Behavioural aspects of transformational leadership in manufacturing organisations

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Behavioural aspects oftransformational leadership

in manufacturingorganisations

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Behavioural Aspects of Transformational Leaders in Manufacturint! Onianisations

By

Syed Athar Masood

A DoctoralIbesis

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the

requirement for the award of Doctor of Philosophy of

Loughborough University

2006

Abstract Over the past few years there has been growing interest in the study of leadership

styles and organisational culture. Internal issues and external environment challenge

the leadership of manufacturing organisations, Scarborough, (2001). Ile focus of the

research was to gain insight into the transformational leadership of manufacturing

organisations. Although leadership scholars have generated a significant stream of

research on transformational leadership, there has been a lack of attention to the

specific features in the context of transformational leadership such as contingency theories, attribution theory, and organisational culture. The study investigates the effects of transformational leadership on situational determinants and organisational culture in manufacturing organisations in Pakistan.

Podsakoff et al, (1990) a 23-item measure of transformational leadership inventory

questionnaire was employed to evaluate transformational leadership in manufacturing organisations. Ile objectives of this research study are: Firstly to study transformational leadership

in Pakistani manufacturing organisations. Secondly to study transformational leaders'

behaviour in manufacturing organisations with respect to situational determinants, i. e.,

situation strength, attribution theory, feedback, and organisational culture. Thirdly to develop hypotheses concerning the relationship between transformational leadership,

and situational determinants and to develop a model of relationship between

transformational leadership, situational determinants and organisational culture. Lastly, to suggest further research guidelines for transformational leadership

phenomena and leadership in Pakistani manufacturing organisations. Results from the research show that transformational leaders tend to create weak

situations for their followers in manufacturing organisations; they favour discretion to

their followers and delegate decision-making to followers. Transformational leaders

also tend to make external attributions for the causes of poor performance in their

organisations, and assume follower's mistake as a learning experience. They try to

establish close contact with their followers and seek feedback directly from followers.

Transformational leaders favour clan type culture more in their manufacturing

organisations; however adhocracy culture is not completely ignored. A new leadership

aligruncnt model incorporating various concepts focussing on leadership style,

organisational. leadership, and situational strength has bccn introduccd.

Results from the data analysis indicate that there is a need to train more Icadcrs in

Pakistani manufacturing organisations to benefit from the transformational leadership

style, as it has been established that transformational leadership is an influential form

of leadership clearly associated with high levels of individual and organisational

performance, (Shamir & Kark, 2002). As pointed out by Bass, (2002) leaders will bc

prized for their innovativcncss, responsiveness, and flexibility, all linked to their

frequency of transformational leadership behaviour.

Key Words: Transformational leadership, manufacturing organisations, situational strength,

organisational culture, attribution theory, fccdback, leadership alignment model, Pakistan.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My greatest thanks and gratitude to Almighty Allah who gave me the strength, ability,

and opportunity to complete my studies.

I arn especially thankful to the Government of Pakistan, Ministry of Education, for

sponsoring me for this important task and helping me in achieving my academic

goals.

This thesis could have never been finished without the generous, kind, and

professional guidance and help of Professor N. D. Burns. I find it very difficult to find

the appropriate words to express my feelings for his support and encouragement given to help me to complete this thesis. He has been very polite, cooperative, and friendly

in his constructive advice and guidance. I am sure that this is not the end but the start

of a long-term relationship and cooperation.

I am also thankful to Dr. Samir Dani for his help and cooperation and the participating

organisations, and the leaders as well as their followers for giving me their precious

time and support through their responses on the questionnaire and interviews.

I am also thankful to my father, mother, brother, sister, wife, and especially to my

children for their continuous support and encouragement to complete my studies.

DEDICATED

TO MY PARENTS

AND

FAMILY

Contents S. No. Title Page No.

Chapter I Introduction I

1.1 What is leadership 2

1.2 Why is leadership important 3

1.3 What are the challenges associated with leadership 4

1.4 Background of leadership research 5

1.5 Meaning of Transformational Leadership 6

1.5.1 Idealized Influence 7

1.5.2 Individualized Consideration 7

1.5.3 Intellectual Stimulation 8

1.5.4 Inspirational Motivation 8

1.6 Need for transformational leadership 8

1.7 Leadership and situational determinants 9

1.8 Leadership in manufacturing organisations; 10

1.9 Applicability of Organisational Theories across nations 10 1.10 Transformational leadership research in manufacturing sector 14

1.11 Aims of the Project 15

1.12 Objectives of the project 16

1.13 Structure of the thesis 18

Chapter 2 Literature Review on Leadership

2.1 Introduction 20

2.2 The meaning of Leadership 21

2.3 Leadership Approach 24

2.3.1 Trait Approach 24

2.3.2 Behaviour Approach 25

2.3.3 PoNver- Influence Approach 26

2.3.4 Situational Approach 28

2.4 Contingency Approach 28

2.4.1 Situational Leadership Theory 30

i

2.4.2 Ficdlcr's Contingency Theory 32 2.4.3 The Vroom-Yctton-Jago Normative Model 34 2.4.4 Path-Goal Theory 36

2.5 Charismatic Leadership 37 2.5.1 House's Charismatic Leadership Theory 38 2.5.2 Bass Extension of House's Theory 42

2.5.3 Conger and Kanungo's Charismatic Theory 43

2.6 Transactional Leadership 44 2.7 Bass theory of transformational and Transactional Leadership 45 2.8 Transformational and Charismatic Leadership 46 2.9 Burn's Theory of Transforming Leadership 46 2.10 Bass Theory of Transformational Leadership 47 2.11 Transforming Behaviours 48 2.12 Motivation for the Research 48 2.13 Integration of the Theories 50 2.14 Effects of Transformational Leadership 51 2.15 Research on the Transformational Leadership Theory 54 2.16 Application of leadership theories in manufacturing organisations 56

2.16.1 Trait theories 59 2.16.2 Behaviouml theories 59 2.16.3 Contingency theories 60 2.16.3.1 The Fiedler model 60 2.16.3.2 Attribution theory and charismatic leadership theory 61 2.16.4 Visionary and transformational leadership theory 62 2.16.5 Transactional verses trarisformational. leadership 63

2.17 Possible benefits that transformational leadership might be expected 74

to bring to manufacturing industry in Pakistan

2.18 Summary 75

Chapter 3 Literature Review on Research Questions

3.1 Introduction 78

3.2 Situational Strength 80

3.3 Attribution Theory 82

ii

3.4 Explanation in terms of Cause 88

3.5 Feedback 90

3.5.1 Creating opportunities to get fccdback 91

3.5.2 Taking a 10 percent stretch 92

3.5.3 Learning from others 92

3.5.4 Keeping ajournal 93

3.5.5 Having a development plan 93

3.6 Organisational Culture 94

3.7 The meaning of Organisational. culture 95

3.7.1 The Hierarchy Culture 96

3.7.2 The Market Culture 97

3.7.3 The Clan Culture 98

3.7.4 The Adhocracy Culture 99

3.8 Points of convergence among approaches 101

3.9 Gaps to be filled 104

3.10 Summary 104

Chapter 4 Methodological Approach

Introduction 106

4.1 Historical Analysis of the Emergence of Mixed Methods 109

4.2 'Me Utility of Mixed Method Research III

4.2.1 Mixed Methods Can Answer Research Questions That III

The Other Methods Cannot

4.2.2 Mixed Methods Research Provide Better (Stronger) 112

Inferences

4.2.3 Mixed Methods Provide The Opportunity or Presenting 113

A Greater Diversity of Divergent Views

4.3 Methodological Assumptions 113

4.4 Strength and Weaknesses of Mixed Methods 114

4.5 Strategies and Visual Models for Mixed Method Research 114

4.5.1 Sequential Explanatory Strategy 115

4.5.2 Sequential Exploratory Strategy 115

iii

4.5.3 Sequential Transformativc Strategy 116 4.5.4 Concurrent Triangulation Strategy 117 4.5.5 Concurrent Nested Strategy 118 4.5.6 Concurrent Transformative Strategy 119

4.6 Design Issues in Mixed Methods Research 120 4.7 A conceptual Model for Mixed Methods Research 121

4.7.1 Monostrand (Monomcthod) 122 4.7.2 Monostrand Mixed Designs 123

4.8 Multistrand Designs 123 4.8.1 Concurrent Mixed Designs 124 4.8.2 Sequential Mixed Designs 126 4.8.2.1 Sequential Mixed Method Design 126 4.8.2.2 Sequential Mixed Model Design 127 4.8.3 Multistrand Conversion Mixed Designs 128 4.8.3.1 Multistrand Conversion Mixed Method Design 128 4.8.3.2 Multistrand Conversion Mixed Model Design 129 4.8.4 Fully Integrated Mixed Model Designs 129

4.9 The Research Objectives 130 4.10 The Selection of Research Methodology 131 4.11 Limitations of the Methodological Approach 134

4.11.1 What is the Research Designed to Achieve 135 4.11.2 Questions of Reliability and Validity 135 4.11.3 Methodological Consideration of Validity 136

