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• Introduction to A&P• Chemistry of Life• Cells & Cellular Metabolism

Course Coordinator: Professor L. Falkow 8/06

Bio 103 Lecture Handout 1

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Anatomy and Physiology

Anatomy –

Physiology –

Structure is always related to function

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A & P - go together-

-

Ex. Heart LV

RV

Anatomy and Physiology

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Levels of Organization[Simplest --> Complex]

Subatomic Particles –Atom –

Molecule –Macromolecule –

Organelle –Cell –Tissue –

Organ –Organ System –

Organism -

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Characteristics of Life

Movement –Responsiveness –Growth –

Respiration –

Reproduction –

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Characteristics of Life

Absorption –

Circulation –

Assimilation –

Excretion –

Digestion –

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Requirements of Organisms

Life depends on five environmental factors• water• food• oxygen• heat• pressure

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Requirements of OrganismsWater

- most abundant substance in body

- required for ___________ & _____________- regulates _______________

Food- provides ________________

- supplies _________________

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Requirements of Organisms

Oxygen (Gas)-- used to release energy from nutrients

Heat- form of energy -

Pressure- applying force on an object- atmospheric pressure – _____________- hydrostatic pressure – ______________

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HomeostasisBody’s ability to maintain a stable internal environment

Homeostatic Mechanisms –

•Receptors –

•Control center –

•Effectors –

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Homeostatic MechanismsBody Temperature

Too high Too low

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HomeostasisNegative Feedback

-

- most of body activities regulatedby neg. feedback

Ex.

Homeostatic Mechanisms

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Positive Feedback-

Ex. --

Homeostatic Mechanisms

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Thoracic & Abdominal Membranes

Thoracic Membranes•________

•visceral•parietal

•__________•visceral •parietal

Visceral layer –Parietal layer –

Abdominopelvic Membranes•______________

•visceral •parietal

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Thoracic cavityPleural membranes:

- parietal:<pleural cavity>- visceral:

Pericardium1) fibrous pericardium -2) serous pericardium

- parietal layer of serous pericardium<pericardial cavity>- visceral layer of serous pericardium

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Abdominopelvic cavityPeritoneum

-visceral:<peritoneal cavity>-parietal:

---------------------------------------------------------------Serous fluid:

Retroperitoneal structures:-ex.

Mesentery :

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11 Major Organ Systems• Body Covering:

- ___________ system

• Support & Movement:- _________ system- _________system

• Integration and Coordination:•________

•________

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Transport:- ________- ________

Absorption & Excretion:- ________- _________- ________

Reproduction:- _____________________

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Organ Systems

• 1. Integumentary System• Organs:• Functions:

• 2. Skeletal System• Organs:• Functions

• 3. Muscular System:• Organs• Functions

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• 4. Nervous System• Organs:• Functions

• 5. Endocrine System• Organs• Functions

• 6. Cardiovascular System• Organs• Functions

• 7. Lymphatic System• Organs• Functions

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• 8. Digestive System• Organs• Functions

• 9. Respiratory System• Organs• Functions

• 10. Urinary System• Organs• Functions

• 11. Reproductive Systems• Organs• Functions

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Anatomical TerminologyAnatomical Position –

Terms of Relative Position•Superior•Inferior

•Anterior •Posterior

•Dorsal•Ventral

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Cranial (Cephalad) Caudal

Medial Lateral

ProximalDistal

Superficial Deep

Terms of Relative Position

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Body Sections/Planes

•Sagittal / Midsagittal / Parasagittal

•Transverse or Cross-section

•Coronal or Frontal

•Oblique

•Longitudinal / Horizontal

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Abdominal Subdivisions

9 Abdominopelvic

Regions:

4 Quadrants:

Epigastric

Hypochondriac (R & L)

Umbilical

Lumbar (R & L)

Hypogastric

Iliac (R & L)

RUQ LUQ

RLQ LLQ

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Body Regions• Antebrachial –• Axillary –• Brachial –• Cervical –• Costal -• Crural -• Femoral -• Gluteal -• Mammary -• Nasal -• Occipital –• Pectoral –• Sternal –• Tarsal -• Vertebral -

Body Regions

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Chapter 2Chemical Basis of Life

Why study chemistry in an Anatomy and Physiology class?

