r—m.—^ BENTHIC COMMUNITIES IN SOME

DERELICT WATERBODIES OF ALIGARH

DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR

THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF

IN

ZOOLOGY

By

HABEEBA AHMAD KABEER

Under the Supervision of

DR. SALTANAT PARVEEN

FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE UNIT DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY

ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY ALIGARH (INDIA)

2008

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D E P A R T M E N T O F Z O O L O G Y ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY

, , ALIGARH-202002 Sections:

1. EMTOM0LO6Y INDIA - ^ , - _ 2. FISHERY SCIENCE AAQUACULTURE 3. GENETICS 4. NEMATOLOGY Daiti 5. PARASITOLOGY

Certificate

This is to certify that the work presented in the dissertation entitled "Benthic

communities in some derelict water bodies of Aligarh" by Ms. Habeeba

Ahmad Kabir incorporates the results of her independent study carried out

under my supervision. I consider it a good piece of work with a considerable

amount of addition in the existing knowledge. She is, therefore, allowed to

submit this dissertation for the award of M.Phil degree in Zoology, Aligarh

Muslim University, Aligarh.

Dr. Saltanat Parveen (Supervisor)

CONTENTS

Acknowledgements Page No.

INTRODUCTION 1

1. DISCRIPTION OF STUDY AREA

2. AND CLIMATOLOGY 7

3. METHODOLOGY U

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 14

a- Physico-chemical Parameters

14

17

19

21

25

27

29

32

33

34

38

44

53

55

58

5.

6.

7.

I.

II.

III.

IV.

V.

VI.

VII.

VIII.

IX.

Transparency

Temperature

pH

Alkalinity

Dissolved Oxygen

Carbon dioxide

Hardness

TDS

Conductivity

b- Benthos

I.

II.

Phytobenthos

Zoobenthos

CONCLUSIONS

SUMMARY

REFERENCES

List of Tables

Table. 1 a. Monthly variations in different physiochemical parameter in Medical Pond

Table 1 b. Monthly variations in different physiochemical parameter in Lai Diggi

Pond.

Table 2. Statistical brief of various water quality parameters in Medical Pond & Lai

Diggi Pond.

Table 3 a. Distribution and abundance of Phytobenthos (No/cm^) in Medical pond.

Table 3 b. Distribution and abundance of Phytobenthos (No/cm^) in Lai Diggi Pond.

Table 4 a. Distribution and abundance of Zoobenthos (No/m^) in Medical Pond.

Table 4 b. Distribution and abundance of Zoobenthos (No/m' ) in Lai Diggi Pond.

Table 5 a. Monthly percent composition of different group of Zoobenthos in Medical

Pond.

Table 5 b. Monthly percent composition of different group of Zoobenthos in Lai

Diggi Pond.

List of Figures

Fig.l a Showing monthly percent composition of different groups of Zoobenthos

in Medical Pond.

Fig 1 b. Showing monthly percent composition of different groups of Zoobenthos

in Lai Diggi Pond.

Fig 2. Regression line showing correlation between Air Temperature and Water

Temperature and total dissolved solid and Water Temperature.

Fig 3. Regression line showing correlation between Phytobenthos and

Zoobenthos and Hardness and Phytobenthos.

Fig 4. Regression line showing a correlation between alkalinity and bicarbonate

and Alkalinity and Phytobenthos.

A CKNO WLED GEMENTS

In the name of "Almighty Allah", Jor all thai He has blessed me with and I

have never, ever-felt abandoned by His Grace I pray to Him to keep it the

same way for me in this life thereafter

I acknowledge, with all respect and regard to my supervisor Dr.

Saltanat Parveen, lecturer, Department of Zoology, AMU, Aligarh, for the

help and guidance. Her invaluable help, support and teaching shall remain the

guiding force for the rest of my life

I am also thankful to Pwfessor Absar Mustafa Khan, Chairman.

Department of Zoology and Dean faculty of Life Science, AMU. Aligarh for

providing necessary laboratory facilities

I would fail in my duty if I do not acknowledge my heartfelt thanks lo

Prof. Asif All Khan, Head, Section of Fisheries and Aquaculture Unit

Department of Zoology, AMU, Aligarh, for providing necessary laboratory

facilities, valuable suggestions and encouragement from beginning to the

compilation of this work.

I would like to put on record my heartfelt thanks to Prof. Iqhal

Parwez, Dr. Mukhtar A. Khan and Dr. Afzal Khan for giving me

encouragement and inspirations during the course of research

It is my privilege to mention my deep sense of reverence to Mr. Syed

Mohd. Aslam, Mr. S.M. Ali Sayeed, Mr. Abrar Imam and Mrs

Fatima Kabirfor their advice and valuable suggestions

I owe an expression of thanks to my seniors Miss. Shazia Ansari and

Mr. Waseem Raja for their constant help, encouragement throughout the

writing of this dissertation.

I wish to express my special thanks to Shazia Ansari, Maiyam and Uzma

for their moral support

/ wish to express my sincere thanks to my friends and lab colleagues

Seemab, Sadaf, Maryam, Nuzhat, Uzma, Shazia, Divya and Altaf Hussain

Ganaifor there necessary help and cooperation.

I feel pride and privilege for my loving father Mr. S.M. AH Ahmad

Kabir and beloved mother Mrs. Shahzad Rana who lit the flame of learning

in me. Their prayer and sacrifices helped me to gain this success. I have no

words to express my special feelings for my sisters and brothers Umra kabir,

Tasmia Mubasshir, Abdullah, Mubasshir, Ashraf Rumi, Amir, AH, Karim,

Inam, Khursheed and Umar. It is their love, care and inspiration that have

been instrumental in overcoming the complexities at every step of this work.

At last but not the least I express my humble feeling and gratitude for my

respected teachers Dr.Rashid Tanveer, S.B. Singh and Mr.Kasim.

Lastly my love, regards and best wishes to all well wishers (Amin)

Habeeba Ahmad Kabir

INTRODUCTION

Introduction

Water is an integral constituent of life and one of the most important natural

resources. According to Odum (1983), fresh water habitats occupy relatively a small

portion of earth surface but its importance is far g'-eater than their actual area. The

present domain of life existing in the earth has evolved in water (Hosetti, 2002). Fresh

water habitats present a wonderful picture of thousands of living organisms ranging

from microscopic, including chemosynthetic bacteria, saprophytic fungi, micro and

macro invertebrates, algae and higher aquatic plants, these organisms eat together,

live together and struggle together in a balanced habitat forming various unique

communities. These communities are named as Plankton, Neuston, Nekton, Pleuston

and Benthos etc.

The benthos is composed of bottom dwelling organisms and has the major

categorical division between phytoplankton and zooplankton. The term benthos is

derived from two Greek words 'Ben' meaning "the collection of organisms living on

or in the sea or lake" and 'Thos'- meaning "the bottom of sea or lakes. These benthic

organisms range from microscopic to macroscopic fungi, macro and micro

invertebrates, algae and higher aquatic plants. These may crawl or move on the mud,

burrow in sandy si't, struggling for place for breeding purpose, for food and are not

restricted to a definite niche but they move freely through out the basin of aquatic

environment so as to form a free world of their own. Burrowing worms and molluscs

demonstrated sedimentary behaviour and move with in or on near the bottom.

Haeckel (1967) defined benthos as the organisms associated with solid-liquid

interphase. Hutchinson (1967) defined them as the association of species of plants and

animals that live in or on the bottom of a body of water. He has given following

terminologies

Rhizohenthos - rooted well extended into the aqueous phase.

Haptobenthos - attached to solid submerged surface.

Herpohenthos - moving through mud or creeping on mud.

Sammon - if bottom material is made up of sand.

Endohenthos - living inside the soil or solid substratum.

Nectic benthos - large moving organisms and swimming on the bottom surface.

Nektoplanktonic - organisms benthic during day and nektoplanktonic during night.

Planktobenthos- they are plankton but move on the bottom surface.

On the basis of their size, the benthos are classifled as follows :

Microbenthos - organisms 1-100 micrometer in size e.g. bacteria.

Meiobenthos - which are 100-1000 micrometer in size.

Macrobenthos - which are more than 1000 micrometer in size.

They are further categorized based on the Lake zonation i.e. littoral, sub littoral and

profundal. Gams (1918) have given systematic classification suitable for all

organisms living in aquatic environment. The fundamental distinction in this

classification is whether the organisms are attached at the surface, rooted or free.

Theses three assemblages are termed as ephaptomenon, rhizomenon and planomenon,

respectively. As far as aquatic form are concerned, the ephaptomenon, consist of

attached plants which were called as Nereid's by Warming (1895) and Haptobenthos

by Hutchinson (1967).

The phytobenthos includes the aquatic microphytes and the bottom dwelling algae.

There are other important large plants that are considered to be algae. These are the

kaiophyton including Chara spp. and Nitelia spp. The mosses (bryophytes) and ferns

(pteridophytes) have contributed most to the littoral flora.

The littoral zoobenthos is extremely varied when compared with that of deeper

region. Protozoan, sponges, coelenterates, rotifers, nematodes, bryo7oans.

crustaceans, molluscs, insects, annelids, echinoderms and many lower vertebrates are

abundant in the shallow waters. These animals are wide spread in their distribution

and can live on all bottom types, even on man made objects. They can be found in hot

spring, small ponds and large lakes. Some are even found in the soil beneath puddles.

Many species of benthos are able to move around and expand their distribution by

drifting with current to a new location during the aquatic phase of their life or by

flying to a new stream during their terrestrial phase. Most benthic species can be

found throughout the year, but the largest numbers occur in spring just before the

reproductive period. In colder months, many species burrowed deep within the mud or

remain inactive on rock surfaces. Many aquatic insects undergo a complete

metamorphosis, the transition from egg to larvae to pupa and finally to adult. They

remain in the water for most of their life (typically one month to four years). After

becoming adults, the majority of insects leave for only a brief time, usually a few

hours to a few days, while they locate mates. Biglow (1928) divided the littoral

benthic micro-organisms of Nipigon lake, Canada into ecological groups. The ooze

films group comprises those micro-organisms living in and on the film, ooze which

form the upper surfice of the lake bottom. The assemblage was found to contain

following microscopic organisms e.g. bacteria, green algae, diatoms, protozoans,

rotifers, several ento)nostracan (mostly cladocera), tradigrada and certain water mites.

In the distribution of benthic flora, light plays a very important role when the

water is sufficiently shallow. Light reaches the bottom sediments in plenty and as a

result of it, benthic algae and macrophytes grow in greater abundance. It is also

reported by Hustedt (1922) that the nature of the substratum is of the great importance

in determining the composition of algal association li'-ing upon it. A shallow water

body has greater part of water mass in the direct contact with the bottom than the

deeper ones. This allow nutrients, like nitrogen and phosphorus, to dissolve more

efficiently from the basin.

Many species of benthos are sensitive to pollutants such as metals and organic

waste. Mayflies, stone flies and caddis flies are generally intolerant of pollution.

Benthos are sensitive to watershed condition and exhibit sufficient stability in

assemblage structure over time to make them useful as long term monitor of stream

and indicator of water quality (Gauffin and Tarzwell, 1952. Hynes (1960) reported

that the density of benthos in a water body is useful index of water quality although

density may fluctuate widely with changes in the seasons and space.

The productivity of microbenthic algae accounts for large percentage of the

total primary production in the aquatic environments.

The total numerica' abundance of these organisms has been taken in to consideration

to evaluate the Benthic index (Pearsall, 1921).

The paucity of plankton accompanies a poor bottom fauna (Welch, 1952) The

benthic algal productivity accounts for large percentage of total primary production in

shallow estuarine water bodies (Jonsson, 1991). Sometimes it may be even greater

than that of the phytoplankton (Hargrave , 1983). The biomass of benthic microalgae

is high and they retain a part of the newly mineralized nutrients at the sediment

surface (Cartlon and Wetzel, 1988). The correlation between benthic primary

production and temperature and irradiance was studied by Colijn and Jonge (1984)

The study of benthic communities has been found to be best indicator of pollution

(Venugopal, 1982). Studies which have revealed a clear cut seasonal and spatial

variation in relation to sediment characteristics along west coast have been earned out

by Harkantra (1980). Devasy (1987), Prabhu and Reddy (1987) and Gopalknshna and

Nair (1998). The need for comprehensive studies on benthic fauna is important for

better understanding of benthic community and also in evaluating their role as fish

food. They are also used for evaluating the quality of flowing and standing water The

earliest and very brief records on great lakes benthos came from Jackson (1844).

Agassive (1850), Stimson (1871) and Hoy (1872). A brief classification of benthos

was given by Warming (1895) and Gams (1918), Sessile and slowly moving epifauna

has been differentiated by Petersen (1913). More information has been gathered on

benthic community by Birge and Juday (1911), Juday (1922) Petersen (1926), Daken

(1927), Sassuchin (1927) and Rawson (1930). Bigelow (1928) described ooze film

layer of the bottom. Ecology and economy of Benthic community was studied by

Eggleton (1936), Pennak (1939) Ward (1940) and Kenk (1949). Needham (1959)

published papers on culture methods for benthic invertebrate animals. Berg (1938),

Meuche (1939), Roll (1939) and Mare (1942) The biology of bottom invertebrates

was studied in detail by Anderson and Day (1986), Bachelet (1986), Bass and Bruce

(1986), Copper and Luther (1986), Kendall and Lewis (1986) and Lewis (1986).