4.12 Chapter Summary 137

Chapter 5 Research Strategy

5.1 The purpose of the experimentation phase 138 5.2 The instruments used during the experimentation 138 5.3 The working definitions of the terms used in the 139

research questions 5.4 Summary of what the literature says about the 140

iv

research questions 5.5 Implications of the research questions, how 147

important is it to know the answer, what does it effect

5.6 The organisations used in the testing 148

5.7 Selection of the sample size 148

5.8 The sample size implication 149

5.9 The administration of the test 150

5.10 Types of people contacted or interviewed 151

5.11 Type of data collected 151

5.12 The research methodology to be adopted in 152

the experimentation 5.13 The conduct of the actual test 172

5.14 Limitations and good features of the experiments 174

5.15 Conclusion from the results of the research 175

questions 5.16 Chapter summary 175

Chap ter 6 Data Analysis

6.1 Introduction 176

6.2 Data analysis of phase-I (qualitative data) 181

6.3 Data analysis (phase-1) for research question No. 1 182

6.4 Results of data analysis of phase-I for research question No. 1 189





6.9 Further experimental work for confirmation/verification 203

of qualitative data ( phase-1) 6.10 Data analysis of phase-11 203

6.11 Results of data analysis of phase-II (Quantitative data) 209

V

6.12 Data analysis for research question No. 4 213

6.13 Results of data analysis for research question No. 4 222

6.14 Chapter summary 222

Chaptcr 7 Discussion

7.1 Introduction 226

7.2 Transformational leadership and situation strength 229

7.3 Transformational leadership and attribution theory 242

7.4 Transformational leadership and feedback 250

7.5 Transformational leadership and organisational culture 257

7.6 Effectiveness of the analysis techniques 269

7.7 Limitations of the experiment 270

7.8 Significance of the results 272

7.9 Chapter Summary 274

Chapter 8 Conclusion and Implications

8.1 Conclusion 276

8.2 Implications 279

8.3 Contribution to knowledge 281

8.4 Success of the research 285

8.5 Recommendations for future work 286

References 288-320

Appendix-A Transformational leadership Questionnaire ( TLQ) Al-A3

Appcndix-B Followers responses on TLQ BI-B17

Appcndix-C Summary of followcrs' responses on TLQ Cl-C7

Appcndix-D Classification of leaders on the basis of TLQ DI-D2

Appcndix-E Organisational structure of the sample EI-E5

Appcndix-F Questionnaire for phase-Il data collection Fl-F6

vi

Appcndix-G Summary of rcsponscs for phasc-11 of data collection Appendix-11 Results of data analysis Appcndix. J Contact summary sheets Appcndix-K Urdu translation of TLQ

Appcndix-L Organisational Cultural Assessment Instrument

Appcndix-M Published journal paper in IMcchc Part B

Appcndix-N Leaders responses for situational strength of phasc-11

List of Tables

Table No. Title

2.1 Maturity of followers

2.2 Leadership decision styles 3.1 Situation strcngth-key words 6.1 Nature of manufacturing organisations 6.2 Summary of demographic characteristics

of respondents 6.3 Summary of educational qualification

of respondents 6.4 Summary of details about position of the

respondents in the organisation 6.5 Categories of responses for situational strength 6.6 Leaders responses for situational strength 6.7 Number of responses for each code of each

leader 6.8 Participants response pattern for high

transformational leadership characteristics 6.9 Participants response's pattern for low

transformational leadership characteristics leaders

6.10 Participants response's pattern for normal

GI-G27 111-1419 JI-J8 KI-K3 LI-L4 ml-M9 NI-N2

Page No.

31

35

82

178

180

180

181

183

183

186

187

187

188

vii

transformational leadership characteristics leaders 6.11 Summary of responses 6.12 Categories of responses for attributional aspect 6.13 Leaders responses for attributional aspect 6.14 Number of responses for each code 6.15 Participants responses pattern for high



6.17 Participants response's pattern for Normal


6.18 Summary of responses 6.19 Categories of responses for feedback

6.20 Leaders responses for feedback

6.21 Number of responses for each code 6.22 Participants responses pattern for high



6.24 Participants response's pattern for Normal


6.25 Summary of responses 6.26 Organisation No. I Leaders responses with

low score on TLS

6.27 Organisation No. I Leaders responses with high score on TLS

6.28 Organisation No. I Leaders responses with

normal score on TLS

6.41 Organisation No. I Comparison of responses from leaders with low, high, and normal

transformational leadership characteristics 6.46 Comparison of responses for each question

for organisation No. 1-5

188

191

191

192

193

194

194

195

198

198

199

200

200

201

201

204

204

205

206

207

viii

6.47 Summary of ratings for "A" by Icadcrs from 213 Organisation No. I about organisation culture

6.48 Summary of ratings for "B" by leaders from 214 Organisation No. I about organisation culture

6.49 Summary of ratings for "C" by Icadcrs from 214

Organisation No. I about organisation culture 6.50 Summary of ratings for "D" by leaders from 215

Organisation No. I about organisation culture

List of Figures

Figure No. Title Page No.

1.1 Research strategy to study 18

transformational leadership in manufacturing

organisations 2.1 Situational leadership 32

2.2 Ficdlcr's contingency theory 33

3.1 An attributional leadership model 87

3.2 Conceptual model of the research 103

4.1 Graphic depiction of traditional 122

QUAL or QUAN designs

4.2 Graphic presentation of conceptually 123

Mixed monostrand design

4.3 Graphic presentation of traditional 124

Multimethod Qualitative or Multimethod

Quantitative designs

4.4 Current Mixed Method Designs 125

4.5 Concurrent Mixed Model Design 125

4.6 Sequential Mixed Method Design 126

4.7 Sequential Mixed Model Design 127

4.8 Multistrand Conversion Mixed Method design 128

ix

4.9 Multistrand Conversion Mixed Model Design 129 4.10 Fully Integrated Mixed Model Design 130

5.1 Flow chart of the steps to answer research 156

Question No. 1

5.1.1 Flow chart for analysing qualitative data 157

(interview data) described by Fink, 2003.

5.1.2 Flow chart for analysing quantitative 158

data (questionnaire data)

5.2 Flow chart for the steps to answer research 162

research question No. 2


question No. 3


question No. 4

5.4.1 Flow chart for OCAI procedure to analyse data 171

6.1 Graphical representation of results of phase-I for 190


6.2 Graphical representation of results of phase-I for 197


6.3 Graphical representation of summary of responses 212

(as leader) of data analysis for phase-Il 6.4 Graphical representation of the summary of 212

responses (as follower) of data analysis for phase-11 6.5 Organisation culture profiles of leaders with 216

Low score on transformational leadership scale for

Organisation No. 1

6.6 Organisation culture profiles of leaders'with 216

high score on transformational leadership scale for

Organisation No. 1

6.7 Organisation culture profiles of leaders with 218

Low score on transformational leadership scale for

Organisation No. 2

6.8 Organisation culture profiles of leaders with 218

x

high score on transformational leadership scale for Organisation No. 2

6.9 Organisation culture profilcs of leaders with Low score on transformational leadership scale for

Organisation No. 3

6.10 Organisation culture profiles of Icadcrswith


Organisation No. 3

6.11 Organisation culture prof i1cs of leaders with Low score on transformational leadership scale for

Organisation No. 4 6.12 Organisation culture profiles of leaders with


Organisation No. 4

6.13 Organisation culture profiles of leaders with Low score on transformational leadership scale for

Organisation No. 5

6.14 Organisation culture profiles of leaders with high score on transformational leadership scale for

Organisation No. 5 7.1 Framework depicting the cffects of situational strength

On transformational leadership and organisational culture 7.2 Leadership and cultural systems within organisations 7.3 The research model incorporating the results 7.4 Alignment model of leadership

8.1 Model of transformational leaders behaviour

in manufacturing organisations

219

219

220

220

221

221

262

263

266

267

282

xi

Behayioural Aspccts of TranS format iona I Leadership In Manufacturing Organisationa

Chapter 1 Introduction

Leadership is one of the most researched areas around the globe. It has gained importance in every walk of life from politics to business and from education to social

organisations. Leaders must prepare to address the changes that will come about as a

consequence of the globalisation of the market. Business markets arc becoming

unstable, customer needs and dcsircs are changing, and information flow is becoming

more diverse and complex, Bass & Avolio (1992). These changes require leaders and

organisations that are able to respond to continuous changes in resources, technologies

marketing methods and distribution system. Leadership field has faced conflicts over definitional issues (e. g., Avolio ct al., 2003, Bennis, 1959 and Yukl, 2002), theoretical

adequacy (e. g., Schriesheim et al., 1999 and Wheatley, 1999), measurement problems (e. g., Antonakis et al., 2003 and Schriesheim & Kerr, 1977), model specification (e. g., Jarvis ct al., 2003 and Villa et al., 2003), and "academic amnesia" (e. g., Sayles &

Stewart, 1995). There has been confusion and inconsistency in the conceptualisation

and eventually the practical application of leadership theory over the years, that Bass

(1990) states, "there are almost as many definitions of leadership as there are persons

who have attempted to define the concepC'. According to Day, Zaccaro and Haplin

(2004), study of leadership includes a single individual who is formally recognised as,

supervisor, manager, or a leader of an organisational entity.

