

How body recognizes pathogens

• We have an astronomical number of antibodies that will bind to any of a number of antigens (foreign things that the system is trained to destroy)

• Antibodies can bind to these foreign molecular structures, marking them for destruction by leukocytes, or even neutralizing them themselves through agglutination or other processes

Innate Immunity

• Genetically based, from birth• Genes coding for antibodies inherited, not

developed• Example- immune response against different

blood type

Acquired Immunity

• Immune system changed, honed, and developed over lifetime

• Cell-mediated- Macrophages’ displayed antigens give T-lymphocytes new targets

• Humoral- Consists of antibodies and the B-lymphocytes that create more, newer versions of them

Active vs. Passive Immunity

• Active- giving antigens to body so it produces the antibodies necessary– Results are usually lifelong

• Passive- giving antibodies directly to combat infections– Results are fast but short-lived

B vs. T Lymphocytes

• B- produce antibodies, which form the basis of the entire immune system– Activated especially by encountering new antigens, but

work nonstop nonetheless• T- Two types– One creates factors that command the rest of the immune

system– The other directly attacks tumor cells, virally infected cells,

etc.– Activated by infection and secondary lymphoid organs, but

also work nonstop

Antibiotics

• Antibiotics are defined as substances that destroy or inhibit bacteria– So obviously, by definition, they wouldn’t be

effective against viruses• We have not discovered substances that

destroy viruses, we can only either inhibit them or help our immune system destroy them

HIV

• Human Immunodeficiency Virus attacks T-lymphocytes and monocytes, weakening the immune system

• Symptoms- increased illness• Prevalence- 0.6% of US population has it• Treatment- drugs

Mononucleosis

• Caused by Epstein-Barr Virus– Immunodeficiency disease– Also attacks T-lymphocytes and monocytes

• Symptoms- increased illness• Prevalence- 95% of adults in U.S. had it at

some point• Treatment- very little, corticosteroids, NSAIDs

Sources

• http://www.thebody.com/content/art1788.html

• http://uhaweb.hartford.edu/bugl/immune.htm

• http://occmed.oxfordjournals.org/content/57/8/552.full

• http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.DYN.AIDS.ZS

• http://www.mdguidelines.com/mononucleosis

• Professor Chad Caldwell’s Human Anatomy Notetaking Guide

Excretory System

Nephron

Types of Nitrogenous Waste

• Ammonia- most toxic (most water to dilute), but least energy to form– Aquatic animals- they have plenty of water and want to save

energy• Urea- less toxic (less water to dilute), but more energy to

form– Mammals and mature amphibians- they want to conserve

water and energy well• Uric Acid- least toxic (least water to dilute), but more

energy to form– Insects, birds, reptiles- they have a limited supply of water

Excretory processes

• Filtration- the filtration of water and dissolved substances by the glomerulus into the Bowman’s capsule– Filters just about everything except large proteins

• Reabsorption- the reabsorption of some of the filtrate back into the bloodstream– Happens from the proximal tubules through the

collecting tubules– Water, glucose, electrolytes, other essentials

Excretory Processes

• Secretion- secretion of materials from blood back into the distal convoluted tubule– Ammonium, hydrogen, other toxic substances

• Excretion- the riddance of urine through the collecting ducts to the ureters, and finally to the urinary bladder

Kidney Stones

• Synthesis of Calcium oxalate, Calcium phosphate, uric acid, or Magnesium phosphate in renal pelvis, passed through ureters

• Symptoms- passing of kidney stone• Prevalence- half million people annually• Treatment- let it pass, or surgery, or

shockwave therapy

Gout

• Accumulation of uric acid crystals in joints• Symptoms- Noticeable bump on affected joint,

possible immobility• Prevalence- Affects 8.3 million Americans• Treatment- drugs and avoidance of foods high

in uric acid

Sources

• http://faculty.clintoncc.suny.edu/faculty/michael.gregory/files/bio%20102/bio%20102%20lectures/excretory%20system/excretor.htm