Benthos forms an important part of the food chain, especially for fish. Many

invertebrates feed on algae and bacteria, which are on the lower end of the food chain.

Some eat leaves and organic matter that enter the water because of their abundance in

the aquatic food chain. Benthos plays a critical role in the natural flow of energy and

nutrients. As benthic invertebrates die, they decay leaving behind nutrients that are

reused by aquatic plants and other animals in the food chain. Benthic community can

be used to monitor the stream quality condition over a broad area or they can be used

to determine the effect of discharges from sources such as sewage treatment plants

and industries. Ecologists evaluate environmental quality using benthic sample as

they are important indicator of streams, river or lake water quality. Generally taxa

richness indicates better water quality.

Keeping in view the above scenario, two small shallow derelict ponds of

Aligarh were selected for the study. Present study includes the benthic communit\

composition in relation to some physico-chemical parameters.

DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREA AND

CLIMATOLOGY

Description of the Ponds

For the present study on benthos, two freshwater ponds of Aligarh, namely Lai Diggi

and Medical College ponds, located in the vicinity of the University campus, were

selected. Water supply to these ponds is regulated through rain water and drainage

system and so the volume of water fluctuates throughout the year. They provide new

habitat to aquatic organisms, wild aquatic birds and support an extensive fishery of

various kinds. Benthic organisms in these ponds play a very important role in

enhancing the pond fertility and so have a direct relationship with the fish production.

The Lai Diggi pond

It is a perennial freshwater, sewage-fed pond and is situated in the residential area of

Aligarh at a distance of about 1.5km from the Department of Zoology. It has a more

or less flat basin covering an area of 0.8 hectares. The drainage system of this pond

constitutes four inlet drains which bring in the waste water and sewage from the

surrounding locality. A livestock, buffalow dairy shed is situated on the south-east

bank of pond which also supply large quantity of excretory products. The whole shore

line of the pond is surrounded by large number of trees, namely Azadirachta indica,

Dalbergia sisso, and Acacia Arabica. Considerable amount of leaf litters from these

trees are deposited at the bottom of the pond making its basin marshy. These tall trees

on the North-West iide cover the pond in such a way that deprive the shore line area

from direct sunlight during late hours of the day. The colour of the bottom sediments

ranged from brownish to grey-black, which spells a very bad smell. The water of the

pond is turbid and dull green in colour showing luxuriant growth of algae (bloom)

throughout the year. The pond is used as drainage basin in to which drainage water

sweeps from the surrounding area. It is also used for bathing purpose of livestock

especially buffalos. Human excreta and dung from the surrounding locality are

washed into the pond during rainy season thereby contributing large quantities of

nutrients to the pond.

Medical College Pond

Medical college pond is also a sewage fed pond, situated on the back side of the

Medical College residential complex at a distance of about 2 km from the Department

of Zoology. It covers a surface area of about 0.71 hectares, having a depth of 1 to 2

meters in different seasons. The pond does not show much fluctuation in depth

because the excess water is always pumped out in to the surrounding fields. The pond

is rectangular in shape with regular shore line. The pond receives rain water from the

surrounding area along the shore line. The pond is inhabited by aquatic plants,

particularly filamentous algae, like Cladophora, Spirogyra. Hydrodictyon, Chara, and

Nitella. It also has luxuriant growth of green algae, sometimes forming blooms at the

surface.

The basin is simple, flat and slightly sloping. The bottom sediments are black

in colour consisting of sand, silt, clay, mud with decayed plant matter and organic

substances. These various types of deposits support various kinds of benthic

organisms.

Climatology of Aligarh

Climatic factors play an important role in ecology of both aquatic and terrestrial

environments (Barclay, 1966). These factors control organic production in lake and

rivers by affecting circulation and exchange of essential nutrients. Rawson (1958),

Rodhe (1958), Handa (1987) and Panday and Tripathi (1988) have reported the role of

climatic factors and their interaction with the biological processes within the water

body. In view of all this, a brief description of the climatology of Aligarh is given

here.

Aligarh, a district of Western Uttar Pradesh in North India, located in the

central Ganga Yamuna Doab at latitude 27°54'N and longitude 78°4'E.It experiences

the tropical monsoon type of climate with marked North East and South West

monsoons. The year can be broadly divided in to the following five seasons:

1) Winter season (December to January)

2) Post Winter (February to March)

3) Summer season(April to June)

4) Monsoon season i.e. season of general rains(July to September)

5) Post Monsoon season(October to November)

The winter season is marked with considerable fall in temperature. The nights are

cold and the days are moderately warm. The winds are light and mostly dry. The

season experiences occasional rains.

The post winter season is marked with gradual rise in temperature, bright sunshine

absence of cloudy days, a gradual lengthening of the photoperiod and a lower relative

humidity. The summer season is marked with considerable rise in temperature and

long photoperiod. In tiie month of May and June, temperature rises exceptionally high

with mercury touching some times to 48°C during noontime and fast current of hot

and dry air blow in day time. The monthly average of the wind velocity do not give

the correct idea of velocity and speed as they are liable to great variation during 24

hours. It blows with the force of gale during daytime, falls off very rapidly in the

evening and nearly calm down during nights. The fast and hot winds are locally called

as Loo. The occurrence of dust and thunderstorms caused by convection currents is a

peculiar phenomenon of the summer season. Summer is followed by Monsoon season.

The rains generally begin in July and last till the end of September. This season is

characterized by a gradual fall in temperature. The monsoon season is characterized

by cloudy days, steady rains, relatively low light ..itensity, gradual shortening of

photoperiod, relatively high humidity and cyclonic weather. The monsoon season is

followed by period of transition from rainy to dry and cool weather. This is the season

of retreating monsoon and is termed SiS post-monsoon. This season is characterized by

a further fall in diurnal and nocturnal temperatures and a gradual decrease in

photoperiod and relative humidity.

METHODOLOGY

Methodology

The physiochemical parameters of the two selected ponds were recorded monthly at

10 am from May, 2007 to April, 2008. For analysis, water was collected with the help

of a bucket.

Colour of the sample was compared with the known colour standard. Air and

Water temperature were recorded with the help of an electronic digital thermometer

Transparency was determined by using standard Secchi disc method. Secchi disc

having a diameter of 20 cm and divided into black and white quadrants at surface, is

lowered in the water body. The average of the two depth readings at which Secchi

disc disappeared and reappeared was noted as transparency. Free Carbondioxide

(CO2) was determined by titrating 100 ml of water sample with 0.025N-NaOH using

phenolphthalein as an indicator. (Theroux , 1943).

Dissolved Oxygen (D.O) analysis was performed at the sites by Winkler's

modified technique (APHA, 1998). pH of water was determined at the sites by using a

portable electronic digital pH meter. Alkalinity was estimated by titrating 100 ml

water sample with 0.02N sulphuric acid using phenolphthalein and methyl orange as

indicators (Theroux , 1943). Hardness of water was estimated by titrating the water

sample with O.OIN EDTA solution using murexide as indicator (Trivedy and Goel,

1984). Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) was measured with the help of electronic digital

TDS meter. Electrical Conductivity was measured by a conductivity meter in nS/cm.

The amount of Calcium and Magnesium present in the water was estimated by

titrimetric methods as given by Trivedy and Goel (1984) and APHA (1998).

11

Sampling of Benthic Organisms: For the present work, bottom mud scrapper with

tow Hne was used to collect the samples from the bottom of the ponds for qualitative

and quantitative analyses. This mud scrapper, as described by Michael (1984), is a

small bucket of thick tin of 15 cm xlOcm size having small holes made on the bottom

plate. Two holes were made near upper region of bucket opposite to each other A

strong plastic rope was tied to these holes and a weight was attached. The weight

helps to keep the bucket down while it is being towed along the bottom. Ten sub-

samples were taken from the sample and analysed according to Trivedy and Goel

(1984).

After collecting the bottom sample, it is diluted with ambient water. Slurry is

poured gradually into the sieves arranged in series. Slurry is washed gently through

the sieves to prevent damage or loss of organisms. Slurries that clog the screen require

careful removal. A series of one coarse screen S.S. 100 (e.g. 4mm mesh size) will

hold back larger materials to pass through the next sieve and S.S. 20 (0.8 mm mesh

size) and S.S. 30 (0.6mm mesh size) were used and smaller particles were passed

through 30 mesh screen. Carefully check rocks, sticks, shells and other objects were

for attached or burrowed organisms before discharging. Residue was passed and

washed on the screen and stored in a container. The containers were labeled with a

collection code. Other details can also be written with marker that describe location.

date, time and sieve number in recorded book. These samples were fixed in 5%

formaldehyde solution.

Sorting and Identification of the sample was done. Organisms were picked

using forceps and pipettes from the sample and sorted under an inverted microscope.

Then they were separated according to their taxonomic level to make the data quality

12

objective and reccrded on the data sheet. Analysis was done by putting 1 ml of fixed

sample on a Sedgewick Rafter cell and studying it under inverted microscope. Counts

were made as number of Benthos/m^. For qualitative analysis ,the information given

in Edmondson (1959), Needham and Needham (1962), Pennak(1978) and Tonapi

(1980) were utilized .For most organisms encountered, the identification was made

up to generic level .But wherever taxonomic evaluation of organisms was possible, it

was done up to species level.

13

RESULTS AND DISCUUSION

Transparency

Light is the energy capable of doing work that can be transformed from one form to

another. It can nei her be created nor destroyed. Solar radiation determines the events

in the water body directly or indirectly. Most of the solar radiation, which falls on

earth's surface, is absorbed by water vapors, carbon dioxide, oxygen and ozone in

atmosphere. The final limited energy, which arrives at the aquatic surface, thus

becomes the only source of solar radiation available for photosynthesis (Boney,

1989). Intensity of light plays an important component of planktonic primary

production (Marra, 1993).

During the daytime, the chlorophyll (a, b, and c) of phytobenthos utilize

underwater light to compose carbon in the form of carbohydrates and produce oxygen

that is used for respiration and grov^h of algae and others aquatic plants (Ojha and

Howard, 2000). Light availability at depth is affected directly by the presence of total

suspended solid (TSS) and plankton in the water column and by macarophytes and

sediment accumulation on the surface (Carter and Rybicki, 1985). Almost all energy

that controls the metabolism of water body is derived directly from the solar energy

and utilized in photosynthesis either within the lake or brought in the water bodies in

various form of organic matter (Carter and Rybicki, 1985). Welch (1952), Hutchinson

(1957), Ruttner (1963), Khan (1978), Marra (1993) have given detailed account of

light condition in fresh water bodies. According to Hutchinson (1975), transparency,

the depth up to which light penetrates in water body, can be used as a reliable

indicator of productivity. Except of well known uranium fission and hydrogen fission

device one is hard pressed to list energy sources that do not depend on sun (Cole.

1983). Perhaps the earth's internal heat and moon pulled tides are the only other noon

solar sources of energy we can list .Thus, it becomes a subject of interest for a

14

limnologist to know that how much radiation falls on the surface of a water body with

in a span of time, how far it penetrates and how it can be used or how it affects the

aquatic organisms.

Radiant energy is transformed into potential energy by biochemical reactions,

during photosynthesis of aquatic plants or to heat and thus, control the productivity ot

water. It controls various metabolic activities of aquatic flora and fauna (Wetzel,

1983). Natural waters exhibit great difference in the degree to which sunlight can

illuminate them and wide seasonal and diurnal fluctuations are noted (Hutchinson,

1957). Despite the large amount of literature exist on the light conditions,

photosynthesis, turbidity and transparency of aquatic ecosystems, there is a dearth of

information related to light (Birge and Juday, 1929).

Many workers reported that light available and irradiance limit submersed

macrophyte growth and photosynthesis in fresh and saline water (Spence, 1976; 1985;

Kirck, 1983).

The spatial composition of light has also been suggested on factor controlling

the depth distribution of submerged macro-invertebrate (Kirk, 1983). Spence (1976),

Cole (1983), Datta (1983), Wetzel (1983), Chambers and Kalff (1985), Pennock

(1985), Kirk (1986) and Marra (1993) have given interesting and useful detailed

account on the principles light penetration in different types of water bodies its

measurements and effects on the aquatic organisms.

Transparency values are given in (Table-la,b). There is a wide variation in

transparency values in these freshwater bodies. They ranged from 13.0 cm to 24.5 cm.

In Medical pond, Seechi disc transparency ranged from 15.0 cm to 19.2 cm showmg

minimum in November, 2007 (15.0 cm) and maximum (19.2 cm) in April, 2008. In

IS

Lai Diggi Pond, it ranged from 13.0 cm to 24.5 cm showing minimum in August,

2007 (13.0 cm) and maximum 24.5 cm in February, 2008 (Table-la, b).