Rapidly changing technological era of twenty first century requires new thinking about leadership and leadership talent. We have to move to an era in which leadership is an

organisational. capability and not an individual characteristic that a few individuals at the top of an organisation have. Leadership only at the top is acceptable in the old

economy and in traditional bureaucratic organisation. Indeed, it is the hallmark of many

effective traditional bureaucracies, but it is not the right approach for the rapidly

changing world of work, Bennis et al (2001). Organisations need to focus on broadening their leadership talent by not just targeting leadership developments

activities to a few individuals who have the potential to be senior corporate executives. If leadership is to become a true organisational capability, it needs to be diffused

throughout the organisation, this means training, and development in this important

area of human capital as well as in the area of technical expertise and knowledge. The

I

BehivioUral Aspects of Trans formationat Leadersh ip-*n Many facturin a Organisations

failure to develop leadcrship talent throughout the organisation is a sure prescription for

creating an organisation that is heavy on technical talent but weak on direction and focus, Bcnnis ct al (2001).

Regardless of the respective organisation's size or structure, most leaders strive to

maximisc the performance of their followcrs in order to achieve organisational goals. Indeed, leadership has been defined in terms of mobilizing the workforce towards

attaining organisational goals (Yukl, 1998). It is not surprising that considerable

attention has been focused on attempting to motivate the workforce to this end. The style of the leader is considered to be particularly important in achieving

organisational goals, with research consistently demonstrating the benefits of

transformational leadership style over the more traditional forms, such as transactional

leadership style, in terms of achieving organisational goals (Awanilch 1999; Congcr

1999, Dubinsky and Yarnmarino 1995). The leader's style is also considered important

in being able to evoke performance among followers (Barling 1996, Zacharatos and Berson 2000).

1.1 What is leadership?

It is believed that defining leadership is a simple exercise; we might easily be tempted

to think in this way. We all talk about leadership. We all use leadership terminology.

Many of us would claim that %ve know leadership. According to Bums (1978)

leadership is one of the most observed and least understood phenomena on earth. Yet

we are still unable to produce an articulate definition of leadership. 17herefore it isift as

easy, as is presumed. Many people think, leadership is something that only the formal leader does. However,

leadership can be viewed as, any act by any group member that advances the

effectiveness of the group. However there is a difference between the role of leadership

and the function of leadership. The difference between the role of leadership and the

function of leadership is that, the role of leadership refers to a position of authority in

some organisational hierarchy, while the function of leadership refers to the activities

and processes that move a group or organisation towards the accomplishment of its

goals.

2

Behavioural Aspects of Transformational Leidcrshi2 In Manufacturing Organisations

1.2 Why is leadership important?

Why is leadership important to an organisation? Why not just focus on doing our work,

running the company, and cease to worry about leadership? Simple: This is the age of

the knowledge worker. Attracting talented people and enabling them to work

effectively to fulfil the organisation's goals is the single most important activity of

today's company. Ultimately, the most important task is to make a profit (in a

responsible way), but that will only be achieved by attracting productive workcrs.

Knowledge workers are now more important than innovative ideas (the rate of change in business today is not suffering from lack of innovation), financial assets (venture

capitalists will give us that), and physical assets (e. g., factories and raw materials, inventory).

According to Byrne (2000) "Attracting, cultivating, and retaining talented people will be the indispensable ingredient that will drive the ideas, products, and growth of all

companies like never before. "

Leadership is the art of attracting and motivating these talented workers to put their

talents to work for meeting goals, Ulrich ct al (1999). Organisations that succeed with leadership will have the employees they need doing the sort of work they need. Organisationswithout adequate leadership will suffer greatly because of it. Leadership

is associated with distinct tasks, duties, functions, and responsibilities. These have been

conccptualised in many different ways, including task orientation and socio-cinotional

orientation, Bales (1958), consideration, influence, and intellectual stimulation, Bass &

Avolio (1994); setting direction, building commitment, and facing adoptive challenges (Drath 2001). According to Avolio (2004), the relevant point is not which particular

tasks are most important for leadership. It is instead more important to recognise that

there are discernible leadership functions that contribute to organisational effectiveness. As several leadership theorists have proposed, influence on others is the essence of leadership (e. g., Yuk], 1998). Leadership effectiveness is critically contingent on, and indeed often defined in terms of, leaders' ability to motivate followers towards a

collective goal, mission, or vision (Chemcrs, 2001). 'Me logical implication of this

proposition is that, to understand leadership effectiveness, we need to understand leadership's effects on followers. In other words, to understand leadership, we need to

3

Behavioural Aspects of Transformationil Leadership *n Manufacturing Orannisntions

develop theories of the psychological processes that translate leader behaviour into

follo%vcr action. Leadership research has, however, focused more on the leader (Icadcr

traits and behaviour; Bass, 1990 and YukI 1998) than on thcsc psychological cffccts on followers, and the enterprise of understanding leadership still seems to have much to

gain by research that concentrates on psychological cffccts on follo%, vcrs (Ifunt, 1999

and Lord & Brown, 2004).

1.3 What are the challenges associated with leadership

The challenges faced by today's organisations have become increasingly complex because business and other organisations are changing their structures, reducing layers

of management control, and striving to become more agile and responsive to their

environments. The results of these ongoing transformations are that there is a pervasive

need for people at every level to participate in the leadership process. No single leader

can possibly have all the answers to every problem, especially if those problems are in

the form of adoptive challenges-those problems for which an organisation has no pre-

existing resources, tools, solutions, or scnse-making strategies for accurately naming

and describing the challenge, Heifetz (1994). Consequently all organisational members

need to be leaders and all leaders need to be better prepared to participate in leadership.

Bums (1978) noted the level of mediocrity or degree of irresponsibility of many in

positions of industrial leadership. According to him, we fail to grasp the essence of leadership that is relevant to our modem age. Leaders in today's organisations are

continuing to face competitive forces. In addition, the impact of trying to keep up with

the fast pace of technological change, combined with serious technical work-force

shortages and never knowing when an external force is going to make a bid for a

company that is vulnerable, are just a few of the problems today's industrial leaders

must face on a daily basis, Scarborough (2001).

Dr. Edwards Deming's work in Japan in the 1950s had a profound effect on

manufacturing throughout the world. By adopting his philosophies, Japanese

management and their industries soon became the world's leading manufacturers of

high quality goods. In his book "Out of the Crisis, " Deming placed most of the

problems in manufacturing on management. According to Dr. Deming, eighty five to

4

Behavioural Aspects of Transformational Leadership in Manufacturing Organisations

ninety percent of the problems in industry can be attributed to the decisions, or indecision of management.

1.4 Background of Leadership Research

The widespread fascination with leadership may be because it is such a mysterious

process, as well as one that touches everyone's life. Questions about leadership have

long been a subject of speculation, but scientific research on leadership did not begin

until the twentieth century (Yukl, 1998). The intense interest in the study of leadership

is partly attributable to its supposed contribution to economic wealth and its

significance in leveraging change and maximizing individual and business performance (Kuhnert, 1994; Cleaver, 2002). A publication in (2002) by 'the Institute of Management found that there is a positive association between leadership development

and the growth of financial turnover (Home and Stedman-Jones, 2002). The focus of

much of the research has been on the determinants of leadership effectiveness.

Behavioural scientists have attempted to discover what traits, abilities, behaviours,

sources of power or aspects of the situation determine how well a leader is able to

influence followers and accomplish group objectives (Yukl, 1989). Leadership as

science concerns that body of knowledge, acquired about leadership through research.

The skill with which we apply different leadership techniques and the appropriateness

of those techniques for a particular leadership situation may largely be a function of

experience. By having a better understanding of the science of leadership, we can

provide more perspectives for analysing the leadership situation, which may expand the

range of actions we may take as a leader in response to a situation. Leadership seems to

be both a black box and a mysterious concept. Every time an attempt is made to define

what enables effective leadership, the results indicate contradictions and draw people to

the conclusion that great leaders must be bom and not made (Higgs and Dulewicz,

1999).

According to James MacGregor Bums, time has come to talk about how corporations,

our wealth-producing institutions, can develop the type of leadership possessing

courage and imagination to change our corporate life style. It was once believed that,

most wealth was generated in industries typified by economics of scale and a de-skilled

5


production-line force, and that having an efficient process manager was essential to

achieve results. Now the world is a very different place. The employee's ability to think is now a more important source of wealth generation than the machinery they operate, (Gillen, 2002). This is not the old style transactional leadership but a new style of transformational leadership. Transactional leaders were fine for the earlier era of

expanding markets and nonexistent competition, but now it is believed that,

transformational leadership is about change, innovation, and entrepreneurship. According to Bass (2002) while discussing the evolution of organisational leadership

by the year 2034, he stated that, "Leaders will be prized for their innovativeness,

responsiveness and flexibility, all linked to their frequency of transformational

leadership behaviour". Further more he added, "The trend will continue that transforms

rule-driven bureaucracies into mission-oriented organisations aided by more

transformational and less transactional leadership. "

The transformational leadership paradigm is the most researched area of leadership

over the last decade (Lowe and Gardner, 2000). As a result, the research has created

considerable knowledge about the transformational leadership phenomenon. However,

it has also generated several conceptual issues and so addressing these issues is

necessary for advancing transformational leadership research.

