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Beyondliteracy:buildinganintegratedpedagogicgenreDavidRoseAustralianJournalofLanguageandLiteracy,34(1),81-97The suggestion behind the title above is that ‘literacy’ may be an artificial construct of aneducation system that consistently dissociates social contexts from the roles of language inrealising them, and further dissociates the components of language in the school curriculum.Literacythenbecomesaninstructionalfieldthatmustbelearntinadditiontotheothersubjectsinthe curriculum, by those students who have not otherwise acquired it adequately. As Halliday(1993:94)explains,“Languageisnotadomainofhumanknowledge(exceptinthespecialcontextof linguistics…); language istheessentialconditionofknowing,theprocessbywhichexperiencebecomesknowledge”.Hegoesontopropose:

…thatwemightexploreapproachestolearningtheorythatarebasedonconsiderationoflanguage. In otherwords,wemight interpret learning as something that is inherently asemioticprocess.

Over threedecadesof action researchand teacher training, systemic functional linguistics (SFL)hasmadeprofoundinroadsinintegratinglanguagewithschoollearninginAustraliaandbeyond.Onekeybreakthroughwasthe1994incorporationintheNSWK-6syllabus(BoardofStudiesNSW1994/2008), of written genres described by JimMartin and colleagues (Martin 2000,Martin &Rose 2008, Rose 2008), and the genre writing cycle designed by Joan Rothery and colleagues(Rothery 1994/2008). This moment institutionalised genres as explicit evaluation criteria andteachinggoals, andasamandatory componentofpre-service teacher training. Itwasprecededand accompanied by extensive in-service professional development, in both genre writing andfunctionalgrammar,particularlythroughtheNSWDisadvantagedSchoolsProgram.ThegenresandpedagogyhavesincepermeatedalleducationsystemsinAustralia,accompaniedby various commercial teaching packages, and in many regions by professional developmentprograms ingenreandgrammar.Notableexamples includethetrainingprogramsofferedbySADECS,designedbyBrianDareandJohnPolias(www.lexised.com),aswellasfunctionalgrammarcoursesnowofferedinmanyAustralianeducationfaculties.Throughout itsdevelopment, thisprogramhas focusedon the linguistic resources that studentsneedtowritesuccessfullyintheschool,andthatteachersneedtoexplicitlyteachthem.Aswritingistheprimarymeansbywhichstudentsareevaluatedinschool,thisfocushasbeencrucialforitsinstitutionalisation.Over thepastdecade,anotherprogramhasbeendeveloping, thatbuildsonthis traditionbut is focusedasmuchon readingasonwriting,and isdesigned toprovidemoreintensive support than the genre writing cycle, for students to access and use the languageresourcesofwrittentexts.KnownasReadingtoLearn(www.readingtolearn.com.au),thisprogrambegan from the needs of Indigenous students who could not read the texts that are used assourcesof information andmodels for genres in the genrewritingpedagogy (Rose1999, 2004,2005).Initiallyworkingwithteachersinahighschoolsupportprogram,SFLanalysesoftextsacrosstheschoolcurriculumwereappliedwithreadingstrategiesdevelopedintheSchoolsandCommunityCentre, University of Canberra (Rose, Gray & Cowey 1999). The results were extraordinary;studentswhohadnotprogressedbeyondjuniorprimaryliteracy,inyearsofintensiveESLsupportin thehigh school,wereable to readatageappropriate levels in less thanayear (McRaeetal

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2000).Asa result,demandsgrewrapidly for in-service training instateand independentschoolsystems across Australia.Working across these contexts,with primary and secondary teachers,haspushedthedevelopmentoftheprogram,beyondaliteracysupportmodeltowardsawholisticpedagogy that systematically integrates skills in learning the curriculum, with the activities ofteaching it. Indeed this has always been a key principle behind the genrewriting pedagogy, inwhichbuildingthefieldofthecurriculumtopicisintegralwithlearningtowriteaboutit.Butthefocuson readingacross theschool,aswellaswriting,hasopenedupcomplexproblems for re-designingrelationsbetweenpedagogyandcurriculum.The theoretical framework for thisdesignbeginswithBernstein’smodelofpedagogicdiscourse(1996/2000),asan‘instructionaldiscourse’ofskills,embeddedinanddominatedbya‘regulativediscourse’ of ‘order, relations and identity’. This is reinterpreted in terms of the SFLmodel oflanguageinsocialcontextasthepedagogicgenre(Martin1998).Asagenreisaconfigurationofvariationsinfield,modeandtenor(Martin&Rose2008),thepedagogicgenreincludespedagogicactivities (field), social relations and identities (tenor) and modalities (mode). The primarydistinction in pedagogic activities is between learning by doing, associated with manualoccupations, and learning by studying, associated with academic fields. Pedagogic relations inschool are framed by what Bernstein (ibid) calls the ‘hierarchy of success and failure’, whichcreatescirclesofinclusionandexclusion.Pedagogicmodalitiesincludespokenandwrittenmodesoflanguage,aswellasvisualandmanualmodalities.Togetherthesedimensionsbringintobeing,or ‘project’ the instructional field, i.e. the curriculum that learners acquire, as the act of saying‘projects’what is said (afterHalliday’s 1994/2004descriptionof the grammarof saying). ThesedimensionsofthepedagogicgenreareschematisedinFigure1.Figure1:Thepedagogicgenre

Variationsinthepedagogicactivities,relationsandmodalitiesaffecthowmuch,andwhatkind,ofcurriculumwillbeacquiredbydifferentgroupsofstudents.Forexample,asreadingistheprimarymodalityforlearningthecurriculum,theIndigenousstudentsweworkedwithcouldacquireverylittleofit.OneresponsetothisproblemhasbeentoclaimthatIndigenouspeoplearetherefore‘visual learners’, but so is everyone elsewith sight. The real difference lies in one’s capacity tolearnfromreading.Thiscapacityvirtuallydetermineswhereachildwillbeplacedandremainonthe hierarchy of success and failure throughout the school years. Those that begin schoolwith1000 hours of talking around text in parent-child reading, typical of tertiary educated families(Adams1990),willbeassessedas themostable learners,gradingondownto thosewhoarrivewithnosuchexperience,includingmanyIndigenouschildren.