It shows low levels of transparency in Medical Pond and Lai Diggi Pond were

found in summer and monsoon seasons. In summer, .' was because of evaporation of

water, which causes concentration of dissolved solids at increasing temperature and

production of turbidity during monsoon season is caused by the entry of huge amount

of suspended and colloidal matter, silt and clay into the water body along with the

rainwater from the surrounding field. The low values in Medical Pond during winter

may be attributed to low light intensity, caused by fog, smoke and cloudy weather.

1 ^

Temperature

Temperature is the most important factor in aquatic environment since it regulaies

various physico-chemical as well as biological activities (Kumar et al , 1996)

Thermal properties of water and corresponding relationships have greater importance

in maintaining fitness of the water of an ecosystem. The temperature of natural water

system responds to water depth, climate and topography, the ambient atmospheric

temperature being the most universal. Temperature changes govern water mixing,

turbulence and formation of currents. (Ried, 1961 and Ruttner, 1963).

Surface area and volume of the water body are the two main parameters to

assess fluctuations in water temperature (Anderson, 1964). Temperature governs

growth, development, reproduction and other life process of the biota. (Wetzel, 1983)

Some important contribution made in the field of thermal conditions in aquatic

ecosystems are those of Singh (1960), Hutchinson (1967), Rangarajan and Marichamy

(1972), Vashisht and Sharma (1975), Bohra et al. (1978), Ayyappan and Gupta

(1981), Chaurasia and Adoni (1985), Fasihuddin and Kumari (1990), Kant and Raina

(1990), Vijaykumar (1992, 1996) and Zhou et al. (2000).

Addition or loss of heat leads to temperature changes in water body (Wetzel,

1983). These temperature changes are given in Table (l.a, b). The water bodies in the

present study are small and shallow in depth and thus are subjected to easy

disturbances resulting in wide temperature fluctuations.

Maximum {5°C) and minimum (1°C) differences were found between air and

water temperatures. In Medical Pond, minimum temperature difference was TC

during December jind September, 2007 and maximum was 5°C during, June 2007.

Minimum water temperature was 15°C in January, 2008 and maximum was 37°C in

July, 2007 during the investigation period.

17

In Lai Diggi Pond, minimum temperature difference was \°C during October.

2007 and January, 2008 and maximum was 6"C during February, 2008. 17°C was the

minimum water temperature observed in January, 2007 while 39°C was the maximum

temperature in July, 2007 (Table-la,b).

Air temperature varied between 17°C during January, 2008 to 35"C

during May, 2007 in Medical Pond. Whereas in Lai Diggi Pond it varied between

16"J during January, 2008 to 37"C during July, 2007.In both the ponds water

temperature followed air temperature and a positive correlation was found between air

and water temperature. (Table-1 a,b, Fig.2). A positive correlation have been observed

in between air temperature and water temperature in both the Ponds in Medical Pond

(r = 0.875) and in Lai Diggi Pond (r = 0.925) given in (Table-2 and Fig.2).

18

pH

pH of any aquatic system is suggestive of acid-base equilibrium achieved by various

dissolved compoinds. pH or Hydrogen ion concentration of natural water is,

therefore, an important environmental factor. The variations of which are linked with

chemical changes species composition and life processes of animal and plant

communities inhabiting the water body. pH is generally considered as an index for

suitability of environment and is one of the most important factors affecting

productivity of a water body (Welch, 1952). There is always an optimum range of pH

for growth and survival of any organism. pH between 6.5 and 8.0 supports good

fishery (Ellis, 1937).

Alikunhi (1957) has demonstrated that pH between 6.5 to 8.5 with large

variations play a pivotal role in the productivity of water. Bell (1971) has stated that

pH range between 6,5 to 9.0 provide an adequate environment for the well being of

freshwater fish, bottom dwelling invertebrates and fish food organisms. Das et al.

(1995) observed that pH range of 6.1 to 8.6 was absolutely harmless for Indian major

carps fry growing under agro climatic conditions of Assam. According to Das et al.

(2001), pH has a direct effect on fish growth appetite and food conversion ratio as

well as growth and survival offish food organisms.

The pH in these water bodies fluctuated from 5.8 to 9.5 throughout the course

of study (Table-la, b). The Medical College pond showed minimum pH 5.8 during

May 2007 and maximum 9.6 in the month of September 2007. The Lai Diggi pond

showed minimum pH 7.8 during September 2007 and maximum 9.5 during May,

October and November 2007.

In the present study pH of water in Lai Diggi Pond is always alkaline. The pH

depends on the amount of carbonates of calcium and magnesium and carbon dioxide

19

tension in the water. The later in turn influenced by pliotosynthetic activity of aquatic

vegetation and life cycles in the pond (Das and Gupta, 1993). High pH values indicate

domination of photosynthetic activity. Decrease in pH value during some months

(July and March) was probably due to release of anaerobic water, affected by the

decomposition of concentrated organic matter and respiration of biota while mcrease

was mainly due to rise in carbonate alkalinity resulting from the photosynthetic

activity of phytoplankton and other green aquatic plants. In monsoon months, heavy

rains caused higher turbidity, and so photosynthetic rate is also decreased because o(

low transparency and reduced intensity of light causing decrease in pH value in these

ponds. Lai Diggi pond showed highest pH during summer months It is might be due

to evaporation of water resulting in the concentration of detergents and other organic

matters. Medical Pond is subjected to disturbances caused by washer man's activity.

wind action and catties. As a result, there is a great variation in pH seen.

The occasional rains are responsible for the entry of surface runoff material,

increased turbidit) and reduced transparency. This in turn reduces photosynthetic

activity and thus reduces pH in some months.

20

Alkalinity

Alkalinity of water, as usually interpreted, refers to the quantity and quality of

compounds present, which collectively shift the pH to the alkaline side of neutrality

(Wetzel, 1983). Natural waters exhibit wide variations in relative acidity and

alkalinity, not only in actual pH values, but also in the amount of dissolved materials

producing the acidity or alkalinity. The concentration of these compounds and the

ratio of one to another determine the actual pH and the buffering capacity of given

water. The property of alkalinity is usually imparted by the presence of bicarbonates,

carbonates and hydroxides and less frequently in inland waters by borate, silicate and

phosphates (Wetzel, 1983). The CO2, HC03' and CO3'" equilibrium is a major

buffering mechanism in freshwaters. Alkalinity is very important for aquatic life in

fresnwater system because it corrects pH changes that occur naturally as a result of

photosynthetic activity of chlorophyll bearing plants.

Natural water bodies in tropics usually show a wide range of fluctuations in total

alkalinity values depending upon the location, season, plankton population, ramfall,

washer men's activity and nature of bottom deposits etc. The range of alkahnity m

Indian waters varied from 40 to 1000 mg/1 (Jhingran, 1991). Many workers

considered alkalinity as a measure of productivity (Alikunhi, 1957). Spence (1964)

divided South Scottish water bodies into three major categories based on alkalinity,

i) Nutrient poor with alkalinity ranging 1.0 to 15.0 mg/L.

ii) Moderately rich with alkalinity ranging from 16.0 to 60.0 mg/L, and

iii) Nutrient rich with alkalinity greater than 60.0 mg/L.

The three kinds of alkalinity, hydroxides (OH'), carbonates (CDs') and

bicarbonates (HCO3') can be distinguished w-'th standard acid using methyl orange

and phenolphthalein indicators successively. Norm..' carbonate alkalinity may be

01

present with either hydroxide or bicarbonate alkalinity, but hydroxide and bicarbonate

cannot be present together in the same sample (Theroux et al., 1943) There ma> be

only one condition among given five alkalinity conditions in the sample.

(1) Hydroxides alone (2) Hydroxides and normal carbonates (3) Normal

carbonates alone (4) Normal carbonate and bicarhonates (5) Bicarbonates alone

In the present study, alkalinity was due to carbonates and bicarbonates in both

the ponds. According to Jhingran (1991), a mixture of bicarbonate and carbonate

alkalinity is generally encountered in water of pH ranging from 8.4 to 10.5.

In studied ponds, alkalinity is contributed by carbonates, bicarbonates and

hydroxide (Table-la,b ). Total alkalinity values ranged between 102 to 725 mg/1. In

Medical College pond minimum value (102 mg/1) was recorded during July, 2007 and

maximum (305 mg/L) recorded during November, 2007. Lai Diggi Pond showed

minimum (390 mg/L) during June, 2007 and maximum (775 mg/L) during December

2007.

Lakes and ponds of the plains of country have been reported to be alkaline in general

(Sen et al., 1992; Pathak and Shastree, 1993; Patralekh 1994 and Kumar, 1995).

The factors responsible for higher alkalinity have been reported to be organic

pollution excessive release of soap and detergents through cloth washing, bathing and

decomposition of organic matter in sediments (Hayes and Anthony, 1959).

In the present study, higher and lower alkalinity values were found to be

related with the fluctuations in the photosynthetic activity of chlorophyll bearing

organisms.

Statistically, a positive correlation was obtained (Table-2) between total

alkalinity and phytobenthos in Medical pond, (r = 0.516), where as a negative

correlation was obtained in Lai Diggi pond (r= -0.627). Higher values during wmter

might be due to lower photosynthesis rate (in both the ponds) due to low light

intensity due to fog. It can be said that wide fluctuations in the total alkalinity, in these

water bodies, might also be due to entry of sewage, detergents, fertilizers and

insecticides from the surrounding catchments areas. Spence, (1964) stated that

alkalinity and pH are closely connected with an accurate measure of the trophic status

of lake water.

Total alkalinity, in studied in both the ponds, was always found to be greater

than 60 mg/1 (table-2 ) and, thus, they can be considered nutrient rich ponds (Spence,

1964).

Carbonate alkalinity: Carbonate alkalinity is invariably found in all water bodies on

occasions when free CO2 is absent. Wetzel (1983) correlated the presence and

absence of CO2, CO3" and HCOs' with the pH of the water. He reported that free

carbon dioxide dominates waters bearing pH 5 or below. Carbonates are

quantitatively significant in waters having pH 9.5, and HCOs' predominates in waters

having pH between 7 and 9. Theroux el al. (1943) have reported presence of CO2 and

absence of CO3 in waters having pH 8.3 or less.

In the Lai Diggi pond the minimum carbonate alkalinity (140mg/L) was

recorded during the month of July, 2007 and maximum (775 mg/L) during the month

of December, 2007, Medical College pond showed minimum carbonate alkalinity (40

mg/L) during September, 2007 and maximum (188 mg/L) during October, 2007.

Carbonate alkalinity was recorded in all the samples collected from these derelict

water bodies but absent during December, 2007 in Lai Diggi Pond.(Table-la,b)

The fluctuations in the carbonate alkalinity were mainly due to photosynthetic

activity of algae and green plants inhabiting the ecosystem. During photosynthesis,

bicarbonates are broken down and carbonates are released. The changes in

23

phytobenthos number have been found to be directly related with the changes in

carbonate concentration.

Bicarbonate alkalinity: In the present study bicarbonates were recorded in the range

from 0-775 mg/L in Lai Diggi pond while in Medical pond it ranged from 32-227

mg/L. The maximum value of bicarbonates(775 mg/L) in Lai Diggi Pond was

recorded in December, 2007, while in Medical Pond maximum bicarbonates(227

mg/L) was recorded in November, 2007. (Table-la, b)

Higher values during winter and post winter months might be due to mput ol

detergents and lower production values in monsoon months were found to be mamiy

due to higher turbidity and low transparency values, as also recorded by Panda et al

(1999). Hydroxide alkalinity: Hydroxide alkalinity was always recorded zero in both

the studied ponds except it was recorded only in one month in February. 2007(170

mg/L) in Lai Diggi Pond.(Table-la,b)

Dissolved Oxygen

Natural water bodies load a great variety of gases dissolved in them. Out of

these gases oxygen is most significant one as it is a regulator of metabolic processes

in the organisms (Kaushik and Saksena, 1999). Measurement of dissolved oxygen is

of great significance in the study of aquatic environment. Dissolved oxygen provides

key information about biological and biochemical reactions going on in a water body.

Oxygen dissolves freely in fresh water from atmosphere and it is also added as a by

product of photosynthesis of green aquatic plants. It is utilized in respiratory,

biochemical, as well as in many chemical reactions involved in ecosystem of the

environment. Despite the fact that all of us are taking oxygen in to our bodies and

converting in to carbon dioxide as a part of metabolic process to extract energy from

our food, the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere remain remarkably stable at about

20.95% of the air (Wetzel, 1983). This amount is called the oxygen solubility or

saturation value, and is not fixed but depend upon oxygen pressure in the air and

water temperature, dissolved salt present, wave action, pollution, inflowing

underground water, photosynthetic activity of plants and respiration by bacteria plants

and animal in the water etc (Zutshi and Vass, 1978).