Manufacturing is the most difficult and demanding field. It is also the most critical part

of industry as well as, the most critical contribution to a country's economy, and

demands the highest skills of its leaders. According to Woodgate (1991) manufacturing

problems appear to be much more a matter of leadership than of technology. There

have been cases, where companies have gone from poor to excellent and from red to

black due to either excellence in leadership and vice versa. According to Weir,

Kochhar, LeBeau, and Edgeley (2000), it is widely recognised that manufacturing can be

a formidable competitive weapon if equipped and managed properly

1.5 Meaning of Transformational Leadership

Bass (1985) and Avolio & Bass (1988) define transformational leaders as those that

elevate the desires of followers for achievement and self-development, while also

6

Behavioural AsRects of Transformational LeadershiR in Manufacturing Organisations

promoting the development of groups and organisations. Instead of responding to the

immediate self-interest of followers with either a carrot or a stick, transformational leaders arouse in the individual a heightened awareness of key issues, of the group and

organisation, while increasing the confidence of followers, and gradually moving them

from concerns for existence to concerns for achievement, growth and development.

Such leaders exhibit idealized influence (charisma), individualized consideration, intellectual stimulation, and inspirational motivation. These factors represent four basic

components or "I's" of transformational leadership. The foundation of transformational

leadership rests on these four "I's" Bass and Avolio (1994), identified: idealised

influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation and individualised

consideration, defined as follows:

1.5.1 Idealised Influencc

Idealised influence is strong among leaders who have a vision and sense of mission,

who gain respect, trust, and confidence; and who acquire strong individual

identification from followers. Leaders who exhibit idealized influence are able to obtain

the required extra effort from followers to achieve optimal levels of development and

performance.

1.5.2 Individualised Consideration

Leaders concentrate on diagnosing the needs and capabilities of followers. They

diagnose followers' needs and attend to them individually. They also delegate, coach,

advise, and provide feedback for use in the personal development of followers. They

raise the needs and confidence levels of followers to take them on to greater levels of

responsibility. A followers' responsibility does not simply cover their job requirements

nor it is geared exclusively to maximizing performance. On the contrary, followers are

taking greater responsibility for their personal development, which includes such

factors as one's job challenges.

7


1.5.3 Intellectual Stimulation

Leaders actively encourage the taking of a new look at old methods/problems. They

foster creativity, and stress a rethinking and re-examination of assumptions and

underlying problems. They use intuition as well as more formal logic to solve

problems. Intellectually stimulating leaders inspire followers to tackle problems using

their own unique and innovative perspectives. Followers become more effective

problem solvers with and without the leader's facilitation. They become more innovative with respect to their analysis of problems and the strategies they use to

resolve them.

1.5.4 Inspirational Motivation

Leaders give inspirational talks, increase optimism and enthusiasm, and communicate

their visions of attainable futures with fluency and confidence (Bass, 1985, Avolio &

Bass (1988) & Bums (1978). They provide vision, which stimulates enthusiasm to

accomplish higher levels of performance and development. Managers should be fully

prepared as leaders and should be willing and able to demonstrate in their behaviour

and attitudes all four 'T's of transformational leadership.

1.6 Need for Transformational Leadership

Transformational leadership is required if organisations are to meet the challenges of

the rapid changes of the twenty-first century. According to Avolio and Bass (1988),

transformational leaders attempt to minimize mistakes proactively through anticipation

and ongoing diagnosis but, when they occur, they try to turn them into learning

experiences rather than simply punishing, or criticizing the followers for making

mistakes. Whenever possible, transformational leaders try to turn threats associated

with mistakes and/or failure into opportunities to learn, to develop and to grow to one's

full potential.

A greater impact of transformational leadership on performance has also been shown in

numerous organisations. For example, research by Hater, and Bass (1988) shows that

8


managers at Federal Express who were rated by their followers as exhibiting greater

transformational leadership levels were evaluated by their immediate supervisors as higher performers and more promotable. Similarly, as shown by Kellerl(989), Crookall

(1989), & Howell & Avolio (1988), the level of transformational leadership shown by

top-level managers working in the financial industry in Canada, was significantly and

positively related to the level of unit performance produced by the departments led by

managers rated as transformational leaders. Transformational as compared to

transactional leadership has also been shown to be more strongly correlated with lower

turnover rates, higher productivity, higher satisfaction and commitment, as well as

greater overall organisational success.

Some prominent scholars of leadership (e. g.. Bass. 1998: House & Howell, 1992) have

indicated that although we know a great deal today about the actions, behaviour, and

influence of transformational leaders (Bass, 1985,1999a, b; Bass & Avolio, 1990). In

contrast, we know very little about the psychological substructure, the internal world of

these leaders, namely what "makes them tick, " and how they developed this way,

Popper & Mayseless (2002). Judge and Bono (2000) have also highlighted this by

claiming that: 'Even if one considers transformational leadership to be a behavioural

theory, the origins of the behaviours are unclear. '

1.7 Leadership and Situational Determinants

Much has* been researched and written on the role of leadership or the qualities of a

good leader. Of course, there exist many books and workshops on the topic.

Researchers, who try to describe and predict good leaders, disagree about many critical

elements. However, they agree on many as well. Personal traits are important, acquired

skills are important, and the situation for leadership is important. Some of the key

concepts that reoccur in organisational leadership research are:

" Contingency Theory

" Attribution Theory

" Communication skills or feedback, and

" Organisational culture

9

Behavioural Aspects of Transformational Leadershin in Manufacturing Organisations

1.8 Leadership in Manufacturing Organisations

A leader is very different to a manager. Sylvia Mendez-Morse quoted Bennis and Nanus are noted as saying "Managers are people who do things right and leaders are

people who do the right thing. "

At its core, leadership is all about taking people to places where they would not go

alone. Numerous reports over the past several years have identified some of the reasons

why the manufacturing sector's skilled worker shortage exists. Some of the reasons, that

industrial workers leave industries are:

" Intense pressure of the leaders on followers to achieve high production targets

" Master-servant behaviour of the leaders in an industrial environment

" Unhappy followers with low paid enumeration For a specialized, skilled production or craft worker, the reality exacts a higher price. Marketing, finance and IT workers, for example, can more easily transfer skills and

expertise to other sectors of the economy with little retraining and even the possibility

of higher pay. Conversely a welder, a machinist, or a wood worker faces the prospect of being forced at some point to retrain for a completely new job and start over at a low-

paying entry-level position. Skill certification and retraining programs will help, but

they won't change the fact that an employee's chances for uninterrupted career

advancement are better in a sector where employment is growing or in a career that is

more flexible.

However, manufacturing leaders point to statistics showing that the manufacturing

sector offers the highest pay in the private sector. A report in 2001 found that the reason

employees leave manufacturing is for higher pay, Panchak (2004). Could it be that

higher pay is the only reward today's employees seek? Perhaps they're looking for a

position that gives them a sense of contributing to a greater cause than the profit?

Possibly a sense of self- and peer respect that comes with a position that encourages

self-management and input into how work gets done? Alternatively, perhaps the wages,

though good, are viewed as self-limiting.

10

Behavioural Aspects of Transformational Leadershin in Manufacturing Organisations

1.9 Applicability of Organisational Theories Across Nations

To study how people or a particular group of people in a particular region would behave in managing their organisations, a study of organisational theories could provide

a good starting point. In addition, an understanding of organisational theories can help

to improve organisational effectiveness since they depend to a very large degree upon

the behaviour of people acting both individually and collectively. Being aware of why

those behaviours occur, of the factors that affect them, and how they affect each other

can only be of benefit in the attempt to create an organisational culture that enhances

organisational effectiveness.

It is generally recognised that the formal study of organisational theories is undertaken in the Western countries, in particular the U. S. A., and the U. K. The major contributors

to literature are Westerners. However the increased importance of Asia in the world

economy and the central role played by the Asian managers - as a result of global

expansion and integration-has provided the impetus on research for leadership in the

Asian countries. As these writers generate their organisational theories, they are

inevitably affected by people's behaviour and the manpower environment in the

Western countries. These factors are very much the characteristics of the national

culture of the people-the social, political, economical and many other factors of the

countries concerned. As different countries may exhibit different characteristics in these

aspects, it raises the very valid question as to whether organisational theories applicable

in one country, would apply well in another. In other words, could there be

organisational theories that are globally applicable? Can these organisational theories

be applicable in other regions?

The Government of Pakistan has sponsored this research project for mechanical and

manufacturing engineering sector. The researcher more than eight years background

experience in engineering management in Pakistani manufacturing industry and

problems he faced in managing operations and people have motivated him to focus

research on the application of leadership theories in the manufacturing sector in

Pakistan. While reviewing literature for leadership, it has been found that in the last two

decades there has been accumulating evidence to suggest that transformational

leadership is an influential form of leadership and it is associated with high levels of

11


individual and organisational performance (e. g. Howell & Avolio, 1993, Barling,

Weber & Kelloway, 1996, Geyer & Steyrer, 1995, Howell & Shea, 1998, Bass, 1998,

Antanakis and House, 2002, Jung & Sosik, 2002, Avolio ct al, 2003, Whittington et al, 2004, Zhu et al, 2005). However, as indicated by Popper & Mayseless (2002) and

others; we know a great deal today about the actions, behaviour, and influence of transformational leaders but we know very little about the psychological substructure, the internal world of transformational leaders, namely what "makes them tick", and how they developed this way. Judge & Bono (2000) claim that: 'Even if one considers transformational leadership to be a behavioural theory, the origins of the behaviours, are

unclear. ' In this context, research on transformational leadership in Pakistani

manufacturing organisations was explored and an attempt is made to understand the internal world of the transformational leaders and what are the behavioural

characteristics of these transformational leaders by developing research questions about behavioural aspects of transformational leadership.