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A child’s place on the hierarchy is constantly reinforced, not only by formal tasks, but by therelentlessevaluationsinclassroominteraction.Teachersgenerallyreportthataminorityoftheirstudentsareconsistentlyincludedinteacher-studentexchanges,thatis,themore‘able’studentswhousuallyrespondsuccessfullytoteacherquestionsandareaffirmed.Otherstudentsrespondless successfully and receive less affirmation, while others rarely respond and receive littleaffirmation.Thesecirclesofinclusionandexclusionarereplayedandreinforcedbythehierarchyofclasses,andgroupsinclasses,feedingbackovertheschoolyearstoshapechildren’sidentitiesasmoreorless‘able’learners.Bernsteindescribesthisprocessbaldly:

Theschoolmustdisconnectitsowninternalhierarchyofsuccessandfailurefromineffectivenessofteachingwithin the schooland theexternalhierarchyofpower relationsbetweensocial groupsoutside the school.Howdoschools individualize failureand legitimize inequalities?Theanswer isclear: failure isattributedtoinbornfacilities(cognitive,affective)ortotheculturaldeficitsrelayedbythefamilywhichcometohavetheforceofinbornfacilities(1996/2000:5).

Asthesourceofthisinequalityisactuallyinstudents’varyingcapacitiestolearnfromreading,theaimofReadingtoLearnistoteachallstudentstheskillstheyneedtoreadthecurriculumattheiryearlevel.Astheskillsrequiredineachsubjectareabecomemorecomplexovertheschoolyears,teachersneeddetailedknowledgeofthelanguagedemandsoftheirsubjectsateachgradelevel.Asall teachersworkwithawiderangeofso-called ‘ability levels’ intheirclassrooms,theyneedsophisticatedtoolsfordesigninglearningactivitiesthatwillenablealltheirstudentstoreadatthesamelevel.Thechallengeforboththeclassroompedagogyandtheprofessionallearningprogramistodesigna methodology that integrates curriculum goals, at each stage of schooling, with pedagogicactivities that will provide all students with equal access to the written texts that encode thecurriculum.ThestartingpointfortheReadingtoLearnmethodology iswithamodelof learningandteachingthatcanbeappliedinanyeducationalcontext.ThismodelgoesbeyondVygotskyantheoriesofproximaldevelopmentorscaffolding,inordertoenableteacherstosupport,notjustone,butall theirstudentstodothesamehigh leveltasks,despiteawiderangeof independentabilitiesintheclass.The basic assumption of the model is that all learning occurs through the accomplishment oflearningtasks,andthatthetaskmustbedonesuccessfullyforthelearningtooccur.Toenableitssuccessful accomplishment, the learner must be prepared in some way to do the task, by ateacher or a text that mediates the pedagogic relation with the teacher. Once the task isaccomplished,thelearner’scapacityisopenedupforlearningafurtherstepinthetasksequence,or elaborating with a higher level of understanding. Together these three phases have beentermedscaffoldinglearningcycles,illustratedinFigure3.

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Figure2:Scaffoldinglearningcycle

Thissimpleanalysisisappliedatthreescales,tore-designpedagogicactivities:ofcurriculumunits,or ‘curriculummacrogenres’ (Christie1993), of activitieswithineach lesson, andof interactionsbetweenteachersandstudents.Designing effective preparations at each of these levels requires detailed understanding of thelearning task. As language is such a complex phenomenon, and learning language an equallycomplextask,itisessentialtohaveamodeloflanguagecapableofmanagingitscomplexityandinforming language teaching. The SFL theory of text-in-social context provides such a model,organisedinawaythatcanbegraspedandappliedbyteachers.ItisfirstintroducedtoteachersinReadingtoLearnintermsofthreelevels–theword,thesentence,andthetext.Thesecondstepis thentopointout thata textdoesnotconsistofastringofsentences,but includesphasesofmeaningexpressedasparagraphsinwriting;asentenceisnotjustastringofwords,butincludesgroups ofwords expressingmeanings such aswho it’s about,what they are doing,where andwhen;andawordisnotjustastringoflettersbutisorganisedinsyllablesconsistingofOnsetandRhymepatternsofletterorsounds.Solanguageismadeupofdiscoursepatternswithintexts,ofgrammar patterns within sentences, and sound or letter patterns within words. In order tocomprehend a text, i.e. to understand its context, readers must be able to process all thesepatternsofpatternsofpatternssimultaneouslyandautomatically–atremendouslycomplextask.ThisrecontextualisationoftheSFLmodeloflanguagestrataandranksthenformsthebasisforre-interpretinglanguageteachingpracticesthatarefamiliartoteachers.Forexample,theNSWstateliteracy policy states that “Literacy will be taught in a balanced and integrated way” (NSWDepartment of Education and Training 2006-8:1). It then gives an example of a ‘balancedapproach’:

1.2.2Intheearlyyears,literacyteachingwillincludetheexplicitteachingof:phonemicawareness;phonics;vocabulary knowledge; comprehension; concepts about print; grammar, punctuation; spelling andhandwriting.

Themodelallowsustorelateeachoftheseliteracyactivitiestovariousaspectsofthelanguagetask,illustratedinFigure3.

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Figure3:A‘balancedapproach’toliteracyintheearlyyears

