PART 1 – THE ORIGINS OF BIOTECHNOLOGY........................................2Describe the origins of biotechnology in early societies who collected seeds of wild plants and domesticated some species of wild animals.............................................2Explain why the collection of seeds and breeding of animals with desired characteristics could be described as early biotechnology........................................3Describe the changes in one group of animals and one group of plants as a result of artificial selection of characteristics suitable for agricultural stock....................3SHI: Use available evidence to describe the changes in a species of grain or animal as a result of domestication and agricultural processes...............................3SHI: Process information to outline an ancient Australian aboriginal use of biotechnology..............................................................................................................4

PART 2 – DEFINITION OF BIOTECHNOLOGY..........................................4Outline the key events that led to the use of biotechnological practices, including: yeast in the manufacture of bread, yeast and fermentation for alcohol production, the use of other micro-organisms for the manufacture of yoghurt and cheeses.....4

PART 3 – CLASSICAL BIOTECHNOLOGY...............................................5Describe the expansion of fermentation since the early 18th century to include the production of several organic compounds, including glycerol, lactic acid, citric acid and yeast biomass for baker’s yeast...................................................................5Describe strain isolation methods developed in the 1940s........................................5Describe, using a specific example, the benefits of strain isolation methods used in biotechnology in the 20th century...............................................................................5Identify that developments in the 1950s led to biotransformation technologies that could produce required organic compounds such as cortisone and sex hormones.5Assignment: identify and describe a named industrial fermentation process, identify the micro-organism used in the fermentation and the products of the fermentation, outline the use of the product of the fermentation process, use available evidence to assess the impact of the use of the fermentation product on society at the time of its introduction.........................................................................6Assignment: demonstrate how changes in technology and scientific knowledge have modified traditional uses of biotechnology, such as fermentation...................6

PART 4 – CELL CHEMISTRY IN BIOTECHNOLOGY..................................7Outline, simply, the steps in the synthesis of a protein in the cell, including: the difference between DNA and RNA, the production of mRNA, the role of tRNA, the formation of polypeptide chain(s), the formation of the protein from polypeptide chains..........................................................................................................................7

PART 5 – RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY......................................8Describe the three essentials of gene manipulation as: cutting and joining DNA, monitoring the cutting and joining, transforming hosts, such as bacteria, with the recombinant DNA.......................................................................................................8

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Describe the following recombinant DNA techniques used in biotechnology, including: gene splicing using restriction enzymes and ligases to produce recombinant DNA, PCR to amplify DNA, use of DNA vectors and microinjection for carrying genes into nuclear DNA in the production of transgenic multicellular organisms....................................................................................................................8SHI: Produce a flow chart on the sequence of events that result in the formation of recombinant DNA...................................................................................................9SHI: Outline the purpose of a current application of transgenic technology, naming the organism and gene transfer technique involved....................................9Assignment: Identify that complementary DNA is produced by reverse transcribing RNA or the PCR....................................................................................9

PART 6 – APPLICATIONS AND RESEARCHES......................................10Outline one way that forensic scientists can use DNA analysis to help solve cases...................................................................................................................................10Describe one example from the following applications of biotechnology in medicine: tissue engineering using skin transplantation as an example, gene delivery by nasal sprays, production of a synthetic hormone, such as insulin.......10describe one example from the following applications of animal or plant biotechnology: the production of monoclonal antibodies, recombinant vaccines to combat virulent animal diseases...............................................................................10describe one example from the following applications of aquaculture: the production of a pharmaceutical from alga, the farming of a marine animal........11Assignment: present one case study on each of the applications of biotechnology in medicine, animal biotechnology and aquaculture: give details of the process used, identify the organism or tissue involved, describe the outcome of the biotechnological process, evaluate the efficiency of the process and discuss advantages and disadvantages associated with either the products or the process12

PART 7 – ETHICAL ISSUES................................................................14Explain why different groups in society may have different views about the use of DNA technology........................................................................................................14Identify and evaluate ethical issues related to one of the following: development of genetically modified organisms (GMOs), animal cloning, gene cloning...............14Assignment: Identify and discuss ethical and social issues associated with the use of biotechnology........................................................................................................14

Part 1 – the origins of biotechnology

Describe the origins of biotechnology in early societies who collected seeds of wild plants and domesticated some species of wild animals

Early societies (e.g.: the people in the Middle East, Egyptians, Chinese…) collected seeds of wild plants and domesticated some species of wild animals. For example, 8000 BC, cattle domesticated in the Middle East from the wild ox Bos taurus. Domesticated wheat and barley is grown in the Middle East.