Transformational leadership is characterised by the ability to bring about significant

change. Transformational leaders have the ability to lead changes in the organisation's

vision, strategy, and culture as well as promote innovation in products and

technologies, Daft (2002). Transformational leaders analyse and control specific

transactions with followers using rules, directions, and incentives, they focus on

intangible qualities such as vision, shared values, and ideas in order to build

relationships, give larger meanings to separate activities, and provide common ground

to enlist followers in the change process. Four most significant areas of

transformational leadership, Bass (1995) are:

1. Transformational leadership developsJollowers into leaders:

Followers are given greater freedom to control their own behaviour. Transformational

leadership rallies people around a mission and defines the boundaries within which followers can operate in relative freedom to accomplish organisational goals. The

transformational leader arouses in followers an awareness of problems and issues and helps people look at things in new ways so that productive change can happen.

12

3rmational Leadership in Manufacturing Organisations

2. Transformational leadership elevates the concerns of followers ftom lower-

level physical needs (such as for safety and security) to higher-level

psychological needs (such asfor self-esteem and sey'-actualisation): It is important that lower-level needs are met through adequate wages, safe working

conditions, and other considerations. However, the transformational leader also pays

attention to each individual's needs for growth and development. Therefore, the leader

sets examples and assigns tasks not only to meet immediate needs but also to elevate followers' needs and abilities to a higher-level and link them to the organisation's

mission. Transformational leaders change followers so that they are empowered to

change the organisation.

I Transformational leadership inspires followers to go beyond their own set(- interestsfor the good ofthe group:

Transformational leaders motivate followers to do more than originally expected. They

make followers aware of the importance of change goals and outcomes and, in turn,

enable them to transcend their own immediate interests for the sake of the

organisational mission. Followers admire these leaders and have a high degree of trust in them. However, transformational leadership motivates follower not just to follow the

leader personally but also to believe in the need for change and be willing to make

personal sacrifices for the greater purpose.

4. TransforMatiOnal leadership paints a vision of a desired future state and

communicates it in a way that makes the pain ofchange worth effbrt. ý The most significant rale of the transformational leader may be to find a vision for the

organisation that is significantly better than the one prior to change and to enlist others in sharing the drearn- It is the vision that launches follower into action. Change can

occur only wher' the fOllowers have a sense of purpose as well as desirable picture of

where the orgarlisation, is going. Without vision, there can be no transformation.

Bass (1999) argues that transformational leadership refers to the leader moving the

follower beyo"C' inlrnediate self-interests through idealised influence (charisma)

inspiration, intellectual stimulation, or individualised. consideration. Intellectual

stimulation "refcr to how leaders question the status quo, appeal to followers' intellect

13


to make them question their assumption, and invite innovative and creative solutions to

problems" Antanakis and House (2002).

1.10 Transformational Leadership Research in Manufacturing Sector

Research done by Scarborough (2001) on transforming leadership in manufacturing industry, in which she studied seven manufacturing leaders from the most influential

companies in the Rockford area of the U. S. A. She found that these leaders, their

feelings, attitude, actions, and feelings of other about them, present evidence to support

that they are engaged in transforming leadership as defined by Bums (1978). In all of

these companies, these leaders have managed to either (a) take a company going under

and turn it into a successful business venture; or (b) change the culture from a dictatorship to one of participative management, teaming, collaborative leadership. In

other words, the evidence about these leaders speaks well to their ability "to role up

their sleeves" and work with people to raise everyone to higher standards, morally,

ethically, and financially. These leaders believe that high morals and ethical behaviour

are critical to good leadership.

Bums' (2003) investigation into world-renowned leaders, and Jim Collins (2001a), a

well-known author, and management researcher, when he attempted to uncover what

transformed a company from good to great. His research revealed that great companies had what he defined as a Level 5 leader. His argument is based on a five-year study he

and a group of 22 research associates conducted with 1,435 Fortune 500 companies.

Through both qualitative and quantitative analysis they set out to answer two research

questions: Can a good company become a great company, and, if so, how? Collins'

concludes that only II companies met the criteria of a "great company" and at the helm

of these companies was a unique person with specific characteristics.

Collins (2001b) developed a hierarchical diagram that outlines the progression of a

Level 5 leader and the subsequent increase in personal power. Level 5 leaders are humble and unpretentious; they often credit "luck" or others for their accomplishments. They are mild-mannered and shy, and they do not want to receive any public

acknowledgement for their greatness. These leaders push themselves to do whatever it

14


takes to produce great results and they pursue successors that will continue on in their

success. When a level 5 leader recognises adversity or when the company struggles, they blame themselves and maintain their faith that they will prevail with commitment

and perseverance. Despite feelings of inadequacy, these great leaders focus on the

company, and make decisions for the benefit and longevity of the organisation, as

opposed to their personal wealth or benefit.

Bums and Collins both revert to looking at the great leaders of all time in an effort to

isolate what makes these people so extraordinary. Both conclude that these exceptional leaders possess something unique. Burns suggests that transforming leaders "define

public values that embrace the supreme and enduring principles of a people. " Collins

(2001b) states that Level 5 leaders "build enduring greatness through a paradoxical blend of personal humility and professional will. " Despite the differences in the above

statements, Level 5 leaders and transforming leaders both focus on the collective

organisation, or group of people. Moreover, these exceptional and committed leaders

possess unique personal values that empower others to transform the organisation.

1.11 Aims of the Project

It is the intention of this project to study leadership theories as they may be applied in

manufacturing organisations in Pakistani culture and explore the literature especially

vAth reference to organisational leadership in the manufacturing organisation context. The Government of Pakistan has sponsored this research for the study of manufacturing

engineering leadership in Pakistani manufacturing organisation. In doing so, the

concept of transformational leadership will be explored and its effects on situational determinants be researched (and vice-versa) to finther understand the processes involved in transformational leaders behaviours.

The primary focus is on transformational leadership in manufacturing organisations. This project presents a broad survey of theory and research on leadership in

organisations, and further broadens the concept of transformational leadership.

Most of what is written about transformational leadership focuses on the top

hierarchical level of the organisation. However, it is believed that the challenge for

15


transformational leadership is at all levels in an organisation. Rosabeth Kanter, (1983)

focused attention on such leaders in the middle of the organisation. She provided new insights into the role of middle level leaders in transforming organisations. It is the intention of this research to include all the leaders in a manufacturing

organisation irrespective of organisational hierarchy i. e., not only those at the top

hierarchical level. According to Bass (1998) leadership is not just the province of

people at the top. In fact, we see that it is important for such leaders in those levels

below them. The need for leadership is at all levels of the organisation.

The opportunity is made to study transformational leadership in Pakistani

manufacturing organisations, a country of large resources, a huge work force, and

occupying a central position in Central Asian countries. In doing so, some hypotheses

and a model concerning the relationship between situational determinants with

reference to transformational leadership and organisational culture will be put forward

for testing.

1.12 Objectives of the Project

The main aim of this research is to explore transformational leadership in

manufacturing organisations in Pakistan by using the Podsakoff et al (1990)

transformational leadership survey inventory questionnaire to identify transformational

leadership in Pakistani manufacturing organisations. By exploring transformational

leadership in Pakistani manufacturing organisations, statistics about transformational

leadership in manufacturing industry in Pakistan may be highlighted for the

Government of Pakistan as well as for public/private sector organisations. These

statistics may be helpful for further training of manufacturing leaders in

transformational leadership style in Pakistani manufacturing organisations. The

research questions will be developed to understand the psychological substructure, the

internal world of transformational leaders, namely what "makes them tick, " and how

they developed this way and to contribute to the knowledge and understanding of the

psychological substructure, the internal world of transformational leaders. A model of

transformational leadership will develop which will be helpful in creating a culture of

transformational leadership in manufacturing organisations.

16


The objectives of this research are:

The main objective of this research is to explore transformational leadership in manufacturing organisations in Pakistan and to contribute

to the knowledge and understanding of the psychological substructure,

the internal world of transformational leaders, namely what "makes them

tick, " and how thcy dcvclopcd this way.

ii. To study transformational leaders behaviour with respect to situational detenninants, i. e., situational strength, attribution theory, feedback, and

organisational culture.

To develop hypotheses concerning the relationship between

transformational leadership and situational determinants.

iv. To develop a model of the relationship among transformational

leadership, and situational determinants.

V. To suggest further research guidelines for transformational leadership

phenomenon and, leadership in Pakistani manufacturing organisations.

17

Behavioural Aspects of Transfomiational Leadership in Manufacturing Organisations

Proposed research strategy of this research is shown in figure 1.1

Figure 1.1 Research Strategy to study

manufacturing organisations.

1.13 The Structure of the Thesis

Transformational leadership in

Following on from an introduction to the background of this project, Chapter I sets out the aims and objectives of this research and focus as on the transformational leadership

and its determinants in manufacturing organisations.

Chapter 2 provides a brief review of the literature related to leadership theories,

definitions, meanings, concepts, and leadership approaches. An integration of these

approaches with emphasis for a need to transformational leadership, and research done

on transformational leadership.

Chapter 3 focus on literature review for situational deterrninants. The opportunity is

made to introduce research questions with reference to transformational leadership and

18

Behavioural Aspects of Transformational Leadership in Manufacturing Org2nisations

provide an introduction to the conceptual research model as well as identifying gaps to be filled by this research.