Atthispointteacherscanseejustwhataspectsofthereadingandwritingtasksareaddressedbyeachofthesefamiliaractivities.Thisthenenablesustopointoutthateachoftheseactivities isconducted in different segments of the early years curriculum program, using different texts,sentences, words, sounds and letter patterns. For children who come to school with a strongorientation towrittenways ofmeaning, from their experience of parent-child reading, each oftheseactivitiesmakessense,aspartsofthemeaningfulcontextofreadingandwriting.Theyareabletosynthesisethesedisparateelementsintheirunderstanding,andrapidlydevelopasreadersandwriters.Butchildrenwhoarrivewithlessreadingexperiencemaytakelongertorecognisethemeaningofeachactivity,andtorelatethemtothewholereadingandwritingtask.Theextremecase is childrenwith no home reading experience,whomay take three years ormore to startindependentlyreading,despitedailydrillsinalltheseactivities(Rose,Gray&Cowey1999).This then enables teachers to appreciate the value of a ‘top-down’ sequence of activities, thatintegrateseachcomponentofthereadingandwritingtasksinthecontextofmeaningfulwholes.TheReadingtoLearnapproachdoesnotdemandthatearlyyearsteachersabandonwhattheydowell,butstartswiththeirsharedbookreadingactivities,inwhichtheypreparechildrentoengageinareadingbook,andreaditwiththemrepeatedlyuntiltheyarethoroughlyfamiliarandcansaythe words along with the teacher, much like parent-child reading but conducted with wholeclasses.Thechildren’sfamiliaritywiththetext intheoralmodeprovidesastrongfoundationtoguide them, first to recognise the words and word groups in each sentence, then the letterpatternsthatcorrespondtothesoundsofeachword,thentowritethesewordsandsentences.Visual and manual modalities are deployed to support each step, by writing sentences oncardboardstrips,andguidingchildrentopointtoeachwordastheysaythem,andtocutupandmanipulatewordsandwordgroups,andthentopractisewritingthemonwhiteboardsthatcanbeerasedandcorrectedwithease.Allof the literacyoutcomesexpectedbyearlyyears syllabiarecovered by these activity sequences, but with the integrating principle of language strata andranksprovidedbySFL.Forthechildren,eachactivitymakessenseinthecontextoftheprecedingactivity,sothatallrapidlystartreadingandwritingindependently,despitethedifferenceintheirhomeexperiences.This is one example of how Reading to Learn attempts an integrated pedagogy in multipledimensions: firstly integrating the components of the language task in a pedagogic sequenceinformedbythestratifiedorganisationoflanguage;secondlyintegratingthetheoryandpractice

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ofthispedagogywithteachers’existingunderstandingsandpractices,withintheconstraintsofin-servicetraining;thirdlyintegratingthelanguagepedagogywiththeinstitutionaldemandsofstatesyllabiandschoolprogramming.Thatis,thelanguagepedagogyisnotdesignedinisolationfromthe contexts in which it is applied, rather the contexts of the student, the classroom, theinstitution,andteacherprofessionallearning,togetherformanintegralwholeinthedesignofthepedagogy.Beyond the early years of course the design becomes far more complex. For a start, skills inreadingandwritingbecomelessandlessanexplicitfocusofclassroomteaching,asthecurriculumfocusshiftstoevermoreesotericfieldsofknowledge,eventhoughthereadingandwritingskillsrequired to learn the curriculum become steadily more elaborate. While some students’ skillsdevelopintandemwiththedemandsofthecurriculum,manyothersareleftfurtherandfurtherbehind.Bothprimaryandsecondaryteachersareburdenedwithawidening‘abilitygap’ intheirclassrooms, endeavouring to cover expected curriculum content, while coping with groups ofstudentswhoaremoreorlessunabletostudyitindependently.The demands and constraints of the curriculum and school programs have led to a three-tiermodeloflearningactivitiesinReadingtoLearn.Thefirsttierbeginswiththeselectionandanalysisoftextsinthecontextofthecurriculum,thatwillbeusedforstudents’readingandasmodelsfortheir writing. The first teaching activity at this level is known as Preparing before Reading.Essentially this involvesbuilding the field,orproviding theminimalbackgroundknowledge thatstudentswillneedtoaccessthetext,andthengivinganoralsummaryofhowthetextwillunfold.Thispreparationbeginswiththetext’sgenre,includingitsglobalpurposeandstages,andthenasummaryofthestepsinwhichthefieldunfoldsthroughthegenre,intermsthatallstudentscanunderstand. This provides a mental map for all students to follow the text with generalcomprehension,withoutstrugglingtoworkoutwhatisgoingonateachstep,allowingtheteachertoworkwithtextsthatarewellbeyondsomestudentsindependentreadingskills.Readingaloudfurther reduces the cognitive load for such students, as they need not struggle to decodeunfamiliarwrittenwords,butcanfocustheirfullattentiononthespokenmeanings.Preparing before Reading can be usedwith any and all texts students are expected to read. Itrequiresnomoreprogramtimethandostandardteachingpractices,butdoesrequiretheteachertolookcloselyateachtexttoworkouthowitunfolds,andhowtosummariseitfortheirstudents.Thiscloseanalysis is inevitablya revelation for teachers,as theyrealise thecomplexityof sometexts,andthedifficultiesexperiencedbymanystudents.Theanalysisalsoalertsteacherstotherelativevalueofdifferenttextsfortheircurriculumprograms,andtotheelementsofthefieldthatthey need to incorporate into their programming, so that students can understand the readingtexts.Textselectionandanalysisisthusbothinformedbyandinformsprogramplanning.Theotherkeydimensionofprogramplanningisevaluation.Astheprimarymodeofevaluationisstudents’writing,thegenrestheyareexpectedtowriteareoneofthecriteriafortextselection.As ingenrewritingpedagogy,modeltextsareusedtodemonstratethestructuresandlanguagefeaturesofeachgenre.Modelsselectedmaybeshorttextsorpassagesfromlongertextssuchasnovels.PreparingbeforeReadingisalsousedwithsuchmodeltexts.ThetechniquedevelopedininReadingtoLearnextendsthestrategyofDeconstructiondevelopedingenrewritingpedagogy.Inaddition to the text stages identified in thegenreapproach, theanalysis inReading to Learnfocusesonthephasesthroughwhichtextsunfoldwithineachstage.Thisdevelopmenthasbeendrivenbythediversityofpatternsfoundinreadingtexts,whichstudentsneedtobepreparedforinordertofollowthemwithunderstanding.Althoughphasesaregenerallymorevariablethanthe