In the present study in Lai Diggi pond, the concentration of dissolved oxygen

was recorded maximum 20.0 mg/L in the month of March, 2008 and minimum 2.4 in

September,, 2007, where as in Medical college Pond, maximum concentration were

noted 9.4mg/L during the month of December,2007 and minimum was noted

1.46mg/L during June, 2007 (Table-la,b).

The overall dissolved oxygen values in Lai Diggi Pond were found to be

higher as compared to Medical Pond. It is because of dense growth of aquatic plant

especially Hydrodicyton, found in the form of mat like covering on the basin near

shore line of pond. Dissolve oxygen concentration in both the ponds appears to fall

during post monsoon months. It is due to incoming surface runoff and drainage water

containing large amount of silt and other material causing an increase in turbidity of

water which inhibits light penetration in the water body. Higher value of dissolved

oxygen content in the water during winter and post winter months appear due to

intensive diffusion from atmosphere at low temperature and high rate of

photosynthesis during the period with favourable light conditions. At lower

temperature diffusion from atmosphere and the capacity of the water to hold dissolved

oxygen is always higher (Hutchinson, 1975).

Statistically, a positive correlation was obtained between D.O. and pH in both

Medical Pond (r = 0.333) and Lai Diggi Pond (r = 0.161) and negative correlation

have been observed between water temperature and dissolved oxygen in both Medical

Pond (r = 0.426) ard Lai Diggi Pond (r = 0.923) given in (Table-2 and Fig. 2).

Carbon Dioxide

Atmospheric carbon dioxide enters into ttie natural waters tiirough diffusion (Brocker,

1973) and invasion (Schindler and Fee, 1973). In addition, carbon dioxide is also

generated by biotic components within the lake through decomposition of organic

matter and respiration etc. The rain also absorbs some small amount of the gas and

delivers it to the water on which it falls. Unni (1972) emphasized that the rate of

change in free carbon dioxide concentration h considerable due to decomposition of

organic matter at the bottom. Thus, presence and abj-^nce of free CO2 in the surface

waters is mostly governed by its utilization by algae during photosynthesis and

through respiration, decomposition and diffusion from air (Sreenivasan, 1974). The

CO2 of pond water has been found to be highly variable due to various interdependent

factors, spatially and temporally as well as in both temperate and tropical ecosystems

(Boyd, 1982). Higher concentrations of CO2 have been reported in tropical ponds

during decomposition of dead plankton and during cloudy and hot weather (Datta,

1999). The free carbon dioxide which is much more soluble than oxygen (Welch,

1952) in water always found in large quantities in polluted waters. Thus free CO2 may

be present throughout the year (Verma, 1969, Chourasia and Adoni, 1985) or in some

samples taken in a year (Prasad. 1990) or present sporadically (Kant and Raina, 1990)

or may be absent throughout the year (Ganapati, 1960 and Gaur, 1998).

Free carbon dioxide was never recorded in both the ponds, throughout the

study period from May 2007 to April 2008. Complete absence of CO2 might be due to

beside its utilization in photosynthesis its conversion in to carbonates and

bicarbonates at high pH. The absence of carbon dioxide might be attributed to release

of carbon dioxide from water column to atmosphere due to increase in temperature,

complete utilization of carbon dioxide during photosynthesis by algae, presence of

T T

abundant carbonates which did not allow carbon dioxide to be produced in the bottom

and column to reach to the surface (Ganapati, 1960) and also due to complete

conversion of free CO2 into bicarbonates after reacting with carbonates (Rawson.

1939). Welch (1952) stated that some free CO2 might be lost into atmosphere due to

agitation of water. Complete absence of carbon dioxide was also reported by Ganapati

(1960), George (1966), Jana and Sarkar (1971), Khan and Khan (1985), Gaur (1998)

and Kaushik and Saksena (1999).

98

Hardness

Hardness prevents lather formation with soap and increase boiling point (Trivedy and

Goel, 1984). Carbonates, bicarbonates, sulphates, chlorides, nitrates and silicates

anions and multivalent metallic cations Ca" " and Mg" " contribute to hardness

Hardness due to carbonates is temporary whereas non carbonate anion and cations

cause permanent hardness. Alkalinity and hardness are closely related to each other

(Mairs, 1966). Andrews (1972) has classified water bodies on the basis of hardness.

Unni (1983) has suggested that total hardness can be used as indicator for classifying

domestic pollution in water.

In the present study total hardness showed wide variations (90 - 312.8 mg/L)

in both the freshwater ponds under study. Medical pond showed minimum 153 mg/L

in March, 2008 and maximum 312.8 mg/1 June, 2007, whereas Lai Diggi pond

showed minimum 90 mg/1 in December, 2007 and maximum 213 mg/L February,

2008 study (Table-la,b).

Higher values might be due to the evaporation of water at high temperature

during summer months. Haque (1991) has also reported higher values of hardness

during summer. The observed decrease in hardness during monsoon months might be

attributed to dilutioa of water by rain as reported by Basheer (1991) and Gaur (1998).

Ionic Composition: All waters contain both organic and inorganic dissolved

solids. The inorganic solids, when solution consists anions like carbonates,

bicarbonates, chlorides, sulphates, silicates, phosphates, nitrates and nitrites etc., and

cations like calcium, magnesium, iron, sodium and potassium etc. They combine each

other to form compounds. These ions play very impoi ant role in the life of aquatic

flora and fauna. They have been regarded as an index of productivity (Moyle, 1949;

Northcoteand Larkin, 1956; Sarkarand Rai, 1969).

Calcium: It is one of the most abundant cations found in freshwater bodies. It serves

as an essential micronutrient for most of the aquatic organisms, particularly green

algae and macronutrient for blue green algae (Goldman, 1965). Lack of this cation

may lead to the decreased rate of mineralization of organic matter and their recycling

for the use of primary producers. German limnologist, Ohle (1938) has given

classification of water bodies depending upon the calcium concentration.

Medical pond showed minimum concentration (44.0 mg/L) in December, 2007

and maximum (140 mg/L) in April, 2008. Lai Diggi pond showed lower value (12.8

mg/L) in September, 2007 and maximum (85.3mg/L) in March, 2008. (Table -la, b)

It was observed that calcium content in these ponds was highest in summer,

moderate in winters and lowest in monsoon. Increasing calcium level during summer

in Medical Pond probably due to evaporation of water and decomposition of dead

aquatic plants and animals.

Haque (1991) has also reported high calcium content during summer months

when decomposition was very high and humidity was very low. Relatively higher

calcium in these water bodies might also be due to heavy input of sewage from

surrounding areas. In monsoon month's dilution of water was found to be the main

cause of lowering the calcium content as reported by Kant and Raina (1990) whereas

Zutshi and Vass (1978) have reported low calcium level during winter and related it to

sedimentation and utilization by plankton organisms.

Magnesium (Mg): According to Wetzel (1975), Mg is required by both micro and

macro green algae to build chlorophyll. It is also required in enzymatic

transformation, especially transphosphorylation of algae fungi and bacteria.

in

The depletion of Mg acts as limiting factor for the growth of phytoplankton.

According to Welch (1952), Mg is usually found in combination with CO3 and HCO3

and some times with sulphates and chlorides.

Medical pond showed minimum concentration of magnesium (4.09mg/L) in

November, 2007 and maximum (42.9 mg/L) in February, 2007. Lai Diggi pond

showed lower value (5.3mg/L) in January, 2007 and maximum (40.2mg/L) in

September, 2007, (Tablela, b).

Haedness showing negative correlation with Phytobenthos in Medical Pond

(r=-0.421) and in Lai diggi Pond (r=-0.729), (Table-2 and Fig.3). Highest

concentration was recorded in the months of summer and lowest in the monsoon

month have been reported by Khan and Siddiqui (1974), Shastree (1991) and Haque

(1991) in the North Indian freshwater bodies.

Total Dissolved Solids

It originates from natural sources and depends upon location, geological nature,

drainage, rainfall, bottom deposits and inflowing water. The T.D.S. has been proved

as a very useful parameter in determining the productivity of inland waters (Rawson.

1951; Hutchinson, 1975 and Wetzel, 1975). Kemp (1971) has stated in the

classification of water regarding their productivity that the amount of TDS present in

a water body is of greater importance than their chemical composition. According to

.Trivedy and Goel (1984) excess amount of TDS in water tends to disturb the

ecological balance due to suffocation in aquatic fauna even in the presence of fair

amount of D.O.

Values of TDS ranged from minimum 184 mg/L (October 2007) to maximum

400 mg/L (May 2007) in Medical Pond while in Lai Diggi Pond the value of TDS

ranged from minimum 152 mg/L September, 2007 to maximum 618 mg/L during

May. 2007, (Table-la,b).

TDS showed variations mainly caused by the addition of dissolved substances

and their utilization by organisms and other aquatic plants and animals during

different months. Higher values of TDS during summer in these water bodies might

be due to higher decomposition rate, release of nutrients from the sediments and due

to evaporation of water leading to concentration of T.D.S. per litre.

Its lower values might be due to loss of nutrients into sediments and their

utilization by plankton and other aquatic plants. Water bodies with high TDS have

been reported to he productive than those with low values (Northcote and Larkin,

1956).

TDS showed negative correlation(r = -0.706) with transparency in Lai Diggi

Pond and Positive correlation with Medical pond (r= 0.090), (Table-2; Fig.).

Electrical Conductivity (E.C.)

Electrical conductivity of water reflects the amount of dissolved solutes present in it.

Therefore, it is considered as an index of total dissolved solids (Sreenivasan, 1964).

According to Rawson (1951) and Haque (1991) it is directly related to productivity.

Freshwater bodies in their natural state have very low conductivity values. Polluted

waters showed higher values of conductivity (Trivedy et al., 1985).

In Medical pond, the conductivity minimum 2050 i S cm"' (June, 2007) to

maximum 2698}.iS cm" (January, 2008). Lai Diggi Pond showed minimum 956 (.iS

cm"' (August, 2007) to maximum 1800 [xS cm'' (June, 2007), (Table-la,b). Higher

values of conductivity during some months might be due to the fact that various

dissolved substances (nutrients) etc. are continuously released into the aquatic

medium through death and decomposition of aquatic organisms. Lower values of

conductivity might be attributed to the consumption of TDS by the phytoplankton and

other aquatic organisms present there. Very high conductivity values in Medical Pond

might be due to large input of detergents and dyes in addition to sewage.

Benthos

The benthic community plays an import int role in the economy of natural waters. Study

of qualitative and quantitative macro-zoobenthic organisms are important criteria for

evaluations leading to water quality designation according to Saprobiant system. Level of

species richness was found dependent upon abiotic factors like temperature, hardness,

pH, dissolved oxygen, chloride and phosphorus. However the importance of habitat

types, pollution, biotic factors and anthropogenic can not be t-uled out. They are sensitive

to watershed conditions and exhibit sufficient stability in assemblage structure over time

to make them useful as long term monitors of stream health (Richard and Minshell, 1992)

and indicator of water quality (Reshl995). Hynes (1960) reported that the density of

benthos in a water body is a useful index of water quality although density may fluctuate

widely with change in the seasons.

There is a practically no data available on limnotic components of contributing

tributaries on Ganga river from Garhwal region and whatever is reported is fragmentary

(Sharmaet al; 1990; Singh, 1991; Nautiyal, 1986). Roff and Ward (1989) identify stream

flow variability as a major factor affecting the other abiotic and biotic factors that

regulate lotic macro zoo benthic patterns. Brown and Brown (1994) and Richards et al.

(1993) suggested that many variables, including conductivity, dissolved oxygen, pH,

current velocity, substrate type, depth and water temperature affects the invertebrate

production in response to flow in change regime. Hynes (1970) has discussed in general

the changes in faunal composition with longitudinal distance in lotic ecosystem and also

mentioned oxygen, temperature and nature of substratum as possible contributor to this

change.

34

Pirse et al. (2000) concluded that some of the environmental variable like temperature

conductivity, depth and width influenced the invertebrate distribution and abundance

with in the river basin. They also reported that Ephemeroptera and Plecoptera were found

most abundant at the site where water quality as well as favorable conditions was

acceptable as these groups are sensitive to water quality as contrast to group. Diptera

which was associated with poor water quality as they are more resistant to pollution, also

observed by Depiereux et al. (1983). Increased population density of echiurids with

increased depth was observed in the coastal water off Manglore (Jayraj, 1982) and higher

population of same were recorded at 20m and 30m depth in the near shore sediments of

Gangolli (Venkatesh Prabhu et al., 1993).Dominance of polychaetes along west coast of

India was observed by various workers (Ansari et al.,1977, Parulekar et al.,1982, Jayraj

1982, Prabhu and Reddy, 1987). However along the Mangalore coast, lower densities of

Polvchaetes were recorded by Gopalkrishnan and Nair (1998). Almost all the workers

recorded an insignificant contribution of Crustacean in the benthos collected along the

west coast of India (Prabhu and Reddy, 1987; Gopalkrishanan and Nair, 1998). Ansrai

(1997), Devi and Venugopal (1989) and Devi et al. (1991) have observed the changes in

the quality of benthos due to influence of industrial effluents in Cochin back waters.