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As the population grew, people needed more food. So they tried to improve the characteristics of the stock by crudely select those with desired characteristics and discarded the unwanted ones. Overtime, the gene pool of these organisms were changed, hence their appearance and function were also changed.

Explain why the collection of seeds and breeding of animals with desired characteristics could be described as early biotechnology

- a rudimentary form of artificial selection- brings changes to the population – create better breeds- fits in with the definition of biotechnology: “the use of living organisms to

produce or modify products, to improve plants or animals or to utilise micro-organisms for specific uses”.

Disadvantages of selective breeding: decrease in intellect of the domesticated animals, and the increase of hereditary diseases, thus deteriorate the gene quality within the species

Describe the changes in one group of animals and one group of plants as a result of artificial selection of characteristics suitable for agricultural stock

Plants: rice (Oryza sativa)- before: 8000 species. Grew wild, short and gave low yield- people wanted the type which is tall and gives higher yield (i.e.: more grains on

one plant)- now: one main species and 22 wild species. Taller, gives higher yield; use less

water, more insects resistant.

Animals: sheep (Ovis aries)- before: resembled goats, coarse wool, well adapated to high mountain living.

There were several species (e.g.: Ovis vignei, Ovis musimon)- At first people domesticated them for burden carrying and milk. Later, they were

selected for wool, meat and milk. - Today: can be classified as 5 different types, based on wool, ranging from fine to

coarse. They also produce more meat and milk.

SHI: Use available evidence to describe the changes in a species of grain or animal as a result of domestication and agricultural processes

Plants: rice (Oryza sativa)- before: 8000 species. Grew wild, short and gave low yield- people wanted the type which is tall and gives higher yield (i.e.: more grains on

one plant)- now: one main species and 22 wild species. Taller, gives higher yield; use less

water, more insects resistant.

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Animals: sheep (Ovis aries)- before: resembled goats, coarse wool, well adapated to high mountain living.

There were several species (e.g.: Ovis vignei, Ovis musimon)- At first people domesticated them for burden carrying and milk. Later, they were

selected for wool, meat and milk.- Today: can be classified as 5 different types, based on wool, ranging from fine to

coarse. They also produce more meat and milk.

SHI: Process information to outline an ancient Australian aboriginal use of biotechnology

The aboriginal people of the Mara nation in Victoria built water canals, fish traps and woven fibre nets to increase the number and make it easier to catch the fish and eels.

Part 2 – definition of biotechnology

Biotechnology: regconised as the use of living organisms to make or modify a product, to improve plants or animals or to utilise micro-organisms for specific uses

Fermentation: is a process by which micro-organisms break down certain chemical substances in the absence of oxygen

Outline the key events that led to the use of biotechnological practices, including: yeast in the manufacture of bread, yeast and fermentation for alcohol production, the use of other micro-organisms for the manufacture of yoghurt and cheeses

Key events: - thousands of years ago: made flat bread by accidentally discovered yeast. Did not

understand the mechanism. No control over the fermentation process. - Developments of the microscope – more researches into the role of microbes in

fermentation- 1857: Pasteur proved that fermentation is caused by microbes. - Industrial revolution: improved the technology, machines... Fermentation can be

controlled, thus produce better quality. - Similar key-events for yeast / alcohol, and other micro-organisms for the

manufacture of yoghurt and cheese. The key events can be summarised as identification of the micro-organisms, controlling of the process, and manufacturing.

These events led to the use of micro-organisms in fermentation to make products.

o The fermentation of bread uses Saccharomyces cerevisiae o The fermentation of alcohol uses Saccharomyces cerevisiaeo The fermentation of cheese uses Lactococcus lactis

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o The manufacture of yoghurt uses Lactobacillis bulgaricus

Part 3 – classical biotechnology

Describe the expansion of fermentation since the early 18th century to include the production of several organic compounds, including glycerol, lactic acid, citric acid and yeast biomass for baker’s yeast

Before 18th century: fermentation were used mainly for brewing, winemaking, bread making. After the 18th century: scientific discoveries made by Pasteurs and others showed that fermentation was caused by micro-organisms. The industrial revoluion improved the machines. Since then, various micro-organisms have been discovered and used in many fermentation processes. Fermentation therefore expanded to include the production of glycerol, lactic acid, citric acid, yeast biomass for baker’s yeast, etc... Citric acid: produced by the mould Aspergillus niger.