• http://kidney.niddk.nih.gov/kudiseases/pubs/stonesadults/

• http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/07/110728082551.htm

• Professor Chad Caldwell’s Human Anatomy Notetaking Guide

Endocrine System

Function

• To regulate a vast variety of slow bodily processes such as growth, metabolism, and reproduction

Homeostasis

• A state of stability and equilibrium within the body

• Endocrine glands regulate metabolism and other parts of organs to maintain homeostasis– Done through hormones

Negative Feedback System

• Most common mechanism to maintain homeostasis• When regulated part of body changes from its ideal

condition, endocrine gland takes action to bring it back to normal

• Like a thermostat based heating unit• Ex. Parathyroid gland and blood calcium level

regulation– When blood Ca gets too low, more hormone is secreted

to increase it

Type I vs. Type II Diabetes

• Type I- Pancreas does not produce enough insulin– Due to early autoimmune response destroying

insulin-secreting cells• Type II- Body makes insulin, but cells do not

respond to it, do not take in blood glucose

Addison’s Disease

• Adrenal glands produce too few steroid hormones

• Symptoms- fatigue, weakness, muscle pain, gastrointestinal problems, craving or salt, darkened skin, low blood pressure

• Prevalence- 150/1 million people• Treatment- artificial replacement of hormones

Sources

• http://www.pennmedicine.org/health_info/body_guide/reftext/html/endo_sys_fin.html

• http://www.hormone.org/endocrine_system_diseases.cfm

• Professor Chad Caldwell’s Human Anatomy Notetaking Guide

Reproductive System

Function

• To allow the organism to reproduce and further the species

Sexual vs. Asexual

• Sexual- Combines genes of two organisms, father and mother– Greater genetic diversity, but slower rate of

reproduction• Asexual- Exact copy of one parent’s genes– No genetic diversity through reproduction– But, faster rate of reproduction

Examples of Asexual Reproduction

• Budding- sponges, hydras– Offspring grows with, then branches out of

parent’s body• Fragmentation- Planarians– Parent cut in half, each half grows into two

individuals• Regeneration- Echinoderms– Part of parent breaks off, becomes entirely new

individual

Spermatogenesis

• In testes• Classic meiosis, with final cells changing shape

to sperm structure• Quantity not quality

Oogenesis

• In ovary• Classic meiosis, but with a twist– Results in one giant egg cell, which has stolen

most of the cytoplasm of the other three products of meiosis, which are now called polar bodies

– This one ovum has a bulk of nutrients to keep it alive until fertilization and embryo development

• Quality not quantity

Menstrual vs. Estrous Cycles

• Menstrual- humans and most apes– Dispose of unused endometrium by menstruation– No signs of ovulation

• Estrous- most mammals– Recycle unused endometrium– Females only sexually active during or slightly

before ovulation• “in heat”

Menstrual Cycle- 28 day cycle

• Day 1- low concentrations of estrogen and progesterone allow pituitary to be uninhibited, increasing release of follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone

• Day 3- increased release of FSH allows follicle to develop• Day 7- increased estrogen levels (due to follicle)

stimulate proliferative phase in uterus, endometrium thickens

• Day 12- hypothalamus stimulates pituitary to release LH, causing the follicle to rupture, triggering ovulation

Menstrual Cycle- 28 day cycle

• Day 15- increased progesterone and estrogen levels released by corpus luteum after ovulation stimulate secretory phse in uterus, and inhibit secretion of FSH and LH by pituitary gland

• Day 24- fertilization must take place between days 12-14, if not, corpus luteum degenerates at this time

• Day 28- degeneration of corpus luteum causes decreases in estrogen and progesterone, leading to blood vessel constriction in endometrium

• Day 1- low blood supply to endometrium cause tissue to die and slough away, forming menses

Embryonic Development

• Zygote undergoes cleavage to form morula, which develops into blastula

• Cells in blastula move inward over a blastopore to create digestive system, creating a gastrula– Gastrulation– Germ layers are formed