Chapter 4 describes the methodological techniques and methodology used in this

research to study transformational leadership in manufacturing organisations.

Chapter 5 discusses the research strategy. This includes the purpose of experimentation,

a description of instruments used, definitions of the terms used, a summary of literature

review about research questions, its implications and importance, sample size, types of data collected, limitations, information about respondents and organisations used in the

research. A detailed step-wise research procedure will be described for finding the

answers of the research questions.

Chapter 6 focuses on the description of data and data analysis.

Chapter 7 aims at discussing the finding from this research with reference to research

questions, significance of the results, effectiveness of analYsis techniques and

limitations of the research.

Chapter 8 concludes the research findings and highlights the points towards the

contribution to knowledge by this research and provides guide lines for future research

work needed for transformational leadership in manufacturing organisations.

19


Chapter 2 Literature Review on Leadership

2.1 Introduction

This research work was commenced with a literature review on leadership. The main

sources for literature review were related books, journal articles, magazines, and the internet (google search engine, Questia. com, world's largest on line library). To

address the research objectives mentioned in chapter 1, the literature was reviewed focussed on leadership i. e., its meaning, approaches and theories, then literature was

reviewed for transformational leadership, its need, and an overview of contemporary

research conducted on transformational leadership.

When we think of leaders in today's world, we often think first of the "big names"

which we hear in the news; e. g., President George W. Bush, and Prime Minister Tony

Blair in politics, Jack Welch; Michael Dell; or Bill Gates in businesses; Mother Teresa

as spiritual leader. Yet there are leaders working in every organisation, large or small.

In fact leadership surrounds us every day, in all facets of our lives.

Leader means a person who keeps a vision in front of people, loving the work and infusing others with energy and enthusiasm. Most importantly, it means building a

community where people have the ability, the freedom, and the will to accomplish

amazing results, Daft (2002).

A difference exists between leadership and management. Management is about coping

with complexity. Management ensures plan accomplishment by controlling and

problem solving-monitoring results verses the plan in detail, both formally and

informally, by means of reports, meetings, and other tools. However, leadership is

about coping with change. It has become so important in recent years that the business

world has become more competitive and more volatile. Faster technological change,

greater international competition, the deregulation of markets, overcapacity in capital-

intensive industries, and the changing demographics of the work force are among the

many factors that have contributed to focus on leadership than management.

Leadership is achieving a vision by motivating and inspiring followers-keeping people

moving in the right direction, Kotter (199 8).

20


2.2 The Meaning of Leadership

Leadership appears to be a rather sophisticated concept. Words meaning head of state,

military commander, princes, proconsul, chief, or king are the only ones found in

many languages to differentiate the ruler from other members of society (Bass, 1981).

The first thing that springs to most people's minds when the word 'leadership' is

mentioned is not business leaders but political leaders. If we ask someone in the street to name three leaders, they are likely to cite illustrious or notorious names such as Churchill, Hitler, Kennedy, Ghandhi, Napolean, Alexander the great or Thatcher etc. Hence the leaders tend to be at the top or head of countries or armies. So too, business

leaders, who we tend to think of as the top persons in organisations. However,

business leaders can be at all levels in an organisation. To be classed as a successful leader in the organisation we need to exercise more than managerial skills, we need leadership skills as well, Shackleton (1995)

The term leadership means different things to different people. It is a word taken from

the common vocabulary and incorporated into the technical vocabulary of a scientific discipline without being precisely redefined. As a consequence, it carries extraneous

connotations that create ambiguity of meaning (Janda, 1960). Further confusion is

caused by the use of other imprecise terms such as power, authority, management,

administration, control, and supervision to describe the same phenomena.

Researchers usually define leadership according to their own individual perspective

and the- aspect of the phenomenon of most interest to them. After a comprehensive

review of the leadership literature, Stogdill (1974) concluded, "there are almost as

many definitions of leadership as there are persons who have attempted to define the

concept. " Leadership has been defined in terms of individual traits, behaviour,

influence over other people, interaction patterns, role relationships, occupation of an

administrative position, and perception by others regarding legitimacy of influence.

Some representative definitions over a half-century are as follows:

1. Leadership is "the behaviour of an individual when he/she is directing the

activities of a group toward a shared goal. " (Hemphill & Coons, 1957)

2. The process by which an agent induces a follower to behave in a desired

manner (Bennis, 1959).

21


3. Leadership is "interpersonal influence, exercised in a situation, and directed,

through the communication process, toward the attainment of a specified goal

or goals. " (Tannenbaum, Weschler, & Massarik, 1961)

4. Directing and coordinating the work of group members (Fiedler, 1967).

S. The presence of a particular influence relationship between two or more

persons (Hollander & Julian, 1969).

6. An interpersonal relation in which others comply because they want to, not because they have to (Merton, 1969).

Leadership is "the initiation and maintenance of structure in expectation and interaction. " (Stogdill, 1974)

8. Leadership is "the influential increment over and above mechanical

compliance with the routine directives of the organisation. " (Katz & Kahn,

1978)

9. The creative and directive force of morale (Munson, 198 1).

10. Leadership is "the process of influencing the activities of an organized group

toward goal achievement. " (Roach & Behling, 1984)

11. Transforming followers, creating visions of the goals that may be attained, and

articulating for the followers the ways to attain those goals (Bass, 1985; Tichy

Devanna, 1986).

12. Leadership refers to that part of organisational management that deals with the

direction and supervision of followers rather than, for example inventory

control, fiscal management, or customer relations (Fiedler & Garcia, 1987).

13. Leaders are those who consistently make effective contributions to social

order, and who are expected and perceived to do so. (Hosking, 1988)

14. Leadership is a process of giving purpose (meaningful direction) to collective

effort, and causing willing effort to be expended to achieve purpose. (Jacobs &

Jaques, 1990)

15. Actions that focus resources to create desirable opportunities (Campbell,

1991). 16. Leadership is not a position or a place in an organisation but a sense of

responsibility. In these turbulent times the responsibility is onerous and the

question of how to lead has become increasingly urgent (Jane, Andrea, Rosie,

2002).

22


Each group of researchers would focus on a different aspect of leadership, and each

would tell a different story regarding the leader, the followers, and the situation. Although such a large number of leadership definitions may seem confusing, it is

important to understand that there is no single "correct" definition. The various definitions can help us appreciate the multitude of factors that affect leadership, as

well as different perspectives from which to view it. For example, in Bennis's

definition, the word follower seems to confine leadership to downward influence in

hierarchical relationships; it seems to exclude informal leadership; Fiedler's definition

emphasizes the directing and controlling aspects of leadership, and thereby may de-

emphasize emotional aspects of leadership. The emphasis Merton placed on followers

"wanting to" comply with a leader' wishes seems to exclude coercion of any kind as a leadership tool. Further, it becomes problematic to identify ways in which a leadees,

actions are "really" leadership, if followers voluntarily comply when a leader with

considerable potential coercive power merely asks others to do something without

explicitly threatening them. Similarly, Campbell used the phrase desirable

opportunities precisely to distinguish between leadership and tyranny.

All considered, I believe the definition provided by Roach and Behling (1984) to be a

fairly comprehensive and helpful one, because in a manufacturing organisation the

successful leadership is one that is capable of achieving its organisational

goals/targets. Therefore, this research also defines leadership as "the process of

influencing an organized group towards accomplishing its goals. " One aspect of this

definition is particularly worth noting, leadership is a social influence process shared

among all members of a group. Leadership is not restricted to the influence exerted by

someone in a particular position or role; followers are part of the leadership process

too.

Most definitions of leadership reflect the assumption that it involves a social influence

process, whereby intentional influence is exerted by one person over other people to

structure the activities and relationships in a group or organisation. The numerous definitions of leadership that have been proposed appear to have little else in common.

The definitions differ in many respects, including who exerts influence, the intended

purpose of the influence, the manner in which influence is exerted, and the outcome of

23


the influence attempt. The differences are not just a case of scholarly nitpicking. There

is deep disagreement about identification of leaders and leadership processes. Differences among researchers in their conception of leadership lead to differences in

the choice of phenomena to investigate and to differences in interpretation of the

results. The American guru on management Peter Drucker (1955) equates

management with leadership, defining one in terms of others. The role of the manager, he argues, is to provide leadership. He states, "A manger is the dynamic, life-giving

element in every business. Without his/her leadership 'the resources of production'

remain resources and never become production. In a competitive economy, above all

the quality and performance of the managers determine the success of a business.

Indeed they determine its survival. For the quality and performance of its managers is

the only effective advantage an enterprise in a competitive economy can have. "

2.3 Leadership Approach

Formal research on the subject of leadership has been continuing among social

scientists since the beginning of the twentieth century, Stogdill (1948), Yukl (1989,

1994,1998,2002), Bass (1981,1990,1994,1998,2002), Kirkpatrick and Locke

(1991), Shackleton (1995), Daft (2002). As a result, four different schools of thought

have emerged. One tries to explain leadership in terms of general traits or

characteristics practised. The second looks at behaviour in terms of managerial or

administrative style. The third theory explains leadership in terms of situational traits

or effective response in specific circumstances with followers. The fourth, focuses on

situational behaviour, but emphasises learning a repertoire of responses to varied

circumstances and people.