Mention by-product of fermentation when describing the process

Describe strain isolation methods developed in the 1940s

Strain isolation methods are used to separate specific strains of bacteria. The steps are: - make a culture of bacteria by putting the collected micro-organisms in a suitable

medium.- distribute the bacteria over an agar plate with appropriate medium. - Collect the colony. Repeat if necessary by putting the sample from the colony into

another agar plate or another culture. Repeat. - By selecting various nutrients in the agar medium and the culture medium,

eventually a single strain can be obtained.

Describe, using a specific example, the benefits of strain isolation methods used in biotechnology in the 20th century

Allowed strains of bacteria to be studied better, or the products they make can be harvested easier. Led to the development of many anti-biotics, including pencillin. E.g.: the strain isolation methods were used to isolate the mould Penicillium notatum. This mould secretes a chemical - penicillin, which were isolated and used as anti-biotics.

Identify that developments in the 1950s led to biotransformation technologies that could produce required organic compounds such as cortisone and sex hormones

- 1950s: organic compounds such as cortisone and sex hormones were commercially required. During this time, they were produced by chemical methods and were very expensive

- The development of technologies such as the strain isolation techniques allow the practice of biotransformation. Biotransformation is the use of micro-organisms to

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make changes in molecules which have the similar shape as the actual substrate of those micro-organisms.

- Biotransformation made the production of certain drugs much cheaper and more efficient (e.g.: cortisone, sex hormone).

Assignment: identify and describe a named industrial fermentation process, identify the micro-organism used in the fermentation and the products of the fermentation, outline the use of the product of the fermentation process, use available evidence to assess the impact of the use of the fermentation product on society at the time of its introduction

Alcoholic fermentation

Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) is used to ferment sugar. The product of the fermentation is ethanol (C2H5OH), a type of alcohol.

Alcohol is used for drinking and cooking. It is also used in as a domestic and industrial solvent, and can also be used as a fuel.

Impact on the society: almost all ancient cultures on the world know about alcoholic fermentation, and it was used to produce alcoholic drinks, which were seen as a healthy drink. Alcoholic drinks were an important good in trading. They were distributed in important festivals as a treat. Brewery became an important industry in some countries. In some cultures (e.g.: the Aztec), there were laws which prohibit too much drinking to avoid getting drunk. So alcohol obtained by alcoholic fermentation had had many impacts on the society at the time of its introduction.

- yeast (S. cerevisiae)- products of the fermentation: CO2 and ethanol- how it works: sugar extracted from sugar cane and yeast is put in a fermentation

vat. Control the temperature. No air. Ethanol continually removed to keep the volume below 15%. CO2 also continually removed.

- Use of the product: as beer, or as wine. Also used in cooking and cleaning. - Assess the impact of the use on society at the time of its introduction:

o Know to almost all ancient cultureso Beer and wine: important drinks. Regarded a healthy drink. Important

trading good. Distributed in festivals. o Some cultures (e.g.: the Anztec): prohibit getting drunk.

Assignment: demonstrate how changes in technology and scientific knowledge have modified traditional uses of biotechnology, such as fermentation

Fermentation was used for 10 000 years to make foods (e.g.: bread, cheese) and beverages without the knowledge of micro-organisms and simple technology. During the 18th and 19th century, Pasteur and other scientists showed that fermentation was caused by micro-organisms. The Industrial Revolution made vast improvements in the technology.

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Therefore, the uses of fermentation expanded. In the 20th century, fermentation was used in industrial productions of making glycerol, citric acid, lactic acid, yeast biomass,... Further discoveries (e.g.: the strain isolation methods) allowed bacteria to be studied in more details. Today, fermentation is used in the production of ethanol as an alternative fuel, in the manufacturing of bioplastics,.... How changes in scientific knowledge have modified the traditional methods of bread production: use artificially selected yeasts that increase the amount of CO2, resulting in more efficient rising of bread. Also know the optimum conditions for yeast fermentation --> kept them at these conditions (e.g.: 35 - 37C in temperature).