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obligatory stages of each genre, a range of typical phase types have been identified for mostgenres,toinformthepedagogy(Martin&Rose2008,Rose2007).Identifying the phases inmodel texts providesmore detailed support for students to follow astheyareread,andtoappropriatethestructuresofmodelsintotheirownwriting.Phasalanalysisinformshowteacherspreparebeforereading,andwhattheyfocusonastheyreadthemodel.Italsoprovidesamoredetailedmetalanguageforuseinwriting.Oncethemodelisread,eachstageandphase is labelledon themodel, projected so that all can see, and studentswrite the samelabels in their own copies. These named structures then form a supportive framework as theteacher guides the class throughwriting a new text in the Joint Construction stage, and againwhenstudentswritetheirowntextsinIndependentWriting.Asthetextisprojected,theteachercanalsopointoutotherdetailstoappropriatefortheJointConstruction.Withfactualtexts,thismayincludetheinformationinthemodel,whichcanbescribedasnotesontheboardasthefieldfor thenewtext.Withstories, theclassbrainstormsnewplots, settingsandcharacters thatarescribed as notes beforewriting.With arguments, the new field is the issue the class has beendiscussing,andwithtextresponsesitisthetexttheyhavebeenstudying.Theprinciplehereisthatstudents are acquiring skills in recognising andappropriatingpatternsofwritten language frominstances inactualtexts,as language is learntnaturally,butthattheteacher isexplicitlyguidingthemtorecognisethepatterns inwhichactualtextsunfold,anddevelopingametalanguage forstudentstocontrolthem.Thisfirsttierofsupportisdirectlyintegratedwiththecurriculum,tothefields,genresandtextsthat it expects students to read and write. It is also directly integrated with teachers’programming,asPreparationbeforeReadingisconductedwiththetextsthatstudentsarealreadyexpected to read,and JointConstructionwith the texts theyareexpected towrite.Forprimaryteachers in Australia, Joint Construction is also expected by their genre-based curricula, andReadingtoLearnsimplyprovidesmoresystematic,detailedstrategiesfortextselection,analysis,programmingandteaching,whereasforhighschoolteachers it isgenerallyanewexperiencetogivetheirstudents’thislevelofsupporttomeetthesyllabusdemands.TherelationbetweenthecurriculumandthisfirsttierofsupportisillustratedbyextractsfromaYear 8 science textbook in Texts 1 and 2. Text 1 is the contents page from a chapter on cells,showingthetopicscovered.Text1:Topicsinasciencecurriculumunit

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Text2isadoublepagespreadfromoneofthesetopics,aboutthestructures,functionsandtypesofcellsacrossthekingdomsoflife.Inthisspreadtherearefiveshorttexts,eachwithaheading,aswell as associated diagrams, tables, and activities designed to test students’ comprehension.Students can be prepared to read these texts, within the context of the curriculum unit beingstudied,anddothecomprehensiontaskssuccessfully,bysummarisingwhathappensineachtext,intermsthatallcanunderstand.Forexample,wemightpreparewiththefollowing:

The overall topic here is cells in five kingdoms of life. The first short text here is a report about the fivekingdomsoflife,withadiagrambesideitshowingexamplesineachkingdom.Thenexttextisareportaboutthe structureof cells that focuseson the functionof thecellnucleus,and thedifferencesbetweensimpleprokaryoticcellslikebacteria,andcomplexeukaryoticcellswithadistinctnucleus.Atthebottomofthepageis thena table that lists thecharacteristicsof cells ineachkingdom.The fourth texton thenextpage isareportaboutstructureofcellsfocusingonthemembrane,thejellylikesubstancewithinthemembranethatis called the cytoplasm, and the chemical reactions in the cytoplasm that are calledmetabolism. Thenextreportisaboutthepartsofcomplexcellscalledorganelles,thatcarryoutvariousfunctions.Thenextreportisaboutdifferenttypesoforganismscells–thosewithonecellcalledunicellular,andthosewithmanycellslikeus,calledmulticellular.Thelastreportisaboutdifferencesbetweensmallandlargertypesofcells.Andfinallythepageendswithasetofcomprehensionactivities,forstudentstofindandexplainkeyinformationineachtext.

Studentsmaythenreadthetextsthemselves,orsomeorallthemofthemmaybereadinclass.

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Text2:Doublepageononetopic

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Thenexttierofsupportisfocusedonpatternsoflanguagewithinandbetweensentences.Ashortpassage is selected from a reading or amodel text for the activity known asDetailed Reading.Heretheteacherguidesstudentstoidentifyeachgroupofwordsineachsentenceofthepassage,byprovidingsemanticcuesforstudentstointerprettheirmeanings.Studentsthusdothementallabourofrecognisingwordgroupsfromtheirmeanings inthecontextof thesentence,muchasthe early years strategies do, but working with challenging texts at their year levels. As theyidentify eachword group it is highlighted, and itsmeaningmaybe elaboratedby defining newwords,explainingnewconcepts,ordiscussingstudents’relevantexperience.Theelaborationmaybefocusedonthefieldreferredtobythewordgroup,oronafeatureoflanguagethatexpressesit.By these means, all students in a class are enabled to read the passage with completeunderstanding, and to recognise the choices the writer has made in its construction. As thestudentshavedonetheworkofidentifyingmeaningsincontext,theyareacquiringskillsthatwilltransfertoreadingothertexts.DetailedReadingisthenfollowedbyJointRewriting,inwhichtheteacherguidesstudentsthroughwritinganewtextwiththesamelanguagepatternsorfield,fromthereadingpassage.Forstories,argumentsandtextresponses,thisactivityprovidesahighlevelofsupportforstudentstoappropriatethelanguageresourcesofaccomplishedwritersintotheirownwriting. For stories, the focus is particularly on the literary resources that authors use toengagereaders;forargumentsandtextresponsesitisontheevaluativelanguageresourcesusedtopersuadeandevaluate.AswithJointConstruction,thereadingpassageisprojected,sothattheclasscanfollowanduseeachlanguagepatterninturn,insertingtheirownstoryplot,argumentortexttoevaluate.Withfactualtexts,theinformationhighlightedinthereadingpassageiswrittenas notes on the board, and the teacher guides the class through rewriting the notes in newsentence patterns. These activities provide high level support in four research skills – readingsource textswith understanding, identifying key information,making notes, and using them towrite new texts. Joint Rewriting is followed by Individual Rewriting, in which students practiseexactlythesameactivity,butwiththeirowncontentforstoriesandarguments,ornewsentencestructuresforfactualtexts.Thissecondtierofsupport ishardertodo,as it is further fromteachers’existingpractices,andrequiresdetailedplanningandsignificantchangesinbothprogrammingandmodesofclassroominteraction.Howeveritisintegratedwiththecurriculum,asitsupportsallstudentstoengagewithtopics in depth, and to use knowledge about language to meet assessment criteria. It is alsointegrated with teachers’ existing understanding and practice through a detailed analysis ofclassroom interactions, that brings intuitive practices of teacher-student interaction toconsciousness,andusesthisconsciousunderstandingasabasisforre-designingit.Instandardclassroomexchanges,oftentermed‘IRF’orinitiate-respond-feedbackcycles,teachersinteract with their classes by asking questions, and use students’ responses as platforms toelaborateknowledgetheywanttheclasstoacquire.Howeverasaminorityconsistentlyrespondsuccessfully and are affirmed, these students participate most, and receive most benefit fromelaborations, whereas students who respond less successfully receive less pedagogic benefits.Wheremanyneo-Vygotskyantheoristsemphasisethevalueoftheelaborationphaseinthecycle(Gibbons2002,Mercer 2000,Wells 2000),Reading to Learn places asmuch importanceon thepreparationphase,toenableallstudentsinaclasstodothetask,respondsuccessfully,andsobeconsistentlyaffirmed.