Similar changes in the quality of benthos due to industrial activities were observed along

the west coast of India (Devassy et al.,1987 Varshney et al.,1988; Jiyalal Ram et al.,

1998). Seasonal variation of Molluscs could not be delineated clearly, since the greater

abundance was recorded both in pre and post monsoon at different station. However the

study (Devassy et al.,1987; Venkatesh Prahbu et al., 1993) have shown that the higher

abundance of benthic organisms were recorded during post monsoon season. Irregular

35

changes in salinity by rainfall, low oxygen content at night, high temperature at day time,

and the considerable amount of organic matter formed by shrimps production result in

habitat degradation for macrobenthic organisms dwelling within. There was a clear

tendency that molluscs and arthropods decreased evidently as the depth increased from

the surface to the deeper layers because they were epibenthos which inhabited

predominantly on the surface layer of muddy substratum. The close similarity of

macrobenthic fauna among the surface layer seems to be related to the dominant of these

epibenthic organisms. The benthic algal productivity accounts for large percentage of

total primary production in shallow estuarine water the predominant primary producers

are benthic micro algae (Raymont, 1980) which play a major role in benthic environment

as food resources for benthic invertebrate (Hansson, 1992; Sivadasn and Joseph,

1997).The biomass of benthic microalgae is high and they retain a part of the newly

mineralized nutrients at the sediment surface (Cartlon and Wetzel, 1988). Hence it is

essential to estimate the primary production of the benthic environment and assess

potential fishery resources. Colijn and Venekamp (1977) observed significant positive

correlation between primary algae biomass and benthic primary production in EMS-

Dollard estuary. The temperature and salinity of near bottom waters influence the

distribution of organisms in the top layer of sediment. The studies of Colojn and Jonge

(1984) showed positive significant correlation between benthic primary production and

temperatures and irradiance. The zoobenthic animals started building up their population

from autumn. The maxima of the benthic assemblages during winter could be accounted

for low water temperature, good oxygen content coupled with low water level in the

systems having least disturbance due to dry spells. This is in accordance with the findings

36

of Pant et al. (1985), Sunder and Vass (1988) and Kaushal and Tyagi (1989). Rawson

(1995) observed an inverse relationship between mean depth and standing crop of bottom

organisms. Further during colder months, normally the predation pressure becomes less

due to low metabolic activities of consumer which could be one of the factors for the

enrichment of the benthic population in these lakes (Sunder and Vass, 1988). This may be

due to swollen biotopes through constant rains in the catchment areas causing abiotic and

blotic disturbance besides creating turbidity which directly or indirectly influences the

abundance of macro-zoobenthos. Similar observation has been made by Kaushal and

Tyagi (1989). The migratory phenomenon of benthic communities have been recorded by

many workers (Mundie,1959; Grimas,1965; Sunder and Vass, 1988 and Kaushal and

Tyagi,]989).The estimate annual production of the benthic microalgae, 33.59 gem'' is

moderate value compared to other areas (Riznyk et al.,1978, Varela and Penas, 1985 and

Barranguet 1997). Cadee and Hegeman (1974a) and Verala and Penas (1985) found

epibenthic productivity to be 10 times greater than that of the water column, while

Matheke and Horner (1974) found epibenthic production to be only twice as high as that

of plankton. Colijin and de Jonge (1984) have found a positive significant correlation

between sediment cholorophyll-a and benthic primary productivity.

The seasonal distribution of benthic diatoms supported the peak period of

phytobenthic productivity. In comparison, Colijn and Venekamp (1977) observed

significant positive correlation between algal biomass and micro phytobenthic

productivity in EMS-Dollard estuary. Species composition of plankton in water and

sediment showed predominance of pinnate diatoms.

37

Benthic community may also reflect eutrophication depending upon how quickly they

respond to eutrophication (Lang, 1985)

Phytobenthos: The Phytobenthos includes the aquatic macrophytes and the bottom

dwelling algae. There are other important large plants that are considered to be

algae.They are Vascular Plants, hetrophic organisms and photosynthetic algae (including

cyanobacteria), living on or attached to substrate or other organisms in surface water.

Phytobenthos was gathered (brushed) from the surface of the sample stone.

Myxophyceae (Blue green algae)

A number of species of Myxophyceae are cosmopolitan and have a worldwide

distribution. They are found not only in free form but also in epilithic forms and as

symbionts (Weis, 1982). They are more efficient in utilizing CO2 at high pH level and

low light availability under eutrophic conditions (Shapiro, 1990), and thus, their

abundance indicates the eutrophic nature of the studied water bodies (Seenayya and

Zafar, 1981 and Gaur, 1994). Algal blooms oi Microcystis show that the water body is

eutrophic (Codd, 2000). The nuisance growth of blue algae also causes O2 depletion after

decomposition during unfavorable conditions, thereby, killing many organisms inhabiting

the water body (Philipose, 1972 and Reynolds, 1991). Blue-green algae starts increasing

in early summer and reaches its peak in middle summer when the temperature is about

33°C and then decrease in number towards monsoon. They are found in surface waters

even during the monsoon. Gonzalves and Joshi (1946) attributed the rise of blue-green

algae at the end of rainy season to the rise in temperature at the end of the monsoon

38

season. The periods of myxophycean maxima are usually accompanied by the low

concentration of dissolved oxygen.

Seasonally, higher densities of this group were recorded 21 No./cm^during October,

2007 in Medical Pond, whereas Lai Diggi Pond showed higher densities 30 No./cm'

during August, 2007. (Table 3 a,b). Th members Microcystis, Anabaena and Spirulina in

Medical Pond And Lai Diggi Pond throughout the period of study.

Chl-orophyceae: Unicellular and colonial species are commonly called as desmids

(Hutchinson, 1967). The green algae, like Ankistrodesmus, Kirchnerella, Pediastrum,

Crucigenia and Scenedesmus among chlorococcales are abundantly found plankton in

ponds or shallow fertile lakes (Hutchinson, 1967). The green algae embrace such familiar

genera as Spirogyra, Chlorella and Ulothrix each belong to a different order of

Chlorophyceae and represent 8,000 freshwater species (Hutchinson, 1967). The

per'odicity of green algae in these selected water bodies is represented in (Table-3a,b).

Chlorophyceae forms most significant group of phytobenthos in these ponds. Besides

physico-chemical parameters, presence of myxophyceae is also known to control the

fluctuations in green algae population (Lin, 1972 and Bais et al., 1993). Gaur (1998)

found high density of Chlorophyceae associated with higher myxophycean population.

In the present study, Chlorophyceae formed dominant group among all

Phytobenthos the number fluctuate between 28 No./cm^ to 49 No./cm^ in Lai diggi Pond

where as in Medical Pond it ranges between 10 No./cm^ to 19 No,/cm^ (Table- 3a,b)

The members, Cmcigenia, Ankistrodesmus, Scenedesmus, Chlorella, Protococcus

and Actinastrum in Lai diggi and Medical Pond were found throughout the study.

39

Chlorophycean dominance has been attributed to eutrophic nature of the ponds

(Gonzalves and Joshi, 1946; Singh, 1960; Saify et al., 1986). The ability of

chlorophycean algae to withstand against the pollution load has been reported by Palmer

(1969) and Jha et al. (1989). In the present study, alkaline medium favours optimum

growth of Chlorophyceae (Philipose, 1960; Munawar, 1970; Saha et al., 1985),

Cruceginia: contributed maximum 4 No./cm^ during February, 2008and Minimum

1 No./cm^ during December, 2007, July and August, 2008 in Medical Pond, whereas in

Lai Diggi Pond it contributed maximum 12 No./cm^ in September, 2007 and minimum 3

No./cm^ in January, 2008. A positive correlation was found in between the Zoobenthos

and Pytobenthos in Medical pond (r =0.417) and in Lai diggi Pond (r =0.643) showed in

(Table-2 and fig.3). A negative correlation have been observed between water

temperature and phytobenthos in Medical Pond (r= -0.378) where as a positive

correlation was found in between water temperature and phytobenthos in Lai Diggi Pond

(r = 0.533) given in (Table-^_

Euglenophyceae: Euglenoid algae form a relatively large and diverse group but

few species are truly planktonic (Wetzel, 1983). According to Hutchinson (1967) "though

the group consist of more than 600 species of photosynthetic form, as well as many that

are apochlorotic, few are of many importance as members oi the lake plankton". Among

the free swimming species, some members of Trachelomonas and Lepocinclis and a few

species of Euglena are widely distributed in the open water of lake. Euglena acus, which

occurs in large and deep waterbodies, as the sea of Galilee (Komarovsky, 1959), is

probably the most eulimno-planktonic species. Almost all euglenoids are unicellular, lack

a distinct cell wall and possess one, two or three flagella (Wetzel, 1983). The ecological

40

distribution of euglenoids lias been studied by Rao (1955), Zafar (1959), Philipose

(1960), Singh (1960), Munawar (1970) and Singh and Swarup (1979).

The seasonal variations of euglenoids are given in (Tables-3a,b)

The group contributed maximum number, 9 No./cm^, during February, 2008 and

4 No./cm^ during August, 2007 in Medical pond, whereas 17 No./cm^, during July, 2007

to 5 No./cm^ in December, 2007 in Lai diggi pond.

Less diversity and continuous presence of euglenoids in soil sample in the present

study might be due to richness of these water bodies in terms of organic matter and

nutrients.. Dense bloom of Euglena sp. usually occurs in small and organically polluted

water bodies rich in non humic organic matter Kumar and Gupta (2002).

Bacillariophyceae: The diatoms, the most important members of the fresh water

phytobenthos. Most genera are planktonic and occur in benthic and littoral regions often

in majority. The group as a whole has commonly been divided into the centric diatoms

exhibiting radial and pinnate diatoms which are bilateral in their functional structure

(Hutchinson, 1967). Members of Bacillariophyceae (Diatoms) constitute most important

groups of algae even though most species are sessile and associated with littoral substrate

(Wetzel, 1983). Some of the common freshwater phytobenthic diatoms recorded in the

present observations are Diatoma. Cydotella, Amphora, Navicula, Nitzschia and

Symdra. These are enveloped in cell wall made up of amorphous hydrated silica plus

organic contents and are found in the form of a single chain of cells or satellite or other

alignment of cell.

Diatoms are preferred food of many grazers and organisms in the upper trophic

level and thus form the basis of productive fisheries (Ryther, 1969). They have been

41

suggested to enhance the transfer of energy to higher trophic levels (Doering et a!., 1989)

either through fewer trophic links (Ryther, 1969) or higher food quality. It is estimated

that net primary production on earth is in order of 1.4x10'" kg dry wt./year and diatoms

constitute about 20-25% of this total production (Werner, 1977). Nutrient availability can

also influence diatom community structure in streams and rivers (Chetelat et al., 1999).

Many investigators stressed the importance of silicates, nitrates, phosphates, and D.O in

the productivity of diatoms (Patrick, 1948; Vcnkatcswarlu, 1969; Sampathakumar, 1977)

Growth of diatoms depends upon the presence of dissolved silicates, contrary to non-

diatom species, which dominate when dissolved silicates are low (Conley et al., 1993).

Since diatom abundance is partly determined by available dissolved silica, the presence

and absence of diatoms may have a significant impact on the food web and trophic

In the present study, maximum count of this group was 15 No./cm" during July,

2007 and minimum 6 No./cm" during February and March, 2008 in Medical pond and in

Lai diggi pond it was recorded maximum 21 No./cm" during August, 2007 and minimum

6 No./cm" in February, 2008.(Table-3a,b). In the present study, the group

Bacillariophyceae was found to be represented by Navicula, Nitzschia, Amphora and

Diatoma.

Desmidiaceae: The term desmid is used in limnology to designate members of

those conjugates that are either strictly unicellular or in which, if filamentous, the cells of

fllamenis are loosely connected (Hutchinson, 1967). Desmids are exclusively fresh water

plants and not a single species is found in the sea (Plaskitt, 1997). They are typically

found in acid bogs, in very dilute waters low in electrolytes and in oligotrophic lakes

(Cole, 1983). Hutchinson and Pickford (1932) also emphasized the role of calcium in the

42

distribution of desmids. Von Oye (1934) attributed the paucity of desmids in Belgium

freshwaters to their euirophic expression and has been interpreted in terms of organic

matter, dissolved oxygen, average depth, nutritional level and bottom fauna. In the

present study, they were recorded throughout the study in both the ponds.

in the present study, desmids number fluctuated between 1 No./cm" to 5 No./cm"

in Medical pond and it was recorded i No./cm" to 6 No./ cm" in Lai Diggi pond.

Closterium sp., which are known to exhibit tolerance with the higher concentration of

organic matter, was the only genera noted throughout the period of investigations. Wetzel

(1975) and Goldman and Hore (1983) have reported the desmids being less abundant in

the water bodies that were rich in organic matter. Singh and Pandey (1991) recorded on[>

two genera of desmids in polluted water body. Haque (1991) receded low density of

desmids during higher density of myxophyceae. Present study substantiate the general

belief that large water bodies have low myxophyceae and more desmids as compared to

smaller water bodies (ponds) which have more myxophyceae and less desmids (Hosmani,

2002).