_______________

_______________

- biochemistry helps to explain physiology

_______________

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Organic Versus Inorganic

Organic molecules• contain __ and ___• water soluble• _____________, ______, __________, ______________

Inorganic molecules• do not contain C (usually)• dissociate in water to form ________• _______, _______, ______, inorganic salts

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Inorganic Substances

Water (H2O)• ~ two-thirds of body wt.• medium for _____________• transports ____________• absorbs and transports __________

Oxygen (O2) • used by organelles to release __________

in metabolism • necessary for survival

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Inorganic Substances

Carbon dioxide (CO2)• _________________

Inorganic salts• source of ions (Na+, Cl-, K+, Ca2+, etc.)• important role in metabolism

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Organic SubstancesCarbohydrates (CHO)

• provide __________ to cells• supply materials to ____________________• ratio of H to O close to 2:1 (C6H12O6)

Examples:•______saccharides – glucose, fructose

• ____saccharides – sucrose, lactose

• _______saccharides – glycogen, cellulose

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Organic SubstancesLipids

• insoluble in water

Examples:

• fats (triglycerides)

• phospholipids

• steroids

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Organic SubstancesLipids

• fats (triglycerides)• used primarily for energy; most common lipid in

the body

• contain C, H, and O but less O than carbohydrates (C57H110O6)

• building blocks = 1 ________ + 3 ________ per molecule

• saturated and unsaturated

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Organic SubstancesLipids

• phospholipids • building blocks = 1 _________, 2 ______,

and 1 phosphate per molecule

• hydrophilic and hydrophobic

• major component of cell membranes

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Organic Substances Lipids

• steroids• four carbon rings

• component of ______ ____________

• cholesterol•used to synthesize ______________

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Organic SubstancesProteins

• structural material• energy source• hormones• receptors• enzymes• antibodies

• building blocks are amino acids

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Organic SubstancesNucleic Acids

• carry genes• encode amino acid sequences of proteins

• building blocks =______________

• ______ (deoxyribonucleic acid) – double polynucleotide• ______ (ribonucleic acid) – single polynucleotide

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ATP Molecules(adenosine triphosphate)

• each ATP molecule has three parts:• an adenine molecule• a ribose molecule • three phosphate molecules in a chain

• third phosphate attached by high-energy bond

• ATP <==> ADP + P + E

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Chapter 3 & 4Cells & Cellular Metabolism

• vary in _____ and ________

• measured in ____________ (μm)

somatic -___________

sex - _______________(sperm, oocytes)

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A Composite Cell

• major parts• nucleus• cytoplasm• cell membrane

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• barrier

• selectively permeable-_____________________

• phospholipid bilayer • ____________ “heads” form surfaces• ____________ “tails” form interior• permeable to _______________

Cell Membrane

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• cholesterol -• proteins

receptors –pores, channels, carriers [integral proteins]

–

Cell Membrane

enzymes –CAMS (cellular adhesion molecules)

-self-markers –

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Cytoplasmic Organelles

Endoplasmic Reticulum• membrane-bound sacs & vesicles•• rough ER (RER)

••

• smooth ER (SER)••added to proteins from RER•

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Cytoplasmic Organelles

Golgi apparatus• stack of flattened, membranous sacs

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Ribosomes• free floating or connected to ER• ________________

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• Vesicles

• Mitochondria

Cytoplasmic Organelles

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Cytoplasmic OrganellesLysosomes (“garbage disposal”)

• enz.-containing sacs•

Peroxisomes• enz.-containing sacs•

Centrosome• two rod-like centrioles

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Cytoplasmic Organelles

Cilia• short hair-like projections•

Flagellum• long tail-like projection•

Microvilli• fingerlike ext. of C.M.•

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Microfilaments and microtubules

• thin rods and tubules••

Cytoplasmic Organelles

Inclusions

• storage of__________, ___________

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Cell Nucleus• control center of cell• nuclear envelope

• contains nuclear pores• separates nucleoplasm from cytoplasm

• nucleolus• rRNA and proteins• site of ribosome production

• chromatin• fibers of DNA and proteins • stores information for synthesis of proteins

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Nucleic Acids and Protein Synthesis

Gene –

Genetic information –

Genome –

Genetic Code –

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Structure of DNA

• two polynucleotide chains

• N- bases pair specifically (________ and _______)

• forms a _________

• chromosomes =

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RNA MoleculesMessenger RNA (mRNA) -

• delivers genetic information from nucleus to cytoplasm

• ___________

• DNA is template

• RNA nucleotides are complementary to DNA nucleotides (exception – no ________ in RNA; replaced with________)

• making of mRNA (copying of DNA) is_____________

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DNA

G--

A--

G--

T--

A--

C--

DNA & RNA Practice Exercise

DNA mRNA

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RNA Molecules

Transfer RNA (tRNA) -• carries ____________ to mRNA• carries ____________to mRNA• translates a codon of mRNA into an amino acid

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) –• provides structure and enzyme activity for ribosomes

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Protein Synthesis

1. Transcription of mRNA- DNA serves as template for

formation of mRNA

2. Translation- mRNA converted into sequence of

amino acids -->protein

Protein Synthesis

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Mutations

Mutations –

Result when •

May or may not change the protein

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Clinical Application

PhenylketonuriaPKU

• enzyme that breaks down the a.a. phenylalanine (phe) is missing

• build up of phe causes mental retardation

• treated by diets very low in phenylalanine

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Movements Into and Out of the Cell

Passive (Physical) Processes• require no energy• simple diffusion• facilitated diffusion• osmosis• filtration

Active (Physiological) Processes• require energy (ATP)• active transport• endocytosis• exocytosis

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Simple Diffusion

• movement of substances from ________ concentration to ___________concentration

[down concentration gradient]

[to achieve equilibrium]

• O2, CO2, lipid-soluble substances

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Facilitated Diffusion

• diffusion across a membrane with aid of _______________

• glucose & a.a.