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ThroughcloseanalysisofthemeaningsineachsentenceofaDetailedReadingpassage,teachersareabletodesignpreparationsthatenableallstudentstoidentifyeachwordgroupsuccessfully.Studentsinturnareaskedtoidentifythewordings,sothatallmaybeaffirmed.Closeanalysisalsodecideshoweachwordgroupwillthenbeelaborated,intermsofitscontextorlanguagefeatures.Text3showsashortpassageselectedforDetailedReadingandRewriting,fromthedoublepagespread in Text 2. This passage is a compositional report describing the structure of cells. Suchpassagesarefirstenlargedandphotocopiedforstudentsto identifythekeyinformationineachsentence,andhighlightthisinformationastheygo.BeforeDetailedReadingthisshorttextcanbepreparedasfollows:

This is a report about the parts of cells - so we call it a compositional report because it what cells arecomposedof. Itstartsbydescribingtheskinthatcellsarewrapped in -calledamembrane-andwhatthemembrane does - controllingwhat comes in and goes out of the cell. Then it describeswhat’s inside themembrane - a jellylike substance called the cytoplasm (everyone say cytoplasm). Then it describes whathappensinthecytoplasm-lotsofchemicalreactions-calledmetabolism(everyonesaymetabolism).

Text3:PassageselectedforDetailedReading

Text4isatranscriptofpartofaDetailedReadinglessonforAllwrappedup.Thekeyinformationthatstudentswillidentifyandhighlightisunderlinedhere,andthesentencesarenumberedsowecanseewhichsentenceisbeingdiscussed.

1Cellsarewrappedinacellmembrane,whichcontrolswhatgoesintoandcomesoutofthecell.2Materialmadeofsmallparticlesmovesinandoutofcellsthroughporesinthecellmembrane.3Sometimesthismovementrequiresenergy.

Theteacherfirstpreparesthestudentstocomprehendwhateachsentenceisabout,intermstheycanallunderstand,andthenreads thesentenceto them.Theclass is thenpreparedto identifyeachwording,withacuethatgivesitsmeaningandpositioninthesentence.Studentsthentake

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turnsto identifythewordings,whichtheteacheralwaysaffirms,andthentellstheclassexactlywhat words to highlight. Once it has been identified and highlighted, the wording may beelaboratedwithdefinitions, explanationordiscussion. (In the transcript there is a linebetweeneachinteractioncycle,wordsfromthetextareinitalics,andstudent’sresponsesareinbold.)Text4:DetailedReadingtranscript

1 Preparesentence

Thefirstsentencetellsiswhatthecoveringofcellsiscalledandwhatitdoes.LookatthesentenceasIreadit.Cellsarewrappedinacellmembrane,whichcontrolswhatgoesintoandcomesoutofthecell.

Preparewording

Thesentencestartsbysayingwhatcellsarewrappedin.Canyouseewhattheyarewrappedin?

Identify acellmembraneAffirm Exactly.Let’shighlightcellmembrane.Elaborate Amembraneisverythinsheetorcover,likeaverythinskin.Preparewording

Thenittellsuswhatthemembranecontrols.Canyouseewhatitcontrols?

Identify whatgoesintoandcomesoutofthecellAffirm That’sright.Let’shighlightwhatgoesintoandcomesout.Elaborate Whatgoesinisfoodforthecell.Whatcomesoutiswaste.2 Preparesentence

Thenextsentencetellsuswhatgoesinandcomesoutofthecell,andhowitgoesinandout.I’llreadthesentence.Materialmadeofsmallparticlesmovesinandoutofcellsthroughporesinthecellmembrane.

Preparewording

Thissentencestartsbysayingwhatthematerialismadeof.Canyouseewhatitismadeof?

Identify smallparticlesAffirm Exactlyright.Let’shighlightsmallparticles.Preparewording

Thenitsayswhattheparticlesmovethrough.Canyouseewhattheymovethrough?

Identify poresinthecellmembraneAffirm That’sright.Highlightporesinthecellmembrane.Elaborate Poresareverysmallholesinacoveringorskin.Whereelsedoyouhaveporesonyourbody? Onourskin Yes.Whatdoskinporesletout? Sweat. That’sright,theporesonourskinallowsweattocomeout,tocoolusdown.3 Preparesentence

Thenextsentencetellsusthatcellsneedenergytomakeparticlesmoveinandout.WatchasIreadit.Sometimesthismovementrequiresenergy.

Preparewording

Canyouseewhatthismovementrequires?

Identify energyAffirm Exactly.Let’shighlightrequiresenergy.While preparations are oriented to the needs of all students, elaborations are oriented to thegoals of the curriculum program. Where these needs and goals are frequently in tension inclassroom teaching, Detailed Reading integrates both systematically in a highly designedwholeclass activity, led by the teacher as expert guide. In-depth, shared understandings about thefeatures of the reading passage then enable thewhole class to participate actively in the JointRewrite,andtoachieveextraordinarysuccessintheirIndividualRewrites.The third tier of support is provided by intensive strategies of Sentence Making, Spelling andSentenceWriting.SentenceMakingissimilartothewordrecognitionactivitiesintheearlyyearsstrategies.OneormoresentencesareselectedfromtheDetailedReadingpassage,andscribedbytheteacheroncardboardstrips.Ingroups,thestudentsthenorganisethestrips,cutthemupintotheir word groups with the teachers’ guidance, mix them up, put them back together, and