23.1 Trait Approach

One of the earliest approaches for studying leadership was the trait approach as

favoured by Yukl (1991,1994,1998), Shackleton (1995), and Daft (2002). The trait

approach emphasises the personal attributes of leaders. Underlying this approach was

the assumption that some people are natural leaders who are endowed with certain

traits not possessed by other people, Kirkpatrick & Locke (1991). In a 1948 literature

review by Stogdill greatly discouraged many leadership researchers from studying

traits, but industrial psychologists interested in improving managerial selection

24


continued to conduct trait research. The focus in this section of research was on managerial effectiveness rather than emergent leadership (Lord, DeVader, & Alliger, 1986). Early leadership theories attributed managerial success to possession of extraordinary abilities such as tireless energy, penetrating intuition, uncanny foresight,

and irresistible persuasive powers. Hundreds of trait studies were conducted during

the 1930s and "1940s to discover these elusive qualities, but this massive research effort failed to find any traits that would guarantee leadership success. One reason for

the failure was a lack of attention to intervening variables in the causal chain that

could explain how traits could affect a delayed outcome such as group performance or leader advancement. However, as evidence from better designed research slowly accumulated over the years, researchers have made progress in discovering how leader

attributes are related to leadership behaviour and effectiveness.

23.2 Behaviour Approach

In the 1950s when researchers became discouraged with the trait approach, they began

to pay closer attention to what managers actually do on the job, Yukl (1994). The

behaviour research falls into two general subcategories. One subcategory is the

research on the nature of managerial work, Daft (2002). This research examined how

managers spend their time, and it sought to describe the content of managerial

activities, using content categories referred to as managerial roles, functions, and

responsibilities. The research on managerial work relies mostly on descriptive

methods such as direct observation, diaries, job description questionnaires, and

anecdotes obtained from interviews. Another subcategory of research on managerial behaviour compares the behaviour of effective and ineffective leaders, Yukl (1994,

1998).

Researchers at the University of Michigan and Ohio State University carried out

research on leadership behaviour. The major objective of Ohio State University

research was to identify effective leadership behaviour, and the focus of Michigan

research was the identification of relationships among leader behaviour, group

processes, and measure of group performance. Initial research was a series of field

studies with a variety of leaders, including section managers, in an insurance company

25


(Katz, Maccoby, & Morse, 1950), supervisors in a large manufacturing company (Katz & Kahn, 1952), and supervisors of railroad section gangs (Katz, Maccoby,

Gurin, Floor, 1951). Information about managerial approach was collected with interviews and questionnaires. Objective measures of group productivity were used to

classify managers as relatively effective or ineffective. The results of these studies

were summarised by Likert (196 1). The research found that three types of leadership

behaviour differentiated between effective and ineffective managers as Task-oriented

behaviour, Relationship-oriented behaviour, and participative leadership behaviour.

The differences between Ohio & Michigan studies leave us with some questions. Are

effective leaders only concerned with people or concerned with both task and people? Is concern for both possible? Shackleton (1995).

23.3 Power-Influence Approach

The power-influence research attempts to understand leadership by examining

influence-processes between leaders and followers. Like most of the research on traits

and behaviour, some of the power-influence research also has a leader-centred

perspective with an implicit assumption that causality is unidirectional (leaders act

and followers react). The power-influence approach seeks to explain leadership

effectiveness in terms of the amount and type of power possessed by a leader and how

power is exercised, Yukl (1994,1998,2002). Power is viewed as important not only for influencing followers, but also for influencing peers, superiors, and people outside

the organisation, such as clients and suppliers. The favourite methodology has been

the use of survey questionnaires to relate leader power to various measures of

leadership effectiveness. Powers exercised by leaders/managers are categorised as

position power, (Brass & Burakhardt, 1993) which can be as a result of a person

position in the organisation; Personnel Power (Brass & Burakhardt, 1993), this may be

due to using logic to influence others. Reward Power (French & Raven, 1959),

described this as the power to influence followers through the ability of leaders to

provide followers with something they deserve. Coercive power (Hinkin &

Schriesheim, 1989), this power relies on threats and punishments to influence the

behaviour of followers. Legitimate power (Kahn & Kram, 1994), this is due to the

right of a leader to command. Referent power (Raja, 1985) this may be when a

26

Behavioural Aspects of Transformational Leadershi2 in Manufacturing Organisations

follower looks to the leader as a model. Expert power (Podsakoff & Schriesheim,

1985) this is when a leader demonstrates knowledge beyond that which is held by

his/her followers. Information power (Raven 1974) this refers to holding information

that follower need to do their work. Power-influcnce research by Hinkin & Schriesheim (1989); Rahim (1989); Yukl &

Falbe (1991) has used questionnaires and descriptive incidents to determine how

leaders influence the attitudes and behaviour of followers. The study of influence

tactics can be viewed as a bridge linking the power-influence approach and the

behaviour approach. Different influence tactics are compared in terms of their relative

effectiveness for getting people to do what the leader wants.

Power-influence research by Podsakoff and Schriesheira (1985); (Hinkin &

Schriesheim (1989); Rahim(1989); Schriesheim, Hinkin, &Podsakoff (1991); Yukl

& Falbe 1991) have found that expert and referent power were positively correlated

with follower satisfaction and performance. The results for legitimate, reward, and

coercive power were inconsistent, and correlations between each of these power

sources and criteria were usually negative or non-significant rather than positive. Overall, the results suggest that effective leaders rely more on expert and referent

power to influence followers. However, Warren (1968) found that expert, referent,

and legitimate power were correlated with attitudinal commitment by followers,

whereas reward and coercive power with behavioural compliance. According to

Tbambain and Gemmill (1974) the primary reason given for compliance was the

leader's legitimate power, and reward power was associated with commitment. Yukl

and Falbe (1991) found that legitimate power was the most common reason given for

compliance with requests from the boss, even though it was not correlated with task

commitment

A different line of power-influencc research views influence as a reciprocal process

between leaders and followers. From this perspective, power resides in followers as

well as in the leader, and leadership effectiveness cannot be understood without

examining how leaders and followers influence each other over time. One major

question addressed by power-influence approach research considers the way power is

acquired and lost by various individuals in a group.

27


23.4 Situational Approach

The situational approach emphasizes the importance of contextual factors such as the

nature of the work performed by the leader's unit, the nature of the external

environment, and characteristics of followers, Yukl (1994,1998), Daft (2002). The

situational research and theory has two major subcategories. One line of research treats managerial behaviour as a dependent variable, and researchers seek to discover

how this behaviour is influenced by aspects of the situation such as the type of

organisation or managerial position. The situational approach investigates, how

managers cope with demands and constraints from followers, peers, superiors, and

outsiders (e. g., customers, government officials). The primary research method is a

comparative study of two or more situations in which managerial activities or behaviours are measured with leader behaviour description questionnaires, job

description questionnaires, or direct observation, House & Dessler (1974).

Researchers seek to discover the extent to which managerial work is the same or

unique across different types of organisations and levels of management, YukI (1989).

Even though this comparative research was not designed to identify what behaviour is

effective in what situation, it is relevant for understanding managerial effectiveness, because effectiveness depends on how well a manager resolves role conflicts, copes

with demands, recognizes opportunities, and overcomes constraints, Porter & Lawler

(1968). The other subcategory of situational research attempts to identify aspects of

the situation that moderate the relationship of leader behaviours (or traits) to

leadership effectiveness, Fiedler (1967). The assumption is that different behaviour

patterns (or trait patterns) will be effective in different situations, and that the same behaviour pattern (or trait pattern) is not optimal in all situations, Vecchio (1987).

'Ibeories describing this relationship are called "contingency theories,, of leadership,

Northhouse (2004). The contingency theories can be contrasted with "urliversal

theories" of leadership effectiveness, which specify an optimal pattern of beliaviour

for all situations.

2.4 Contingency Approach

There are four well-known contingency theories of leadership; all four addrm'- certain

aspects of the leader, the followers, and the situation, Yukl (1994,1998), Daft (2002),

28

Behavioural Aspects of Transformational Leadership in Manufacturinjz Organisations

Bass (1981,1990,2002). These four theories also share several other similarities. First, because they are theories rather than someone's personal opinions, these four

models have been the focus of a considerable amount of empirical research over the

years. Second, these theories implicitly assume that leaders are able to accurately diagnose or assess key aspects of the followers and the leadership situation. Third,

with the exception of the contingency model (Fiedler, 1967), leaders are assumed to be able to act in a flexible manner. In other words, leaders can and should change their behaviours as situational and follower characteristics change. Fourth, a correct match between situational and follower characteristics and leaders' behaviours is assumed to

have a positive effect on group or organisational outcomes, Ashour (1973). Thus,

these theories maintain that leadership effectiveness is maximized when leaders

correctly make their behaviours contingent on certain situational and follower

characteristics. Because of these similarities, Chemers (1985) argued that these four

theories were more similar than they were different. He said they differed primarily in

terms of the types of situational and follower characteristics that various leader

behaviours should be contingent for some different perspectives on theories of

leadership.