43

Zoobenthos: Moreover, the population of macrobenthos was highly stable in both

ponds on account of feebly changing ecological conditions. The major groups of

Zoobenthos in two ponds belong to: Insecta {Ephemeroptera, Diptera, Plecoptera and

Coleopterd), Cladocera, Copepoda, Ostracoda, Oligochaetes and Rotifera (Table-

4a,b) shows their relative abundance during the study period. Among bottom livmg

organisms, the acjuatic insects on an average, formed the dominating group

comprising (39.0%) of the total benthos, followed by Cladocera (8.2%) Copepods

(7.6%), Ostracods (8.5%), Oligochaetes (18.5%) and rotifers (17.8%) in Lai Diggi.

whereas it was Oligochaetes (17.3%)) which comes next to insects (43.2%)) in Medical

College pond. Ostracods contributed (9.6%)) followed by Cladocera (6.4%o), Copepods

(6.4%) and Rotifers (17.2%) to the total benthos composition in Medical College

pond.

Monthly Variations in the Distribution of Major Taxa are given in (Table-5a,b

and Fig.la,b). In Lai Diggi, the percent contribution of insects highest (45.9%)) in the

month of July, 2007 and lowest (36.2%) in October, 2007. Oligochaetes (21.1%).

Rotifers (19.9%), Copepods (11.5%), Ostracods (9.5%) and Cladocera (9.0%) were

found to be higher in the month of July (2007), December (2007), October (2007).

March (2008) and August (2007), and, respectively, and lowest in December, 2007

(15.0%), August, 2007 (15.0%), March, 2008 (4.2%), June 2007 (6.8%), January,

2008 (7.3%)), and In Medical College pond also, insects remained highest but

maximum (45.9%) was observed in July, 2007 with a low population (36.4%) in

March, 2008. Highest percentage (8.9%) of Cladocera were recorded in July, 2007

and lowest (5.4%) in September, 2007. whereas highest percentage of Copepods were

recorded (8.3%) in the month of January, 2008 and lowest (4.9%) in the month of

October, 2007. Oligochaetes were found to be higher (20.3%o) in September, 2007 and

44

the lower (14.4%) during January, 2008. High percentage of ostracods (20.4%) in the

month of March, 2008 and low percentage (6.5%) in the month of December. 2007

and Rotifers (21.7%) were recorded in the month of August, 2007 and minimum

(15.1%) in the month of July, 2007, respectively.

Higher number of insects was mainly due to high dipteran larvae. Tables-4a,b

indicate a well defined monthly fluctuation in time and space. Though insecta, the

most dominant group in bottom fauna yet all other groups were quite abundant in all

the months.

Rotifers: This group was always recorded in percentages as 17.8% in Lai Diggi and

17.2% in Medical College pond (Table-5a,b). The total number of rotifers recorded in

these two ponds were found to vary from 221 No./m^ to 358 No.W (Lai Diggi pond)

and from 211 No./m^ to 320 No./m^ (Medical College Pond), (Table-4a,b). Maximum

number of rotifers were collected in December and minimum in April from Lai Diggi

pond whereas from Medical College pond maximum rotifers were collected in August

and minimum in July, 2007. The group is represented by only four genera namely.

Brachionus, Filinia and Keratella and Notholca. Among them, Branchionus was

recorded as dominating genus. Filinia, showing a great affinity to deep hypolimnion

(Ruttner, 1980). was moderately distributed in both the ponds throughout the study

period. The population densities of rotifers in these ponds were low in the months of

July because of less intensity of light (Table-4a,b). Minkoff et al. (1983) showed that

the light exposure is necessary for rotifers to produce young ones, particularly during

hatching of resting eggs. Population density may also change substantially due to

presence of predators. The substantial and high selective nature of cladoceran and

cyclopoid predation on rotifers (Williamson, 1983) might be one of the reasons for

reduction in the density of rotifers in winter. Khan (1970) and Haque (1987) have

already been reported the occurrence of cladocerans and copepods in greater amounts

in winter.

Present study has shown that Brcichionus prefers a habitat rich in organic

particulate matter and indicated wide range of tolerance to pollution caused by

domestic sewage in Lai Diggi Pond. It is always recorded in greater percentages in

Lai Diggi pond than the other genera.

These interesting micro invertebrate were presumed to be a product of the

aerobic phase in the development of our planet (Sladecek, 1983). Although the

rotifers represent a very small group (minor phylum) of animal kingdom yet they are

often qualitatively and quantitatively the most abundant metazoans in inland waters.

They are regarded as valuable bio-indicators of water quality (Sladecek, 1988;

Berzins and Pejler, 1989). They also serve as an essential food source for many fishes

like Indian Major Carps as well as for many vertebrate and invertebrate predators

(Herzig, 1987).

Temperature is generally not a limiting factor for rotifers (Pejler, 1957). Laal

(1989) has observed a pronounced periodicity during monsoon and winter than m

summer.

Brachionus calyciflorus: In Medical Pond, it was found from 26 to 64 No./m^ and in

Lai diggi pond it was 28 to 62 No./m'.

Brachionus bidentatus: In Medical Pond, it was found from 26 to 69/m^ and in Lai

diggi Pond 29 to 72 No./ml

Filinia spp.: In Medical Pond, it was found from 27 to 72/m^ and 27 to 55 No./m^ in

Lai diggi Pond.

Cladocera: It comprises a group of primitive and usually microscopic crustaceans to

which the general name of'entomostraca' was formerly applied. The members of this

46

group are also commonly termed as "water fleas' because of their characteristic

'jerky' swimming action of locomotion (Dodson and Frey, 1991).

They are the consumers of first order, directly drawing energy from primary

producers of the ecosystem viz., phytobenthos. In turn, form the food for

planktivorous fishes and other invertebrates, transferring energy to higher trophic

levels. Besides, they have also been reported to be reliable indicators of eutrophic

nature of water bodies (Sinha and Khan. 1998 and Sharma. 2001).

Cladocera form the most important group of the bcnthic population

representing average 8.2% of the total number of bottom organisms in Lai Diggi In

Medical College pond, Cladocera were 6.4% of the average total benthos. The total

number of Cladocera varied from 105 No./m^ to 150 No.W in Lai Diggi pond and 71

No./m^ to n o W iti Medical College pond, being highest in December. (Table-4 a,b).

This group is represented by Daphnia sp, and Bosmina sp. Cladocera showed

polymodal occurrence. In Medical Pond, maximum density was found in winter

months and early summer months. In Medical Pond, maximum density was found in

winter and summer months whereas in Lai Diggi Pond, maximum density was found

during winter, post winter and monsoon months.

Daphnia Sp.: In Medical Pond, it was found during the whole period of investigation

and its number fluctuate between 29 to 97 No./m^ and in Lai diggi pond it was

recorded 69 to 112 No./ml

Bosmina Sp.: In both the Ponds, it was found throughout the period of investigation

and it was recorded 26 to 48 No./m^ in Medical pond and 27 to 54 No./m^ in Lai

Diggi pond.

Copepods: They are very ancient arthropods and the diminutive relatives of crabs and

shrimps. In terms of their size, diversity and abundance they are also often called as

47

'water fleas' in common with many other small crustaceans (Reddy. 2001). A vast

majority of copepods are confined to marine and brackish waters, only a small

fraction, about 2000 species inhabit freshwaters (Reddy, 2001). They inhabit many of

the habitats such as lakes, reservoirs, wetlands, ponds and pools (Tonapi, 1980). As to

their importance, copepods are significantly primary and secondary consumers in

aquatic food chain. Their grazing contributes to the transfer of algal primary

production to higher trophic levels. In other words, copepods can make organic

material available to higher trophic levels in a la/per pellet form thus saving the

foraging energy of their predators (Reddy, 2001).

The free-living copepods are separable into three distinct groups, the

Calanoida, Cyclopoida and Harpacticoida (Wetzel, 1983). The representative

members of the copepods are Cyclops spp. and Diaptomus spp.

Cyclops Sp.: In the present study minimum copepods (4.9%) in the month of October,

2007 and maximum (8.3%) in the month of January, 2008 in Medical Pond whereas

in Diggi Pond minimum (4.2%) in the month of March, 2008 and maximum (10.3%)

in the month of September, 2007. It was recorded 29 No./m^ to 69 No./m^ in Medical

pond whereas 32 No./m" to 98 No./m in Lai diggi pond.(Table-4a,b)

Diaptomus Sp.: It was found during the whole period of investigation and it was

recorded 29 to 65 No.W in Medical pond and 27 to 98 No./m' in Lai diggi

pond.(Table-4a,b).

Ostracods: Ostracods commonly known as seed shrimps, form another important

group of benthic ccmmunity. They inhabit all types of substrates in both standing and

running waters, including rooted vegetation, debris, mud, sand and rubble. A few

species swim about actively above the substrate (Pennak, 1978), They resemble

miniature mussels and 'mussel shrimps' in an old European vernacular name. Most of

48

the fresh water ostracods are bottom dwellers, although some appear occasionally in

plankton samples It is represented by four genera namely Heterocypns Centrocypns

Stenocypris and Cyclocypris

In the present study, Ostracods shared only 8 5% in Lai Diggi and 9 6% of the

total benthic population in Medical College pond (Table-5a,b) The total number of

ostracods varied from 103 No W to 170 No W in Lai Diggi pond and 101 No Im'

to 146 No.W in the Medical College pond. They were numerically higher in Lai

Diggi as compared to Medical College pond The diversity in composition and

abundance was not of much significance Cypndopsis was found to be dominant

among ostracods

The percentage composition of this group did not show much variation in

different months ^4lnlmum number of ostracods might be due to temperature which

IS regarded as one of the important factors affecting the parthenogenesis in ostracods

Probably depth was another important factor regulating the distribution and

abundance of ostracods They were recorded numerically high in Lai Diggi which is

shallower than Medical College pond From the present investigations, it was also

observed that ostracods, if not all, but few genera can tolerate the wide range of

pollution

Pop'.lation density may also change substantially due to seasonal pattern ol

reproduction.

Eggs: The numbers of eggs of rotifers and crustaceans were lumped together and

counting was made together during the period of investigations Year round

occurrence of eggs indicated that rotifers and crustaceans are continuous breedeis

(Table 4-a,b).

49

Oligochaetes: The oligochaetes have been represented by Tubifex, Chaetogaster,

Nais and Aelosoma in order of abundance, (Table-4a,b). The strong dominance was

recorded by Tubifex in both Lai Diggi and as well as in Medical College pond

Cowell and Vodopich (1981) have found an uniformity in the abudance of

oligochaetes throughout the year. In the present investigations too. the seasonal

fluctuations in the abundance of oligochaetes were not so much pronounced.

Maximum number of Tubifex were observed 92 No./cm^ in the month of January,

2008 in Lai Diggi, and 95 No./cm^ in the month of October, 2007 in Medical College

pond, might be the result of higher quantities of organic particulate matter as these

sludge worms feed mostly on bacteria down to 10 cm below the sediment surface

(Brinkhurst, 1974). These red annelids were less in number in Lai diggi pond

comparatively, mainly due to the presence of bottom dwelling predators. The general

distribution pattern of these worm favoured more eutrophic areas having low oxygen,

and high organic matter. According to Hawkes (1979), Oligochaetes are the common

inhabitants of polluted waters. Availability of food, polluted environment and absence

of predation might be the causes of higher number of individuals in Lai Diggi, The

red annelid worms have also been reported in increasing in number in waters polluted

with domestic sewe ge (Odum, 1971). The same is true with the Lai Diggi also.

Insecta: It has become clear from the data (Table-4a,b) that insects form the major

portion in the composition of total Zoobenthos. In Lai Diggi pond the total number of

insects varied from 539 No./m^ (August, 2007) to 716 No./m^ (August, 2007) whereas

in Medical College pond, maximum number (787 No.W) of insects was collected in

December, 2007 and the minimum (569 No. /m^ ) m March, 2008, (Tables-4a,b)

Study also showed greater number of insects and fewer genera in Lai Diggi pond than

in the Medical College pond. In these two ponds insects are represented by members

50

of four groups namely, diptera, ephemeroptera. coleopteran and plecoptera in order of

abudance.

Out of the total insects present in the total benthos, dipterans contributed

major share in the samples collected from the Lai Diggi, showing its maximum value

(413 No./m^) in December, 2007 and minimum (252 No./m^) in August, 2007.