Evaluate current uses of industrial fermentation biotechnology:o Has a wide application. Assisted society in manufacturing, medicine, health and

nutrient, e.g.: ......... (for at least 2)o Further descriptions: increase yields --> financial advantages, increased survival

of patients with bacterial infections (antibiotics produced), etc... o Problems: more alcohol – more problems associated with drinking. Fermentation

wastes – some are difficult to dispose. o General evaluation: beneficial, but does have some long-term problems.

Part 4 – Cell chemistry in biotechnology

Outline, simply, the steps in the synthesis of a protein in the cell, including: the difference between DNA and RNA, the production of mRNA, the role of tRNA, the formation of polypeptide chain(s), the formation of the protein from polypeptide chains

- the difference between DNA and RNA: o RNA has one strand, and does not form the double-helix structure like

DNAo RNA has a different base: uracil instead of thymine]

- The production of mRNA (messenger RNA): this is called transcription. The DNA double strands are unzipped by an enzyme, the mRNA is copied, with U as the complementary base of A. A start and stop codon controls the length of the mRNA. When finished the mRNA migrates out of the nucleus and attach itself to a ribosome in the cytoplasm.

- The role of tRNA (transcribe RNA): to drag in the correct amino acid as prescribed by the code in the mRNA.

- The formation of polypeptide chain(s): One end of the tRNA is attached to a specific amino acid. The other end has an anticodon, which attach to the corresponding codon on the mRNA. So when the tRNA attaches to the mRNA, it brings the amino acid with it. An enzyme helps to link the amino acids together, forming a polypeptide chain with the amino acids in the exact order as coded by the mRNA.

- The formation of the protein from polypeptide chain(s): various points on the polypeptide chain are attracted to one another, which makes it folded on itself. In some cases, this is a functional protein. In other cases, some polypeptide chains are attracted to each other, forming a functional protein.

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Part 5 – recombinant DNA technology

Describe the three essentials of gene manipulation as: cutting and joining DNA, monitoring the cutting and joining, transforming hosts, such as bacteria, with the recombinant DNA

Gene manipulation involves: - cutting and joining DNA:

o the DNA is cut opened at specific sites using an appropriate restriction enyzmes, the desired gene is inserted, and the DNA is glued back by DNA ligases. Therefore, the new DNA sequence now contains the inserted gene.

- monitoring the cutting and joining: o the desired gene is often inserted with another fragment of DNA to confer

resistance to a particular antibiotic. The bacteria is grown in a medium that contains the antibiotic. So only those that have been successfully transformed survive

o Gene shears are molecules that can turn off genes by preventing mRNA from being translated into a protein. Gene shears can be used to prevent particular genes from being expressed

- Transforming hosts, such as bacteria, with the recombinant DNA o Bacteria has little circles of DNA called plasmids. The desired gene is

inserted into a plasmid, then the plasmid is returned to the bacteria, which would express the gene as part of its genetic make up.

Describe the following recombinant DNA techniques used in biotechnology, including: gene splicing using restriction enzymes and ligases to produce recombinant DNA, PCR to amplify DNA, use of DNA vectors and microinjection for carrying genes into nuclear DNA in the production of transgenic multicellular organisms

- Gene splicing: is inserting a gene into a DNA sequence. The same restriction endonucleases are used to cut open the DNA and the desired gene at specific sites to produce “sticky ends”. DNA ligases join these ends together. The result is a recombinant DNA

- PCR to amplify DNA: is carried out in vitro. The DNA to be amplified is heated to denature the strands, then cooled just enough that the primers attach to the ends of this segment. In the presence of a DNA polymerase enzyme, the primers initiate the growth of a new complementary strand. So, one DNA is split into two single strands, which each then grows into a double strand. The whole process is repeated many times to produce many copies of a specific piece of DNA.

- Some DNA vectors and microinjection in producing transgenic multicellular species:

o Transformed bacteria: Bacteria has little circles of DNA called plasmids. The desired gene is inserted into a plasmid using recombinant DNA techniques, then the plasmid is returned to the bacteria. When these

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bacteria infect plant cells, they leave the plasmid inside the cells they infected. Therefore, they can be used to carry the new gene into the plant cells, producing a transgenic plant.

o Viral vectors: recombinant DNA techniques are used to insert the desired gene into the DNA sequence of the virus. When they infect and reproduce inside target cells, they are also spreading the recombinant DNA gene.

o Liposomes: are small spherical vesicles with a single membrane. They are modified to contain the desired DNA and are coated with appropriate surface molecules which make them attracted to specific cell types in the body. They can be used to deliver genes to cells of multicellular organisms.

o Microinjection: requires the use of a glass micropipette. The sharp tip can be used to puncture the cell membrane, and the DNA is injected into the nucleus.