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manipulate them to create new sentences. This extended practice intensifies students’ controloverthemeaningsandtheirrelationsinthereadingpassage,allowsthemtomanipulatecomplexlanguagepatterns,andeventuallyleadstospelling,asindividualwordsarecutout.IntheSpellingactivity, these wordsmay be cut up into their syllables and Onset-Rhyme patterns, so that allstudents can recognise these patterns and practisewriting them on individualwhiteboards. Astheyarethoroughlyfamiliarwiththewordsfromtheperspectivesoftheirmeaningandcontextinsentences,theyareeasilyabletoremembertheirspellingpatterns.Theythenpractiseusingthisspelling knowledge to write the whole sentences they have been manipulating. This providesmaximumsupportforstudentstopractisefluentconnectedwriting,withoutthecognitiveloadofcreatingtheirowntext.These activities providepractice in the foundation skills that all students need for readingwithcomprehensionandwritingfluently.Butunlikestandardliteracysupportactivities,theseskillsarepractised inthecontextof thecurriculumtextsthattheclass isstudying,andcanbe integratedwiththewholeclassteachingprogram,ratherthanwithdrawingstrugglingstudentstopractiseinisolation with low level texts and decontextualised language features. The pedagogic principlehere is comparable with learning a musical instrument, in which the learner practises playingtuneswrittenbyothers,beforestartingtowritetheirown.Ofallthewritingactivitiesdescribedabove,SentenceWritingismostconstrained,asitrehearsesthe exact words of the model text, and is thus also most supportive. Joint Rewriting is lessconstrained,asnewsentencesarewritten,supportedbythelanguagepatternsofthemodel.JointConstruction is least constrained, as a new text is written, supported only by the stages andphases of themodel. All three levels feed into IndependentWriting tasks, where students areconstrainedonlyby thegenresand fieldsexpected forevaluation.These three tiersof support,andtheirrelationtothecurriculum,areschematisedinFigure4.Figure4:ThreelevelsofscaffoldingsupportinReadingtoLearn

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Of critical importance in this complex model are the terms used to distinguish each activity,defined both by the activity each denotes and its contrast with other terms in themodel. Fordesigningteachingprograms,itisessentialforexample,todistinguishjointwritingactivitiesfromindividual ones, and construction of whole texts from rewriting of short passages. On amicroscale,specifictermsarealsousedtodenoteeachphaseinscaffoldinginteractioncycles,suchasPrepare,Identify(wordingsintexts),Select(wordingsfromexperience)andElaborate,exemplifiedinthetranscriptText4.Thisexplicitmetalanguageforanalysingandplanningclassroomdiscourseis an essential component of themetapedagogy in the professional development program – apedagogydesignedtotrainteachersinthehighlydesignedclassroompedagogy.Ofequalimportanceisthemetalanguagebuiltupthroughthetrainingprogram,foranalysinganddiscussing texts in the classroom. The accumulation of metalanguage begins with a writingassessment schedule developed in Reading to Learn,which includes 14 criteria at the levels ofcontext, discourse, grammar and graphic features. Each criterion is given a score from one tothree,dependingontheexpectedstandardforthestudents’gradelevel.TheassessmentcriteriaaresummarisedinTable1,withasimpleglossforeachcriterion.Table1:CriteriaforassessingwritingCONTEXT Youshouldmakequickjudgementsaboutthesecontextcriteria. Purpose Howappropriateandwell-developedisthegenreforthewritingpurpose? 0-3Staging Does itgothroughappropriatestages,andhowwell iseachstagedeveloped?(Labeleach

stageinthetext.)0-3

Field Howwell does thewriter understand and explain the field in factual texts, construct theplot,settingsandcharactersinstories,ordescribetheissuesinarguments?

0-3

Tenor How well does the writer engage the reader in stories, persuade in arguments, orobjectivelyinforminfactualtexts?

0-3

Mode Howhighlywrittenisthelanguagefortheschoolstage?Isittoospoken? 0-3DISCOURSE Discoursecriteriashouldbemarkedinthetext,togiveanaccuratepicture. Phases Awell-organisedtextgoesthroughalogicalsequenceofsteps.Phasesarethestepsthata

textgoesthrough(withineachstage!).Eachphasemaybeaparagraphorafewsentenceslong.Identifyandmarkthephasesinthetext.Howwellorganisedisthesequenceofphasesinthetext?

0-3

Lexis Lexis isthewordchoicesthatwritersusetobuildthefieldofatext.Theyarethecontentwords,andtherelationsbetweentheselexicalwordsfromsentencetosentence.Markthelexicalwordsthewriteruses.Whatarethewriter’slexicalresources?Howwellislexisusedtoconstructthefield?

0-3

Appraisal Appraisalisthewordchoicesthatwritersusetoevaluate.Theyincludefeelings,judgementsofpeople,appreciationsofthings,andwordsthatamplifyanddiminish.Marktheappraisalwordsthewriteruses.Whatarethewriter’sappraisalresources?Howwellisappraisalusedtoengage,persuade,evaluate?

0-3

Conjunction Conjunction is the logical relations between sentences, and within sentences.Mark theconjunctions thewriter uses. Logical relationsmayalsobe implicit. Is therea clear logicalrelationbetweenallsentences?

0-3

Reference Reference is thewords that are used to keep track of people and things through a text,including pronouns, articles, demonstratives (this, that), comparatives (each, all, same,other).Markallthereferencewords.Isitclearwhoorwhatisreferredtoineachsentence?

0-3

GRAMMAR Youshouldmakequickjudgementsaboutgrammarandgraphiccriteria. ArethegrammaticalconventionsofwrittenEnglishusedaccurately?Isthereanappropriate

varietyofgrammaticalresourcesfortheschoolstage,orisittoosimple?0-3

GRAPHICFEATURES Spelling Howaccuratelyspeltarecorewords(frequent)andnon-corewords(lessfrequent)? 0-3Punctuation Howappropriatelyandaccuratelyispunctuationused? 0-3Presentation Areparagraphsused?How legible is thewriting? Is the layoutclear.Are illustrationsused

appropriately?0-3

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Withalittlesupport,teachersfindthisassessmenteasytouse,providingapowerfulintroductiontolinguisticanalysis.Anexampleistheextractfromastudent’swritingsampleinText5,analysedfor:• purpose–anarrative• staging–orientationandcomplication• phases–setting,2problemsandareaction• lexis&appraisal–underlined• conjunction&reference–circledText5:Examplewritinganalysis

Thesecondstep inbuildingmetalanguage isamapof thegenres foundacross theprimaryandsecondarycurricula,describedinMartin&Rose(2008).Thismap,showninFigure5,isorganisedintermsoftheirpurposesandlanguagefocusforteaching,initiallyasachoicebetweenstories,factualtexts,andevaluatingtexts,followedbydistinctionsaccordingtotheirorganisingprinciples.