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Osmosis

• movement of _______through a

___________________from high water

conc. to low water conc.

• water moves toward a higher conc. of solutes

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OsmosisOsmotic Pressure – ability of osmosis to generate

enough pressure to move a volume of water

Osmotic pressure increases as the concentration of nonpermeable solutes increases

• hypertonic –

• hypotonic –

• isotonic –

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Solution is ________ to RBC.

Solution is ___________ to RBC.Water moves out of cell

Solution is _________ to RBC.

Water moves into cell

Osmosis

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Filtration

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• due to

• molecules leaving blood capillaries

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Active Transport

•_______________ transport substances across a membrane

• movement __________the conc. gradient

•req.

•sugars, a.a., Na+, K+

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Endocytosis• cell engulfs a substance

•three types• pinocytosis –

•phagocytosis –

•receptor-mediated endocytosis –

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Exocytosis

• “cell-vomiting”

• substances in a vesicle fuse with C.M.

• release of neurotransmitters from nerve cells

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The Cell Cycle

• Life of the cell

• Stages • interphase• mitosis• cytokinesis

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Interphase

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• cell prepares to divide- replicates - synthesizes

• G phases –

• S phase –

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•produces two daughter cells from diploid parent cell 2n

2n

2n• nucleus divides –____________

•cytoplasm divides – __________

• 4 stages

Mitosis(Somatic cell division)

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Mitosis

Prophase••

Metaphase• chromosomes lineup

• spindle fibers attach to centromeres

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MitosisAnaphase– chromosomes separate

Telophase–-

Cytokinesis• begins during anaphase telophase

• 2 new daughter cells formed

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Reproductive Cell Div. - Meiosis

• occurs only in production of________• takes place in 2 successive nuclear

divisions:Meiosis IMeiosis II

Meiosis

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• Interphase - Chromosomes replicate

• Meiosis IProphase I- chromosomes line up in homologous

pairs (synapsis)- tetrad formation- crossing over = exchange of genes

==> variety in the species

Meiosis

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• Metaphase I-paired chromosomes line up on equator of cell- centromeres attach to spindle fibers

• Anaphase I- separation of homologous pair to opposite poles- centromeres do not split

• Telophase I- cytokinesis

Meiosis

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• Meiosis II:

• [No real interphase]

• Prophase II • Metaphase II • Anaphase II• Telophase II

Meiosis

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• Spermatogenesis Oogenesis- 4 ____________ - 4 cells produced:

produced _________________

Meiosis I: – Reduction division– Start with 2n parent --> 2 haploid cells

• Meiosis II:- Equatorial division

– Each haploid cell divides ==> 4 haploid cells

Meiosis

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Control of Cell Division• cell division varies among cell types

• skin and blood cells divide often and continually• neuron cells divide a specific number of times then cease

• growth factors and hormones stimulate cell division• hormones stimulate mitosis of SMC in uterus• epidermal growth factor stimulates growth of new skin

• tumors are the consequence of a loss of cell cycle control

• contact (density dependent) inhibition

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TumorsTwo types of tumors

• benign –

• malignant –

Two major types of genes cause cancer• oncogenes –

• tumor suppressor genes –

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Stem and Progenitor CellsStem cell

• can divide to form two new stem cells• self-renewal

• can divide to form a stem cell and a progenitor cell• totipotent – can give rise to every cell type• pluripotent – can give rise to a restricted # of cell types

Progenitor cell• committed cell• can divide to become any of a restricted # of cells • pluripotent

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Clinical ApplicationDiseases at the Organelle Level

MELAS – mitochondrial encephalomyopathy, lactic acidosis, and stroke-like episodes

• mitochondria are missing a gene necessary to carry out important energy producing reactions• usually inherited by mother• causes strokes, severe headaches, muscle weakness and numb hands

ALD – adrenoleukodystrophy• peroxisomes are missing enzymes• causes dizziness, weakness, darkening skin, and abnormal heart rhythms

Tay-Sachs Disease• lysosomes are abnormally large and lack one enzyme• causes nervous system failure and early death