SHI: Produce a flow chart on the sequence of events that result in the formation of recombinant DNA

See PP

SHI: Outline the purpose of a current application of transgenic technology, naming the organism and gene transfer technique involved

The production of human insulin

The gene for producing insulin in human is transferred to the plasmid of E.coli bacteria using recombinant DNA technique. Then the plasmid is inserted back into the bacteria, so they can produce human insulin. This human insulin is used to treat diabetic diseases in people. Before, pig insulin was used instead, which was more expensive and not as effective.

Assignment: Identify that complementary DNA is produced by reverse transcribing RNA or the PCR

PCR: polymerase chain reaction. Contains 3 steps: - denaturing: temperature is increased, so the DNA strands unzip, forming two

single strands- annealing: temperature is decreased, so primers (small sections of DNA) attach to

its complementary DNA sequence on the strands. - Extension: temperature is raised. The primers allow the DNA polymerase to start

making the complementary DNA strand.

The results of PCR: produce 2 identical, double DNA strands from 1 DNA strand by splitting the original strand and make the complementary strand.

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Reverse transcribing RNA: this is carried out by a reverse transcriptase enzyme, which is present naturally in retrovirus. This enzyme produces a single DNA strand from mRNA (reverse the process of transcription). Then, DNA polymerase enzyme can be used to make the complementary strand of this DNA – thus, a full double-strand DNA can be produced. Note that by reverse transcribing RNA, non-coding regions of DNA (introns) are removed. The complementary DNA produced contains only exons --- while the original DNA may have contained both introns and exons.

Part 6 – applications and researches

Outline one way that forensic scientists can use DNA analysis to help solve cases

DNA fingerprint is made by: - isolate the DNA from a sample at the crime scene- cut the DNA into fragments. Separate by electrophoresis, produce a DNA band.- Radioactive probes are inserted. They bind to specific DNA sequences. - The radioactive DNA pattern is transferred to X-ray film. When developed, the

resultant visible pattern is the DNA fingerprint. Forensic scientists: obtain the samples, then make DNA fingerprint. The genetic code for each individual is unique, therefore DNA fingerprint can be used to identify individuals. However, problems with DNA fingerprinting: takes a long time, human errors possible, sometimes the amount of DNA obtain is not much, so still relies on statistical results

Describe one example from the following applications of biotechnology in medicine: tissue engineering using skin transplantation as an example, gene delivery by nasal sprays, production of a synthetic hormone, such as insulin

- tissue engineering: a biopolymer is shaped into the desired shape, seeded with living cells, and bathed with growth factors. This simulates the cells to grow into a 3-D tissue, and can later be implanted into the body to replace diseased tissues. E.g.: human skin tissues are grown outside of the body into sheets called skin grafts. They are transplanted into the patients to replace diseased skin. This is often applied with patients severely burned or have permanent scars.

- gene delivery by nasal spray: DNA enclosed in liposomes, then delivered as nasal spray. E.g.: gene that makes interferon gamma for asthma treatment

- the production of insulin: the gene for human insulin is inserted into the plasmid of the bacteria E. coli using recombinant DNA techniques. This allows insulin to be mass-produced at a commercial scale. (The insulin produced by the bacteria is then separated from other proteins produced by the bacteria and then packed)

describe one example from the following applications of animal or plant biotechnology: the production of monoclonal antibodies, recombinant vaccines to combat virulent animal diseases

Monoclonal antibodies:

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When tumour cells and mammalian cells that produce an antibody are fused together, the result is a “hybridoma” – a cell which continually produce antibodies. Hybridoma cells are used to mass-produce antibodies against specific cell types or substances. These antibodies are called monoclonal. Some applications: since these antibodies would bind to a specific type of cell or substances, they are used to:

- distinguish between subsets of B and T cells - track cancer antigens, attack cancer metastases- manufacture genetically engineered proteins – separate the desired protein

productE.g.: human cancer cells are injected into a mouse to stimulate the production of antibodies against the cancer cells. The mouse cell which produces antibodies are isolated and fused with tumour cells. The resulting hybridoma cell produces the monoclonal antibodies that fight against the human cancer cells. The monoclonal antibodies are then injected into the patient.