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Figure5:Genresacrossthecurriculum

Teachersareguidedtoidentifyinstancesofeachofthesegenres,theirstagesandphases,suchasthefollowinganalysisofananecdotefromFollowtheRabbitProofFence(Pilkington1996).Text6:Anecdoteanalysedforstagesandphases

Orientation MollyandGraciefinishedtheirbreakfastanddecidedtotakealltheirdirtyclothesandwashthem

inthesoakfurtherdowntheriver.Theyreturnedtothecamplookingcleanandrefreshedandjoinedtherestofthefamilyintheshadeforlunchoftinnedcornedbeefdamperandtea.

setting

Complication Thefamilyhadjustfinishedeatingwhenallthecampdogsbeganbarking,makingaterribledin.

“Shutup,”yelledtheirowners,throwingstonesatthem.Thedogswhinedandskulkedaway.problem

Thenalleyesturnedtothecauseofthecommotion.Atall,ruggedwhitemanstoodonthebankabovethem.Hecouldeasilyhavebeenmistakenforapastoralistoragrazierwithhistannedcomplexionexceptthathewaswearingkhakiclothing.

description

Fearandanxietysweptoverthemwhentheyrealisedthatthefatefuldaytheyhadbeendreadinghadcomeatlast.Theyalwaysknewthatitwouldonlybeamatteroftimebeforethegovernmentwouldtrackthemdown.

reaction

WhenConstableRiggs,ProtectorofAborigines,finallyspokehisvoicewasfullofauthorityandpurpose.

problem

“I’vecometotakeMolly,GracieandDaisy,thethreehalf-castegirls,withmetoMooreRiveNativeSettlement,”heinformedthefamily.

Evaluation TheoldmannoddedtoshowthatheunderstoodwhatRiggswassaying.Therestofthefamilyjust

hungtheirheads,refusingtofacethemanwhowastakingtheirdaughtersawayfromthem.Silenttearswelledintheireyesandtrickleddowntheircheeks.

…

reaction

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MollyandGraciesatsilentlyonthehorse,tearsstreamingdowntheircheeksasConstableRiggsturnedthebigbaystallionandledthewaybacktothedepot.

reaction

Ahighpitchedwailbrokeout.Thecriesofagonisedmothersandthewomen,andthedeepsobsofgrandfathers,unclesandcousinsfilledtheair.MollyandGracielookedbackjustoncebeforetheydisappearedthroughtherivergums.Behindthem,thoseremaininginthecampfoundsharpobjectsandgashedthemselvesandinflicteddeepwoundstotheirheadsandbodiesasanexpressionoftheirsorrow.

reaction

Thisreactiontotheirchildren’sabductionshowedthatthefamilywerenowinmourning.Theyweregrievingfortheirabductedchildrenandtheirreliefwouldcomeonlywhenthetearsceasedtofall,andthatwillbealongtimeyet.

comment

Note that the names given to stages in this anecdote align with the terms that teachers arealready familiar with in narratives – Orientation^Complication^Evaluation. Throughout themetalanguage developed in Reading to Learn, categories and their labels are recontextualisedfromdescriptivelinguisticstomeetthepedagogicneedsandexperienceofteachersandstudents.Asaresult,anextremelycomplexlinguisticmodelcanbeacquiredandappliedbyteacherswithrelativeease.Forexample,teachersmasterthegenre,stageandphaseanalysiswithinanhourorso,andthenapplyittotextstheyareplanningtousewiththeirclasses.TheseanalysesthenformthebasisforplanninglessonsequencesusingPreparingbeforeReadingandJointConstruction.Once they have experience planning and implementing Preparing before Reading, JointConstruction,DetailedReadingandJointRewritingactivitiesintheclassroom,andthenanalysingstudents’ writing growth using the assessment, teachers are introduced to more detailedknowledgeaboutdiscourseandgrammarsystems.Thisbeginsbyguidingthemthroughanalysesof discourse features described in Martin & Rose (2003/2007), including lexical relations,appraisal, conjunction, reference, and information structures, in a variety ofwritten genres. Astheyarealreadyexperiencedinidentifyingmostofthesefeaturesinstudents’writing,analysingthem inmoredetail is relativelyaccessible formost teachers.Theseanalysesallowthemtoseetherangeoflanguageresourcestheyneedtofocusoninreadingtexts,andtothinkabouthowtointroduce them to students. A new language system for most is information structures(periodicity), introduced first at the level of the text and paragraph, by relating it to teachers’existing understandings about introductions, conclusions and topic sentences, followed byexplorationofthesametextualprinciplesatthesentencelevel, identifyingThemesandNewsinpassagesoftext.Grammar is then addressed using the same principles of recontextualising linguistic theory tointegrateitwithteachers’needsandexperience.Whilesomeolderteachershavebeenexposedtotraditionalschoolgrammars,mostyoungerteachershavenoexperienceatall ingrammaticalanalysis,andveryfewhaveanyknowledgeoffunctionalgrammar.Thestartingpointiswiththeword groups that teachers select for students to identify in Detailed Reading. In short textextracts,theyhighlightthesewordgroups,andarethenguidedtolabeleachgroupintermsofsixtypesofmeaning–people,things,process,place,timeorquality.(Thesecategoriesareidentifiedas‘messageparts’inMartin1992.)Theythenidentifytheboundariesbetweenwordgroups,andmarkthemwithaslash.Thisdisplaysallthewordgroupsineachsentence,andthegrammaticalwordsthatareincludedwithineachwordgroup.Theyarethenaskedtodistinguishsimplefromcomplex sentences, which all are able to do intuitively, and then to recognise that complexsentences include more than one process. This enables them to recognise that each processinvolvespeopleand/orthings,andmaybeassociatedwithtimesandplaces.Boundariesbetweenconfigurationsofprocess,people,things,timesandplacesarethenmarkedwithadoubleslash,andnamedasclauses.SuchananalysisisillustratedinText7.Thisisa‘top-down’perspectiveon

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grammaticalsegments, fromdiscoursesemantics,bringing intuitivekowledgeabout languagetoconsciousness,andwhichallteachersfindaccessible,doableandimmediatelyuseful.Text7:Wordgroupandclauseanalysis

peopleprocessthingprocessprocessthingsMollyandGracie/finished/theirbreakfast//anddecided/totake/alltheirdirtyclothes//processthingsplacepeopleprocessplaceprocessandwash/them/inthesoakfurtherdowntheriver//.They/returned/tothecamp//looking/qualityprocesspeopleplacethingcleanandrefreshed//andjoined/therestofthefamily/intheshade/forlunchoftinnedcornedbeef,damperandtea//.