• Organogenesis- when organs are finally distinctly forming– Not embryo anymore, now it’s a fetus

Germ Layers

• Layer/collection of cells that is the first step of differentiation of an embryo

• Endoderm- will form digestive and respiratory organs

• Mesoderm- will form muscle, skeletal, circulatory, excretory, and reproductive organs

• Ectoderm- Will form epidermis and nervous system

Syphilis

• Infection of genitals by Treponemapallidum bacteria

• STD• Symptoms- sores on genitals• Prevalence- 107,000 new cases in 1999• Treatment- antibiotics

Genital Herpes

• Caused by Herpes Simplex II Virus• STD• Prevalence- 16.2% in U.S.• Treatment- Acyclovir shortens lytic phase of

virus

Sources

• http://biology.about.com/od/genetics/ss/Asexual-Rep

• http://www.womenshealth.gov/publications/our-publications/fact-sheet/menstruation.cfmroduction.htm

• http://beef.unl.edu/learning/estrous.shtml• http://www.avert.org/std-statistics.htm

Nervous System

• Function- To send signals from one part of the body to another– To control the body

Central vs. Peripheral

• Central Nervous System- Brain and spinal cord– To analyze and make commands

• Peripheral Nervous System- The nerves that branch out from the brain and spinal cord to effectors and receptors– Mostly to sense something and then later carry

the signal for action

Major Parts of Brain

• Right cerebral hemisphere– Approximate calculations, themes, ideas, concepts

• Left cerebral hemisphere– Exact calculations, grammar, details

• Diencephalon- Area in the middle of brain, above brain stem– Thalamus- relays sensory and motor impulses– Hypothalamus- controls endocrine system– Limbic System- Old Mammalian Brain

• emotions

Major Parts of Brain

• Brain Stem- connects cerebrum to spinal cord– Midbrain- visual and auditory tracking reflex– Pons- relay station for many intra-brain impulses– Medulla Oblongata- control center for vital functions

(heart rate, breathing, etc.)– Reticular Formation- wakefullness vs. sleepiness

• Also filters 99% of sensory input as unimportant

• Cerebellum- behind/under cerebrum– Integrates sensory info. on body position and

coordinates body movements

Nerve Impulse in Neuron

1. When the neuron is at rest, there is a membrane potential with a positive charge on the outside and a negative on the inside

- Na+ on the outside, K+ on the inside

2. Resting potential- Resting, polarized neuron

3. Action potential- Stimulus reaches dendrites- Na+ ion channels open, let Na+ inside neuron

4. Neuron is depolarized- Only after stimulus reaches threshold level, causing all Na+ ion

channels to open

Nerve Impulse in Neuron

5. K+ leaves neuron- Entrance of Na+ in neuron causes exit of K+

through newly opened K+ ion channels

6. Hyperpolarization- K+ now on outside, Na+ on inside- All ion channels close- Lower membrane potential than at rest

7. Refractory Period- Returns everything to normal, Na+ outside, K+ inside

Neurotransmitters

• At the end of an axon, a neurotransmitter is released from the neuron, after Calcium ions rush in, to cross the synapse and stimulate the impulse to the dendrite of the next neuron

• Neurotransmitter binds to membrane protein, continuing the sequence to the next neuron

Insomnia

• Psychological disturbance releases too much norepinephrine into reticular formation

• Symptoms- problems sleeping• Prevalence- unknown, but surveys show that

about half of all adults display symptoms at times

• Treatment- eliminating the psychological cause

Epilepsy

• Neuron membrane too permeable to Na+– Overproduction of norepinephrine

• Symptoms- seizures• Prevalence- 26 per 100,000 people• Treatment- avoid seizure inducers

Sources

• http://www.pennmedicine.org/health_info/body_guide/reftext/html/nerv_sys_fin.html

• http://www.dummies.com/how-to/content/understanding-the-transmission-of-nerve-impulses.html