Recombinant vaccines: A vaccinia virus (non-pathogenic) has the gene to produce the antigen inserted using recombinant DNA technology, then is injected into the host. It would infect the host cells, producing the antigens. This triggers an immune response in the host, thus the host is immune to both the vaccinia and the antigen inserted. This has great economic advantages (e.g.: no need to separate out the live, non-virulent strain of the pathogen, possible to immunize the animal against many diseases in one shot, etc...). E.g.: Use Paramyxoviridae virus to carry vaccine for Rinderpest – a disease in cattle.

describe one example from the following applications of aquaculture: the production of a pharmaceutical from alga, the farming of a marine animal

Aquaculture: is the biotechnology applied to aquatic organisms (i.e.: raising of plants and animals in water for different products).

The production of a pharmaceutical from algae: - spore and colonisation occur in lab, then transplanted to the natural world, grown

onto plastic lines- once harvested --> dried, washed with freshwater (reduce the salt content). Boil to

extract the juice, filter the product, then converted to powder form in a mill- Example: carrageenans (a substance extracted from Chondracanthus exasperatus).

Used in pharmaceuticals: cough/cold liquids, medicated shampoos, anti-biotic suspensions, topical lotions and creams, etc...

Farming of a marine animal: Yabbie (Cherax albidus)

- farmed in Western Australia- farmed in clay-based dam. Essentially self-reproducing, the muddy water hides

the yabbies from predators. Farmers provide supplementary feed, purge the mud, then harvest, process and package.

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- Sometimes farmed in built-ponds which allow them to be harvested even during winter.

Assignment: present one case study on each of the applications of biotechnology in medicine, animal biotechnology and aquaculture: give details of the process used, identify the organism or tissue involved, describe the outcome of the biotechnological process, evaluate the efficiency of the process and discuss advantages and disadvantages associated with either the products or the process

Medicine: - the production of human insulin

The process used: - human mRNA coding for insulin is obtained from the pancreas- reverse transcriptase enzyme (obtained from retrovirus) is applied to the mRNA.

This enzyme initiates reverse transcription, producing the cDNA strand coding for human insulin from the mRNA.

- Plasmid of the E.coli bacteria is cut by restriction enzyme, leaving loose, “sticky ends” to which the DNA can be attached. Special linking sequences are added to the human cDNA chain so that it will fit precisely into the loose ends of the opened plasmid DNA ring.

- The human cDNA for insulin is inserted into the plasmid and they are joined by ligase.

- The recombinant plasmid is inserted back into the E.coli bacteria. The E.coli is cultured in vats. They multiply and produce fully-functional human insulin, which is then extracted, purified, and packed.

The organism or tissue involved: - Human mRNA that codes for insulin- Bacteria E.coli- Reverse transcriptase enzyme from retrovirus.

Evaluate: this is a success. The artificial insulin is absolutely identical to the natural molecule. Advantages:

- E.coli is easy to culture and be recombined with other DNAs- Allow human insulin to be mass-produced, thus decreases the cost and eliminates

the need to use animal insulin for diabetes. - E.coli cannot remove introns (non-coding regions of DNA), so using reverse

transcription allow a “coding DNA” (cDNA) to be produced. This is much superior than the previous process of making human insulin, which involves synthesizing the proinsulin chain by cutting and joining of the genes coding for the A and B chain of insulin separately.

- The same culture of E.coli can be maintained and cultivated, so the process of producing the cDNA and rDNA need only be done once

Disadvantages: - the process contains many intermediate steps- the process does not give high yield

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- some diabetes claim that they get hypoglecaemia when substituting recombinant insulin for animal insulin

Animal: - the production of BST

In cattle, bovine somatotrophin (BST) is a hormone that promotes muscle growth and milk production. A single dose of BST in every 2 weeks can boost 25% milk production of cows. Originally, BST was taken from dead cows. Now, it can be produced by genetically modified E.coli using recombinant DNA.

The organism or tissue involved: cow and E. coli

Efficiency: the process is highly efficient.

Advantages: - More and cheaper BST to boost the milk yield, therefore reduce milk price,

increase production effiency- The same strain of GM E.coli can be cultured and used again. So the process of

making the recombinant DNA is only done once.