Whereas in Medical College pond, of insects present in the total benthos and dipterans

contributed most dominating group of the total insects with a maximum value (415

No./m^'in the month of September. 2007 and minimum in (345 No./m^) in the month

of May, 2007. (Table-4a,b)

Diptems were represented by four genera Chironomus, Tanypus, Pentaneura

and Culicoides (Tables-4a,b). Chironomus was most abundant genus and found to be

present throughout the period of investigation in both the ponds. The trend of seasonal

variations has also been reported by Mandal and Moitra (1975). Bass (1986) has also

observed maximum population of chironomids during winter months with a peak

during spring. Baggae and Tulki (1967), Baggae and Jimppanen (1968), Cairs and

Dickson (1971), Learner et al. (1971), Olive and Darabach (1973) and Hawkes (1979)

have reported that some of the chironomids are common inhabitants of polluted water.

rich in nutrients and poor in oxygen content, and so they are being used as the

biological indicators of pollution. In Lai Diggi, among, dipterans, Tanypus was the

second most dominant genus followed by Pentaneura. In Medical College pond,

Chironomus was the most common genus followed by Tanypus. Rapid larval

development of chironomids may be the effective cause for large increase in

population (Gowell and Vodopich, 1981).

Coleoptera were the second major share holder In the Insect population, and

51

were mainly represented by Berosus Hydaticus Hydracarwa Hydranchna The

number of Coleoptera varied from 138 No /m^ (April, 2008) to 189 No W ( January.

2008) m Lai Diggi In Medical College pond with a maximum population 223 No /m"

in the month of (December, 2007) and minimum 121 No /m^ in the month of (June.

2007)

Plecoptera constituted least dominant group of the insects in both the ponds and was

represented by a single genus, Atoperla

Ephemeroptera: Represented by Baelis showed maximum population in Lai Diggi

pond during December, 07 (61 No /m ) and minimum in November, 07 (28 No /m~)

respectively. Whereas, in Medical College pond their maximum value was recorded

during October (62 No.W) and minimum in March and December (22 No./m^)

respectively. Ephemeroptera always occurred in low quantities and were not

significant contributor to zoobenthic community. It may be due to the presence of

organic pollution in these ponds as has been reported that Plecopterans,

Ephemeropterans and Tricopterans progressively disappear; from organically polluted

streams (Hynes, 1964 and Chandler, 1970).

52

CONCLUSIONS

CONCLUSIONS

In Medical pond, Seechi disc transparency ranged from 15.0 cm to 19 2 cm

showing minimum in November, 2007 (15.0 cm) and maximum (19.2 cm) in April.

2008.In Lai Diggi Pond, it ranged from 13.0 cm to 24.5 cm showing minimum in

August, 2007 (13.0 cm) and maximum 24.5 cm in February, 2008. Low levels of

transparency in ^ledical Pond and Lai Diggi Pond were found in summer and

monsoon seasons.

Increase in pH is the result of the rise in carbonate alkalinity resulting from the

photosynthetic activity of phytoplankton and green algae. Decrease in the pH can be

attributed to the release of anaerobic water.

Higher values of dissolved oxygen might be due to increased photosynthetic

activity while lower values may be because of its utilization during decomposition of

organic matter and respiration by micro and macro-organisms.

Carbon dioxide was absent in both the ponds during the investigation period

due to the photosynthetic activity of phytobenthos and its conversion into carbonate

and bicarbonate which were recorded throughout the study.

Higher and lower alkalinity values were found to be related with the

fluctuations in the photosynthetic activity of chlorophyll bearing organisms.

Higher valies of hardness might be due to the evaporation of water at high

temperature during summer months while lower values during monsoon months

might be attributed to dilution of water body by rain water. Calcium and magnesium

showed higher values during summer and lower during monsoon months.

53

Higher values of conductivity during some months might be due to the fact

that various dissolved substances (nutrients) are continuously released into the aquatic

medium due to the death and decomposition of aquatic organisms. Lower values of

conductivity might be attributed to the consumption of T.D.S. by phytobenthos

present there. Statistically a correlation v 'as obtained for phytobenthos and TDS.

Phytobenthos is represented by algae groups viz; Chlorophyceae,

Myxophyceae, Bacillariophyceae, Euglenophyceae and Desmidiaceae. The most

dominant group is Cholorophyceae and least dominant group was Desmidiaceae in

both the ponds throughout the study period.

Zoobenthos showed positive correlation with Phytobenthos in both the ponds.

Cladocerans, Copepods, Oligochaetes, Roii^ers, Ostracods and Insects

constitute the major group of Zoobenthos population.

Insects formed the most dominating group as these group showed continuous

occurrence. Interspecific and intraspecific factors influence the distribution and

abundance of benthos. The availability of food affects the Zoobenthos by affecting the

female fertility.

Diptera in both the ponds indicates good water quality as well as favorable

condition for insects communities.

54

SUMMARY

SUMMARY

The water is one of the most essential factor for h'ving organisnis.-The quality of

water affects peaks composition, abundance productivity and physiological condition

of aquatic communities.

Water temperature was recorded maximum 2TC during July, 2007 and minimum

IS^C during January, 2008 in Medical Pond whereas 17°C during January, 2008 and

maximum 39°C duiing July, 2007 in Lai Diggi Pond.

Transparency ranged from minimum 13.0 cm (August, 2007) to 23.0 cm

(November. 2007) in Medical Pond and from minimum 7.8 cm (December, 2004) to

maximum 14.5 cm (October, 2004) in Lai Diggi Pond. Low levels of transparency

was found during summer and monsoon seasons because of increase concentration of

dissolved solids at high temperature and due entry of huge amount of suspended and

colloidal matter, silt and clay into the water body during monsoon months.

pH ranged form 5.8 to 9.6 in both the ponds during the study period.. Minimum pH m

Medical Ponds was 8.0in July, 2007 and maximum was 9.6 during September 2007.

In Lai Diggi Pond it ranged from 7.8 in September, 2007 to 9.5 during November.

2007. The wide range of pH might be the result of variable photos} nthesis due tn

disturbances caused by washer men's activity.

Dissolved oxygen varied from 1.6 mg/L in June, 2007 and 9.4 mg/L, in December,

2008 in Medical Pond and 2.4 mg/L, in September, 2007 and 20.0 mg/L in March,

2008, in Lai Diggi ^ond. Fluctuations in D.O. content have been found to be affected

by many factors like solubility of oxygen in water, intensity of light and

photosynthesis.

55

During the present study CO2 was absent in both the Ponds. This might be due to

release of free carbon dioxide at high temperature from the water column, its

complete utilization during photosynthesis and due to presence of carbonates and

bicarbonates in abundance.

Alkalinity ranged from 102 mg/L in July, 2007 to 305 mg/L in November. 2007 in

Medical Pond, whereas 380 mg/L during August, 2007 and 775 mg/L in December.

2007 in Lai Diggi Pond. Higher might be due to regular input of detergents and lov\er

values in monsoon months were found to be mainly due to dilution of water, higher

turbidity and low transparency values.

Hardness ranged from 153 mg/L in March, 2008 to 312.8 mg/L in June. 2007 in

Medical Pond whereas in Diggi Pond it ranged from 90 mg/L in December, 2008 to

213 mg/L in March, 2008. Higher values during summer and lower during monsoon

might be attributed to the evaporation of water leading to concentration at high

temperature and dilution of water by rain respectively. Calcium ranged from 44.08

mg/L to 140 mg/L in Medical Pond whereas from 12.8 mg/L to 85.3mg/L in Lai

Diggi Pond and Magnesium from 4.09 mg/L to 42.9 mg/L in Medical Pond whereas

from 5.3 mg/L to 40.2 mg/L in Lai Diggi Pond . Ionic composition was constituted by

the two main ions calcium, magnesium. Increasing calcium and magnesium levels

during summer might be due to evaporation of water and decomposition of dead

aquatic plants and animals.

Total Dissolved Solids ranged from 184 mg/L to 400 mg/L in Medical College Pond,

whereas in Lai Diggi Pond it ranged from 152 mg/L to 618 mg/L. Its concentration in

water body mainly depends on the surface run off during monsoon months, sediment

release of nutrients and evaporation at high temperature during summer.

56

The conductivity ranged from 956 i S cm'' to 2698 |-iS cm''. Higher values of

Conductivity during some months might be due to the fact that variqus dissolved

substance are continuously released into the aquatic medium through death and

decomposition of organism. Lower values might be attributed to the consumption of

TDS by the phytoplankton and aquatic organisms.

The Phytobenthos ranged from minimum 36 No./cm" (June. 07) to maximum 56

No./cm^ (October, 07) in Medical Pond and in Lai Diggi Pond it was recorded in the

range of minimum 57 No./cm^ (February, 08) to 90 maximum No./cm^ in (June.07)

The Chlorophyceae is one of the most dominant group among all Phytobenthos the

number fluctuate between minimum 28 No./cm" to maximum 49 No./cm in Lai Diggi

Pond whereas in Medical Pond it ranges from 10 No./cm^ to 19 No./cm^

The major groups of Zoobenthos in two ponds belong to: Insecta (Ephemeroptera,

Diptera, Plecoptera and Coleoptera), Cladocera, Copepoda, Ostracoda, Oligochaetes

and Rotifera.

In Lai Diggi, the percent contribution of insects highest (45.9%) in the month

of July, 2007 and lowest (36.2%) in October, 2007. Oligochaetes (21.1%), Rotifers

(19.9%), Copepods (n.5%), Ostracods (9.5%) and Cladocera (9.0%) were found to

be higher in the month of July (2007), December (2007), October (2007), March

(2008) and August (2007), and, respectively, and lowest in December. 2007 (1 5 0«,i)

August, 2007 (15.0%), March, 2008 (4.2%), June 2007 (6.8%), January, 2008 (7.3%),

and In Medical Co'lege pond also, insects remained highest but maximum (45.9%)

was observed in July, 2007 with a low population (36.4%)) in March, 2008. Highest

percentage (8.9%)) Df Cladocera were recorded in July, 2007 and lowest (5.4%) in

September, 2007. whereas highest percentage of Copepods were recorded (8.3%) in

the month of January, 2008 and lowest (4.9%) in the month of October, 2007.

57

Oligochaetes were found to be higher (20.3%) in September, 2007 and the lower

(14.4%) during January, 2008. High percentage of ostracods (20.4%) in the month of

March, 2008 and low percentage (6.5%) in the month of December, 2007 and Rotifers

(21.7%)) were recorded in the month of August, 2007 and minimum (15.1%) in the

month of July, 2007, respectively.

58

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Table- 2

Statistical Briefs of Various Water Quality Parameters in Medical and Lai Diggi Ponds

Parameters

Air Temperature

Water Temperature

Transparency

Dissolved Oxygen

vs

vs

vs

vs

Parameters

Water Temperature

Dissolved Oxygen

Total Dissolved Solids

pH

Phytobenthos

Total dissolved Solid

pH

pH

Phytobenthos

Ponds

LD

MP LD

MP

LD

MP

LD

MP

LD

MP

LD

MP

LD

MP

LD

MP

Coefficient of Correlation 'r'

U.925

0.875 -0.426

-0.923

-0.196

-0.355

0.533

-0.378

-0.706

0.090

-0.117

-0.034

0.I6I

0.333

-0.465

0.314

Significance at (p<0.05)

y

-

—

-

^

-

-

-

Continued...

Parameters

Hardness vs

Myxophyceae vs

Phytobenthos vs

Total Dissolved Solid vs

Parameters

Calcium

Magnesium

Phytobentlios

Clioioropliyceae

Water Tempreture

Zoobenthos

Phytobenthos

Ponds

LD

MP

LD

MP

LD

MP

LD

MP

LD

MP

LD

MP

LD

MP

Coefficient of Correlation 'r'

0.340

0.809

-0.103

0.258

-0.729

-0.42!

0.074

0.167

0.527

-0.386

0.643

0.417

-0.295

-0.109

Significance at 5% level

-

/ y

—

—

y

-

-

—

—

-

y

-

Distribution and

~~ "-^—~^__^ Month Genera ^ ~———_ MYXOPHYCEAE Microcystis Anabaena Spirulma Total

CHOLOROPHYCEAE Cruceginia Pediastrum Choiorella Protococcus Tetraspora Spirogyra

Ulothrix

Total

BACILLARIOPHYCEAE

Navicula

Nitzschia

Amphora Diatoma

Total

EUGLENOPHYCEAE Euglena sp.