• http://www.emedicinehealth.com/insomnia/page7_em.htm#Insomnia Treatment

• http://www.epilepsy.com/epilepsy/epilepsy_lgs/prevalence

• Professor Chad Caldwell’s Human Anatomy Notetaking Guide

Senses

Types of Sensory Receptors

• Mechanoreceptors- Changes in pressure or position– Touch and hearing, entire body

• Thermoreceptors- Heat– Touch, entire body

• Chemoreceptors- ions or molecules– Taste and smell, mouth and nose

Types of Sensory Receptors

• Photoreceptors- changes in light– Sight, eyes

• Pain receptors- severe conditions caused by inflamed tissue– Everywhere

Rhodopsin

• Pigment found in rods• This protein is the absorber of light– Shuts Na+ gates in surrounding neurons, polarizing

them• Begins pathway of nerve impulses that

indicate the presence of light

Sources

• http://faculty.clintoncc.suny.edu/faculty/michael.gregory/files/bio%20102/bio%20102%20lectures/sensory%20systems/sensory.htm

Muscular System

Types of Muscle Tissue

• Cardiac- Striated, involuntary control– In heart

• Skeletal- Striated, voluntary control– Around bones (usually)

• Smooth- Spindle shaped, involuntary control– Walls of organs

Skeletal Muscle Contraction

• Acetylcholine is sent from a nerve cell to the receptor on the muscle cell membrane

• Acetylcholine causes Calcium to be released from sarcoplasmic reticulum, which stores it

• Calcium bonds with troponin, causing tropomyosin to leave the actin

• Myosin filaments attach to actin, making the cross-bridge

Skeletal Muscle Contraction

• Energy from ATP lets myosin pull actin filaments, contracting the cell

• Energy from ATP again breaks cross-bridge, relaxing the muscle cell

Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy

• Recessive allele codes for absence of muscle protein dystrophin– Muscle cells burst upon contraction

• Symptoms- abnormally low muscle mass• Prevalence- 1/6000 people get it each year• Treatment- Supportive treatments,

physiotherapy, nothing much because it is genetic

Botulism

• Bacteria produce botulin, acetylcholine inhibitor

• Symptoms- Flaccid paralysis, death by respiratory failure

• Prevalence- 98 annual cases• Treatment- antibiotics, hyperbaric chamber

therapy

Sources

• http://www.teachpe.com/anatomy/sliding_filament.php

• http://www.rightdiagnosis.com/d/duchennemd/prevalence.htm

• http://www.annals.org/content/129/3/221.abstract

•Professor Chad Caldwell’s Human Anatomy Notetaking Guide

Skeletal System

Functions

• Support• Protection• Movement• Storage of different minerals– Mainly calcium

• Blood cell production

Roles of… in movement

• Bones- To be the levers and raw support of movement

• Ligaments- to anchor bones together and move fluidly

• Muscles- The actual power and moving force that drives the movement

• Tendons- To connect muscles with bones and rope in the bones during movement

Types of Skeletons

• Hydrostatic- fluid filled coelom provides fluid structure but still adequate support– Jellyfish, sea anemones

• Exoskeleton- Hard, rigid skeleton covering the outside of soft body parts– Insects, shrimp

• Endoskeleton- Support and structure formed within body tissues and skin– Humans, birds

Osteoporosis

• Porous bones due to either lack of Calcium or lack of Vitamin D to absorb Calcium

• Symptoms- Weakened or bending bones, hunched posture, easy fractures

• Prevalence- projected 52 million people over age 50

• Treatment- Calcium, female hormone replacement, some drugs

Osteoarthritis

• Inflammation of joint due to wearing down of articular cartilage

• Symptoms- pain and swelling in joints• Prevalence- 13.9% of adults age 25+• Treatment- relieving symptoms, physical

therapy

Sources

• http://www.nof.org/advocacy/resources/prevalencereport

• http://www.cdc.gov/arthritis/basics/osteoarthritis.htm

• Professor Chad Caldwell’s Human Anatomy Notetaking Guide