Havingestablishedbasicgrammatical categories includingwordgroupsand theirmeanings,andclauses that may be independent or dependent, the next step is to make explicit the relationbetweenmeaningandexpression,distinguishingtypesofwordgroups, labelledasnoungroups,verb groups andprepositionphrases. The functionsofwordswithin each typeof group is thenexplored,againrecontextualisingfunctionallinguisticcategoriesintermsthatteacherscaneasilyuseintheclassroom,atadegreeofdelicacythatiseasilymanageable.Followinganalysesofwordgroups from the text passages, this semantic perspective on grammatical structures is thenintegratedwithteachers’existingunderstandingsofwordclasses,bywayoftherankdiagramsinFigure6.Figure6:Meaningsandexpressionatclauseandgroupranks

Thisdegreeofdelicacy isasufficientgrammarformostclassroomapplications.Butperhapsthemostimportantfunctionofsettingoutthesegrammaticalparametersistolaythefoundationsforunderstandinggrammaticalmetaphor,which is introducedasthegatewaytoschoolknowledge,butthebarrier formany ifnotmoststudents. Intheirtextanalyses,teachersfirst identifywordgroupswithambiguousormultipleinterpretations,recognisingthetensionbetweenthemeaningsexpressedbythegrammarandconflictingmeaningsindiscourse,suchasprocessesexpressedbynoun groups. Grammatical metaphors are unpacked to congruent activities, revealing thesemantic gapbetween students’ spoken languageexperienceand theabstractworldofwrittentexts. Techniques developed in Reading to Learn are then demonstrated, for unpacking andrepackaginggrammaticalmetaphorsinDetailedReadingandRewritingactivities.Teacherspracticeapplyingall thesediscourseandgrammaticalanalyses totheirowntexts, thatthey are planning to use for lessons. The insights provided by these analyses then feed intoplanning preparations and elaborations in Detailed Reading lessons. In particular, languagefeatures and metalinguistic terms are focused on in elaboration phases, once students have

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successfully identified each word group. In this way, all students are provided with an explicitmetadiscourseabout thecurriculumand the language that realises it, at the same timeas theylearnthefieldsofthecurriculum.Thatis,theinstructionalfieldincludesboththecurriculumandthe metadiscourse. These two levels of instruction are projected by the designed pedagogicactivitiesofReadingtoLearn,thatcyclebetweenteachingthecurriculumfieldandteachingthemetadiscourse, at the levelsofboth lessonactivities and classroom interactions. TheprojectingrelationbetweentheselearningcyclesandtheinstructionalfieldisschematisedinFigure7.Figure7:Learningcyclesprojectingtwolevelsofinstructionalfields

ThishasbeenabriefsketchoftheprinciplesandactivitiesoftheReadingtoLearnmethodology.There are many more components to it, including detailed procedures and models for textselectionandlessonplanning,andhighlyeffectivestrategiesforteachingthelanguageofmaths,among the other curriculum subjects. However this outline has illustrated the theme ofintegrationthatrunsthroughtheentirepedagogy,alongthefollowingdimensions:• Pedagogic activities integrate the teaching of skills in reading with teaching the curriculum

contents-sothatstudentsexplicitlylearnhowtolearnfromreading.• Theactivitiesalso integrate the teachingofwritingwith reading - so that studentsexplicitly

learnhowtousewhattheylearnfromreadingintheirwriting.• Indoingso, theactivities integratetheteachingofreading,writingandcurriculumcontents,

withamodeof interactingwithstudentsthat isexplicitandcarefullydesigned,toenableallstudentstobecontinuallysuccessful.

• Todoso,thetheoryofReadingtoLearnextendsandintegratesmodelsoflanguage,learningandschoolsfromthreetheoreticaltraditions–sociallearningtheory,functionallinguisticsandsociologyofeducation.

• Pedagogicactivities,socialrelations,modalities,andtheinstructionalfielditself,areeachre-designedtoconstructanintegratedpedagogicgenre.

• Activitiesfocusedonvariouselementsofthereadingandwritingtasksareintegratedwithinatopdownsequencebasedonasystematicmodeloflanguageinsocialcontext.

• And finally all of these dimensons of theory and practice are integrated within a highlydesignedmetapedagogy,theReadingtoLearnteachertrainingprogram.

Theunderlyinggoalofallthispedagogiclabouristo‘closethegap’betweentheleastandmostdisadvantaged students in our education systems. The results are consistently double tomore

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thanfourtimeexpected learningrates(Culican2006,Mcraeetal2000,Roseetal2008),butatthetimeofwritingthisgoalremainselusive.Inthefaceofsuchevidence,thepaceofchangeineducationbureaucraciesandacademiesremainsglacial,maintainingthemetastabilityofasystemthatgoesonreproducinginequalityacrossthegenerations.ReferencesAdams,M.J. (1990).Beginning to read: Thinking and learning about print: A summary. Urbana-

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Christie,F.andMartin,J.R.(eds)(1997).GenresandInstitutions:SocialPracticesintheWorkplaceandSchool.London:Cassell

Culican, S. (2006). Learning to Read: Reading to Learn, A Middle Years Literacy InterventionResearch Project, Final Report 2003-4. Catholic Education Office: Melbourne.www.cecv.melb.catholic.edu.au/ResearchandSeminarPapers(current2009)

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Martin,J.R.andRose,D.(2008).GenreRelations:MappingCulture.London:EquinoxMercer,N.(2000).WordsandMinds:HowweuseLanguagetoWorkTogether.London:RoutledgeNSW Department of Education (2006-8) Literacy K-12 Policy

https://www.det.nsw.edu.au/policies/curriculum/schools/literacy/PD20050288.shtmlPilkington,D.(1996).FollowtheRabbit-ProofFence.StLucia,Qld:UniversityofQueenslandPressRose, D. (1999) ‘Culture, Competence and Schooling: Approaches to Literacy Teaching in

Indigenous School Education’, in F. Christie (ed.) Pedagogy and the Shaping ofConsciousness:LinguisticandSocialProcesses.London:Cassell.pp217-245

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Rose, D. (2005). Democratising the Classroom: a Literacy Pedagogy for the New Generation.JournalofEducation,37:127-164www.ukzn.ac.za/joe/joe_issues.htm(current2009)

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