Phacus sp

Total

DESMIDIACEAE Closterium

Total

Grant Total

abundance

May 07

6 1 1 8

2 1 1 2 2 1

1

10

9

3

1 I

14

1

4

5

1

1

38

June

4 2 I 7

2 1 1 3 2 1

1

11

4

3

2 2

11

1

5

6

1

1

36

Table 3a of Phytobenthos (N

July

4 1 2 7

1 2 2 2 3 1

I

12

7

6

1 1

15

2

3

5

2

2

41

Aug

5 1 4 10

1 1 2 5 2 2

1

14

4

4

1 3

12

1

2

4

1

1

41

Sep

7 2 7 16

3 3 1 3 2 1

2

15

4

3

2 2

11

3

3

6

3

3

51

o./cm

Oct

9 3 9

21

2 2 3 3 1 1

1

13

8

2

2 2

14

2

4

6

2

2

56

i'')in

Nov

3 1 5 9

3 1 1 2 3 4

1

15

6

2

1 3

12

2

5

7

2

2

45

Medical Pond

Dec

4 1

10 15

1 1 2 1 2 1

2

10

4

5

3 1

13

2

3

5

2

2

45

Jan

6 2 5 13

2 2 2 3 1 1

1

12

3

4

2 1

10

4

2

6

5

5

46

Feb

9 2 4 15

4 2 3 5 1 1

1

17

3

1

1 1

6

5

4

9

4

4

51

Mar

8 1 2 11

2 1 3 n J

4 4

2

19

2

2

1 1

6

2

6

2

2

46

Apr 08

8 -) 1

11

- 1

1 2 1

-) -)

")

15

5

-)

2

2

11

- 1

3

6

1

1

44

Table -3b Distribution and abundance of Phytobenthos (No./cm ) in Lai Diggi Pond

Genera Month

MYXOPHYCEA Microcystis Anabaena Spirulina

Total

May 07

13 12 3

28

June

15 10 5

30

July

14 4 5

23

Aug

13 15 3

31

Sep

12 11 5

28

Oct

9 9 3

21

Nov

12 13 2

27

Dec

11 8 2

21

Jan

10 3 1

14

Feb

13 2 2 17

Mar

8 3 1

12

Apr 08

12 5 3

20 CHOLOROPHYCEAE Cruceginia F ediastrum Cholorelia Protococcus Tetraspora Spirogyra

Ulothrix

Total

BACILLARIOPHYCEAE Navicula

Nitzschia

Amphora Diatoma

9 1 2 8 5 2

1

28

9

4

2 2

10 2 3 10 8 3

3

39

11

4

1 2

8 4 4 14 4 6

2

42

8

2

1 1

8 3 3 8 7 4

2

35

12

3

3 3

12 2 3 11 10 4

1

43

7

2

2 2

11 2 4 12 13 5

2

49

9

I

1 2

4 1 9 11 12 3

3

43

6

2

1 4

6 3 5 12 9 5

3

43

4

3

3 2

3 2 3 7 11 7

1

34

4

1

2 3

7 2 4 11 2 o J

2

31

2

1

2 1

10

2 13 -1

5 -» J

39

3

2

2 1

8 -)

1 7 5 5 4

32

5 2 " 1

3

Total

EUGLENOPHYCEAE Euglena sp.

Phacus sp

17

6

5

18

6

4

12

n 6

21

4

3

13

3

3

13

3

4

13

5

2

12

4

1

10

5

1

6

8

5

8

4

3

13

5

7 Total 11 10 17 7 6 7 7 5 6 13 7 12 DESMIDIACEAE Closterium

Total 3 3

'•"" P'"' 77 90 79 88 90 89 86 79 62 57 64 69

Table- 4a Distribution and abundance of Zoobenthos (No. /m^) in Medical Pond

^ " ^ ^ ^ ^ a meter Mon ths^^^^^ Genera ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ROTIFERA Branchionus bidentatiis

B calycifloriis Keratella quadrata K tropica

Filinia

Notholca sn

Total CLADOCERA Daphma sp Bos m ma

Total

COPEPODA Cyclops sp

Diaptomus sp.

Total

OSTRACODA Cypridopsis Nauplius

Eggs

Total

OLIGOCHAETA Tubi/ex

Chaetogaster

Nais

Aelosoma niveum

A.quaternarium

Total

May 07

52 39 38 60

39 28

256

78 29

107

42

52

94

32 24

45

101

52

42

62

72

28

256

June

26 56 39 59

37 29

240

97 28

125

29

49

78

51 25

43

119

49

36

64

62

32

243

July

28 29 52 52

28 22

211

29 54

83

62

45

107

62 19

65

146

54

29

30

53

41

207

Aug

68 62 52 64

36 38

320

32 39

71

45

45

90

64 22

46

132

79

48

39

45

28

239

Sep

39 58 39 42

35 26

239

54 29

83

54

56

110

39 17

45

101

87

70

61

38

53

309

Oct

64

26 45 29

54 29

247

59 39

98

45

34

79

56 32

56

144

95

62

59

62

39

317

Nov

62 64 29 25

62 25

267

58 42

100

52

58

110

42 26

62

130

72

72

68

38

49

299

Dec

67

28 38 44

72 34

283

92 38

130

61

34

95

29 21

65

115

87

81

79

39

54

340

Jan 08

62 48 29 68

45 29

281

67 29

96

69

65

134

44 34

54

132

58

46

46

43

38

233

Feb

69 52 48 58

38 39

304

53 27

80

49

45

94

28 18

59

105

46

39

39

38

29

211

Mar

36 39 39 64

27 36

241

48 42

90

55

29

84

27 14

46

320

45

42

42

52

51

257

Apr

48 62 52 42

29 37

270

83 39

122

62

45

107

36 22

61

119

38

45

45

61

61

269

Cont.

""^"---. ^ Months Genera^---,^^^

EPHEMEROPTERA Baetis

Caenis

Total PLECOPTERA Alopei ala

Total COLEOPTERA Beioius

Hydaticus Hydracanna Hydianchna

Total

DIPTERA Chironomns

Tanypus

Pentaneura

Culicoides

Total

Grant Total

May ,07

29

38 67

40

40

30 34 52 28

144

239

49

28

29 345

1410

June

29

49 78

38

38

32 22 41 26

121

248

39

26

35 348

1390

July

58

55 113

39

39

44 28 42 19

133

249

39

32

37 357

1396

Aug

57

37 94

29

29

38 32 44 17

131

260

37

36

35 368

1474

Sep

28

38 66

21

21

37 46 64 24

m"

292

39

38

46 415

1515

Oct

62

60 122

28

28

52 44 66 26

188

237

45

29

48 359

1582

Nov

40

77 117

19

19

48 50 85 36

219

258

47

34

72 411

1671

Dec

52

66 118

42

42

56 55 74 38

223

247

52

39

66 403

1750

Jan ,08

61

52 113

38

38

49 38 63 29

179

266

51

37

52 406

1612

Feb

39

38 77

36

36

38 33 64 19

' r54

257

48

29

49 383

1444

Mar

22

32 54

21

21

34 29 59 17

~139

247

34

27

47 355

1561"

Apr

38

29 67

23

23

36 25 48 2 ^

132

253

32

22

58 365

1474

Table 4b Distribution and abundance of Zoobenthos (No./m^) in Lai Diggi Pond

Months May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr Genera ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ 07 08^ ROTIFERA Branchionm 48 47 34 53 43 59 63 72 45 56 29 45 bidentatus B calycijlorus 48 62 38 29 35 56 45 51 59 56 45 28 Keratellaquadrata 45 38 46 29 55 54 32 53 56 39 43 49 K tropica 43 42 46 28 45 52 57 65 72 39 52 63 Fihmasp 39 41 40 54 39 43 49 55 49 38 28 27 Notholca sp

Total CLADOCERA Daphnia sp Bosmina sp

Total COPEPODA Cyclops sp

Diaptomus sp

Total

21 244

88 32 120

54

29

83

39 269

86 28 114

52

38

90

24 228

92 29 121

45

65

110

28 221

99 34 133

72

59

131

37 254

98 26 124

59

95

154

42 306

102 48 150

95

98

193

49 295

105 34 139

98

82

180

62 358

112 25 137

82

58

140

68 349

94 35 129

58

38

96

42 270

87 38 125

38

29

67

39 236

76 29 105

32

27

59

29 241

69 38 107

49

39

88

OSTRACODA Cypndopsis 39 52 42 64 38 35 34 54 39 45 38 39 Nauphus 28 22 23 29 39 42 48 53 46 37 48 49

Eggs 44 29 39 55 42 46 52 63 65 45 48 43

Total 111 103 104 148 119 123 134 170 150 127 134 131 OLIGOCHAETA 7""*'/" 52 63 53 62 74 52 56 72 92 81 56 42 Chaetogaster 55 72 75 35 44 86 48 49 76 45 38 36

^^'* 82 75 93 86 78 56 62 54 58 29 73 62 Aelosoma mveum 64 46 48 64 49 38 56 53 52 54 62 58

Aquaternarium 39 32 28 53 45 63 32 42 54 45 56 38

Total 293 288 297 300 290 295 254 270 332 254 285 236

Contd.

Months May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr Genera '^^ - ^ 07 08

EPHEMEROPTERA

Baelis

Laenis

Total

PLECOPTERA

Atoperala

Total

30

53

83

21 21

56

52

108

29 29

43 37

80

27 27

54 39

93

33 33

38

45

83

32 32

52

58

110

24 24

28 42

70

23 23

61

53

114

38 38

44

58

102

54 54

29

32

61

53 53

32

45

77

45 45

54

49

103

34 34

COLEOPTERA Berosiis Hydalicus Hydi acanna Hydranchna

23 36 53 39

24 48 39 28

27 54 62 29

32 59 49 21

29 29 53 32

22 42 59 39

56 39 39 29

57 38 28 28

34 56 65 34

45 29 39 39

34 32 38 45

23 46 3 34

Total 151 139 172 161 143 162 163 151 189 152 149 138 _ _ _ _ _ _

Chironomus 168 101 159 60 70 98 87 122 98 102 104 97

Tanvpt4s 68 98 49 39 94 45 69 109 78 89 98 Of

Pentaneiira 45 96 65 98 45 104 84 98 92 56 59 65

Culicoides 45 72 95 55 80 65 99 84 92 45 48 50

Total 326 367 368 252 289 312 339 413 360 292 309 308

Grant Total 1432 1507 1407 1472 1488 1675 1597 1791 1761 1401 1399 1386

Table 5a Monthly percent composition of different groups of Zoobenthos in

Medical Pond

MONTHS

Rotifera Cladocera Copepoda Oslrucoda

Oligochaeta

Epheiiieroptera Coleoptera

Plecoptera Diptera

May' 07

18.1 7.5 6.6 7.1

18.1

4.7 2.8

10.2 24.4

June

17.2 8.9 5.6 ii.5

17.4

5.6 2.7

8.7 25.0

July

15.1 5.9 7.6 10.4

14.8

8.0 2.7

9.5 25.5

Aug

21.7 4.8 6.1 8.';

16.2

6.3 1.9

8.8 24.9

Sep

15.7 5.4 7.2 6.6

20.3

4.3 1.3

11.2 27.3

Oct

15.6 6.1 4.9 ').[

20.0

7.7 1.7

11.8 22.6

Nov

15.9 5.9 6.5 7.7

17.8

7.0 2.5

13.0 24.5

Dec

16.1 7.4 5.4 6.5

19.4

6.7 2.4

12.7 23.0

Jan' 08 17.4 5.9 8.3 8.1

14.4

4.7 2.3

11.1 25.1

Feb

21.0 5.5 6.5 7.2

14.6

5.3 2.4

10.6 26.5

Mar

15.4 5.7 5.3 20.4

16.4

34 2.5

8.9 22.7

Apr

18.3 8.2 7.2 8.0

18.2

4 5 1.5

8.9 24.7

Table 5b Monthly percent composition of different groups of Zoobenthos in

Lai Diggi Pond

MONTHS

Rotifera Cladocera Copepoda Ostracoda

Oligochaets Ephemeroptera

Coleoptera Plecoptera Diptera

May' 07 17 8.3 5.7 7,5

20

5.7

10.5 1.4 22.7

June

17 7.5 5 6.8

19

7.1

9.2 1.9 24.3

July

16.2 8.8 7 7.3

21.1

5.6

12.2 1.9 26 1

Aug

15 9 8.8 10

20.3

6.3

10.9 2.2 17.1

Sep

17 8.3 10.3 7.9

19.5

5.5

9.6 2.1 19.4

Oct

18.2 8.9 11.5 7.3

17.5

6.5

9.6 1.4 18,6

Nov

18.4 8.7 11.2 8.3

15.9

4.3

10.2 1.4 21.2

Dec

19.9 7.6 7.8 9.4

15

6.3

8.4 2.1 23

Jan' 08 19.8 7.3 5.4 8.5

18.8

5.7

10.7 3 20.4

Feb

19.2 8.9 47 9

18 1

4 3

10 8 3.7 20 8

Mar

16.8 75 42 9.5

20 3

55

106 3.2 22

Apr

173 77 6 3 94

17

74

99 24 22 8

May, 07 June

181 172

Jul

174

104

151

27 3

112

157

203

Oct

118 156

Nov

15S

Dec

161 12 7 1 ^ ^

17 8 19 4

Jan, 08

Feb

5 3^ 146

Mar

2 2 7 .

204

Apr

2 5 ^- ^ ^ H

34 ^ ^ ^ 1

164

• Cladocera Ostracod

• Oligochaets • Plecoptera • Oiptera

^ ^ ^ ^ 1 5 4

• Copepod - Rotifer

Ephemeroptera • Coleoptera

1 5 '

4 5

182

Fig.la Showing monthly Percent composition of different groups of Zoobenthos in Medical Pond

Jul

May, 07

109

June

Sept Oct

Nov

102

Dec Jan, 08

Feb

19 2

Mar Apr

• Cladocera Ostracod

• Oljgochaets • Plecoptera • Diptera

• Copepod Rotifer Ephemeroptera

• Coleoptera

Fig.1b Showing monthly Percent composition of different groups of Zoobenthos in La! diggi Pond

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