Disadvantages: - The cow loses energy in producing milk, therefore is susceptible to diseases such

as udder infections, gut problems, and they often become lame. This means the cow needs antibiotics, or otherwise it would die early. Both of these situations can decrease the efficiency of production.

- This also creates moral issues. Some people are worried about a similar epidemic like BSE (mad cow disease).

Aquaculture: - the use of growth hormone for Atlantic salmon

The antifreeze protein gene (AFP) promoter switches on the production of an anti-freeze protein. By linking with the a gene which produces growth hormone, the growth hormone gene can be constantly switched on, producing a continuous growth hormone supply for the fish.

The process used: - using reverse transcriptase enzyme, the cDNA of chinook salmon growth

hormone is made- an antifreeze protein gene promoter from ocean pout is isolated- these two genes are linked and inserted into a plasmid of E. Coli- the plasmid is inserted back into the bacteria to make billions of copies- the plasmid is then isolated and cleave to make it become linear. It is called a

gene cassette- the gene cassette is inserted into fertilized inactivated atlantic salmon fish eggs- the eggs are incubated and allowed to hatch

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- fish with the genes incorporated into their genome are selected. These fish are used to create a breeding stock of the new, faster growing variety.

The organisms involved: - chinook salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha- ocean pout Macrozoarces americanus- atlantic salmon Salmo salar - bacteria E. Coli

Efficiency: - The process of producing the gene cassette is not high in efficiency. But it only

need to be done once. - The result is highly efficient. At one year old, the average increase of transgenic

fish is 2 – 6 fold, the largest is 13 times the non-transgenic fish

Advantages: - the gene cassette is “universal” – that is, it can be inserted into any fertilized

inactivated fish eggs other than atlantic salmon - the fish are ready for the market in a shorter period of time, thus increases yield

and reduces the fish price- though the process contains many intermediate steps, once the fish stock is

created, there is no need to go through the processes again

Disadvantages: - the process contains many intermediate steps- Genetic pollution: if these fish can escape into the wild, they may upset the

ecosystem balance- It is unclear whether these fish would be more susceptible to diseases or not. - Moral issues

Part 7 – ethical issues

Explain why different groups in society may have different views about the use of DNA technology

Because:- they have different levels of understanding- they have different values- they have different attitudes to the environment- DNA technology has different impacts on their lifestyle, health, and opportunities

Identify and evaluate ethical issues related to one of the following: development of genetically modified organisms (GMOs), animal cloning, gene cloning

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Development of GMO - Problems: - playing “God” by changing nature- GMO produced as biological weapons- Farmers become dependent on biotech companies for seeds and herbicides

without any choice. - Long term effects are not fully understood- If GMO escapes and interbreeds with nature, the entire population could be

changed- Variety in the gene pool would drop

Positives: - allow better stocks to be created, thus producing better food quality, cheaper- can create pest-resistant plants, thus reducing the need to use insecticides and

herbicides- solve the world’s food problem in the future, and the famine problem currently in

Africa. - Encourage researches and developments in science

Evaluation: there are other positive effects as well as negative. Ethical problems are possibilities, therefore, should be taken in consideration before a new type of GMOs is developed.

Assignment: Identify and discuss ethical and social issues associated with the use of biotechnology

- playing “God” by changing nature. o Some people believe that human should not “contaminate” nature too

much (e.g.: by using GMO). - GMO produced as biological weapons.

o It is possible to develop pathogens which are targeted at a particular race- Farmers become dependent on biotech companies for seeds and herbicides

without any choice. o Then, biotech companies might end up controlling the world’s food

supply. - insurance companies and employers might use genetic information to discriminate

against individuals- parents may “design” children and select against certain characteristics- Long term effects on human health and on nature are not fully understood

Biotechnology brings many benefits and applications (e.g.: better breeds, higher yield, reduce the need of using herbicides and pesticides, medical applications,...); but ethical and social issues should be considered carefully in the using of biotechnology.

Notes: possible dangers in genetic engineering (OTHER THAN ETHICAL ISSUES)

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o the micro-organism may escape from industrial fermenters, causing problems, e.g.: attack other organisms, combine with natural viruses to form dangerous strains, etc...

o the modified food may produce toxic substances or allergenso herbicides used on GM crops may accumulate and toxic for consumption

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