Contingency approaches have in common an attempt to address the question: when is

one type of leadership behaviour more appropriate than another? The answer is, it all depends. Style or behaviour is dependent (contingent) upon the context. What

variables are considered as the context varies from one contingency model to another. Although many of the behavioural approaches to leadership observed that there was

no one best style for all situations, it is the contingency models, which attempt to

establish how the situation changes the behaviour. So contingency theories are

complex. They have to set out which leader behaviours, should change, which aspects

of the context are most crucial, and how the specific leader behaviour and the situation interact. Some of the more influential contingency theories, namely the Situational

Leadership Theory of Hersey and Blanchard; Fiedler's Contingency Theory; the

Vroom-Yetton-Jago Normative Model, and House's Path-Goal Theory are described

as follows:

29


2.4.1 Situational Leadership Theory

Situational Leadership Theory takes as its starting point the fact that there are two

dimensions of leader behaviour; relationship behaviours and task behaviours. These

are independent of each other, Shackleton (1995), YukI (1994,1998), Bass (1981,

1990). Relationship behaviour is the amount of support, recognition, and personal

encouragement the leader extends to followers. Task behaviour is the amount of direction and structure the leader provides. These four styles are structuring, coaching,

encouraging, and delegating. The assumption is that there is no one best style. On the

contrary, one type of behaviour is more appropriate in one situation than another. By

using relationship and task behaviour in differing amounts at different times a leader

can help followers become more productive and fulfilled in their jobs.

By'situation' in Situational Leadership Theory, Hersey and Bianchard (1988) mean:

" The willingness of people to do their work assignments;

" 'Me ability of people to do their work assignments;

" The nature of the work they do;

" The climate of the organisation.

Although some reference is made in the theory to the last two categories in this list, it

is the characteristics of followers, not the work itself or the external and internal

environment of the organisation, which the theory mostly concentrates on. A key

variable here is follower maturity (called 'readiness' in some versions of the theory).

Follower maturity refers to the followers understanding of the job and commitment to

it (see Table 2.1). When a follower has low levels of maturity, high task, and low

relationship behaviour is seen a§ being the best combination. This is the structuring

style. As follower maturity grows, the need for relationship-type behaviour on the part

of the leader increases and task behaviour declines. At the highest level of maturity-

high levels of relationship or task behaviour are unnecessary for employee

performance.

This is the delegating style. Maturity applies to a task not to a person. Someone may

have high maturity for one task and low maturity for another. It is for this reason that

Figure 2.1 shows a bell-shaped curve. The model argues that for a particular task an

30


employee may start in the Sl box and move through S2 and S3 to S4 over time. For

many tasks, a follower may never reach S4, perhaps due to the lack of opportunity to learn the task and feel sufficiently confident to tackle it when it is delegated.

1. Job maturity dimensions 1.1 Previous experience 1.2 Current knowledge

1.3 Meeting deadlines

1.4 Ability to take responsibility 1.5 Problem solving ability 1.6 Awareness of political

Implications

2. Psychological maturity dimensions 2.1 Persistence

2.2 Independence

2.3 Achievement orientation 2.4 Attitude to work 2.5 Willingness to take responsibility

Table 2.1 Maturity of followers Source: Hersey and Blanchard (1988).

31


V

V

0

C,,

Encouraging Coaching

S3 S2 S4 sl

Delcgating Structuring

0

I -c U

0

Low Task Behaviour High (Directive Behaviour)

High Modemte Low M4 M3 I M2 ml

MATURITY OF FOLLOWER(S)

Figure 2.1 Situational LeadershiP : Source: Hersey and Blanchard

2.4.2 Fiedler's Contingency Theory

Fiedler developed one of the first true contingency theories of the leadership process

(Fiedler, 1967). The theory states that leader performance is contingent upon both the

leader's personal characteristics and the degree to which the leader controls the

situation, Bass (1981,1990), Shhackleton (1995), YukI (1994, (1998). The personal

characteristics comprise a motivational system, according to Fiedler, how positively

the leader views his or her least preferred co-worker (LPC). The LPC is a key variable

in the theory. Leaders are asked to nominate the person they have least liked, of all

those they have worked with. This becomes the least preferred co-worker. This person

is then rated on a set of eighteen 8-point scales, one scale ranging from 1---unfriendly

to 8= friendly, and another scale ranging from 1=inconsiderate to 8=considerate. A

low LPC score means that leaders describe their least preferred co-worker in negative

terms, while a high LPC score indicates a more positive description. High LPC leaders

32


are classified as relationship, or people, oriented (they tend to feel fairly positive even

about people they don't like very much); low LPC individuals are classified as task

oriented. In addition, to the LPC, there are three contingency variables; namely group

atmosphere, task structure, and leader's position power. They determine the degree to

which the situation is favourable to the leader by providing control over followers.

Fiedler divides the three variables into high and low, and combines them as shown in

Figure 2.2. This basic contingency model shows the results from Fiedler's early

research. The research indicates that where the situation was either favourable to the

leader (situations 1,2 and 3) or highly unfavourable (situation 8) group performance

was best if the leader had a low LPC score (i. e. was task oriented). In contrast,

situations that were moderate or low in favourability to the leader, high LPC scores

(i. e. person oriented leaders) had the best group performance. Favourable or

unfavourable situations refer to the extent to which the leader has control over the

situation.

Most favourable situation Lcast favourable situation for leader for leader

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Group Atmosphere Good Good Good Good Poor Poor Poor Poor

Task Structure High High Low Low High High Low Low

Leader Position Power Strong Weak Strong Weak Strong Weak Strong Weak

Desirable leader Low Low Low High High High High Low

LPC LPC LPC LPC LPC LPC LPC LPC

Figure 2.2 Fiedler's Contingency Theory.

A basic premise of the theory is that leadership behaviour is a personality trait and so

an individual's LPC score is relatively stable. It is more sensible to match a leader's,

style with the situation, rather than expect the individual to change to adapt to

different situations. When a leader's style and the situation do not match, the only

available course of action is to change the situation or change the leader. Fiedler

suggests that a leader should deliberately try to change the situation favourableness by

enhancing relations with followers, changing the degree of structure in a task or

33


gaining more formal power. The aim is to improve group performance by making the

situation more closely fit one's personal leadership style.

2.4.3 The Vroom-Yetton-Jago Normative Model

Vroom and Yetton (1973) developed a contingency theory of leadership decision-

making. This addressed the question of how much leaders should involve followers in

decision-making. It is a normative theory because it sets out rules that it proposes leaders should follow in order to make the best decisions in the circumstances. The

original theory was updated and extended by Vroom and Jago(1988).

Vroom and Yetton proposed that leaders usually adopt one of five distinct methods for

reaching decisions. These are set out in Table 2-2. The five methods reflect a

continuum ranging from highly autocratic to highly participative approaches. The Al

category refers to Autocratic 1, where the leader chooses to make the decision alone. The Roman numeral I or II refers to the degree of autocracy. All is similar, but the

leader requests information from others before deciding alone, Cl refers to

Consultation 1, and involves sharing the problem with others on a one-to-one basis.

Again, CII is similar but the leader consults others in a group setting, G is short for

Group and GII refers to group decision-making with consensus as the goal.

34

Behavioural Aspects of Transformational LeadershiR in Manufacturing Organisations

Table 2.2 Leadership decision styles

Here are five styles, which you, acting as a leader, might use in reaching a decision. They differ only in the amount of participation, which you allow your followers and thus the degree to which they can influence the final decision. 'Followers' refers to those who report directly to you. Note that with each style, you take full responsibility. In no case do you give up either the authority or responsibility for the final decision.

Style Description Al You decide alone. You make the decision without discussing the situation

with anyone. You rely entirely on personal knowledge or information available in written documents.

All You seek information and then decide alone. You seek additional information from one or more of your followers to aff ive at a decision. You may or may not describe the problem to them, but you solicit information only, not solutions, or suggestions.

C1 You consult with individuals and then decide alone, Here you share the problem with selected followers, individually. You gather additional information from them and seek their advice about possible solutions to the problem. Still, you make the decision.

C11 You consult with your entire vow and then decide alone, Using this style, you meet with your followers in a group and discuss the possible alternatives, essentially using them as consultants. You may use their feelings and opinions as additional input, but you retain the final decision power.

GII You share the problem with your grou2. and vou all mutually decide what to do. Here you give your followers full participation in the decision-making process. You may define the problem for them, provide relevant information, and participate in the discussion as any other member, but you do not use your position as leader to influence them. The group is the decision-maker, and you accept not only its decision, but also the responsibility for it. Your description to others will be 'We decided to..., not 'The group decided to or'I decided to ... 'or I

Source: Adapted from Vroom and Yetton (1973).

Vroom and Yetton gave seven key questions that leaders should consider when

making a decision:

QR (Quality Requirement)

is there a quality consideration, which indicates one solution, produces a better

outcome?

2 CR (Commitment Requirement)

Is the commitment of followers critical to effective implementation?

35


3 LI (Leader Information) Does the leader have the information needed to make a good decision?

4 PS (Problem Structure)

Is the problem well structured, e. g. does the leader know which followers to contact?

5 CP (Commitment Probability)

If the leader decides alone, is it reasonably certain that the decision would be accepted by followers?

6 GC (Goal Congruence)

Do followers share the organisational goals to be obtained in solving this problem?

7 CO (Follower Conflict)

Is conflict among followers over preferred solutions likely?

The theory addresses the issue of how a leader should choose one decision style rather

than another. It does not suggest one best style. Rather, it points to questions leaders

should ask themselves before involving others. Answering those questions is a balancing act between a number of variables, especially time decision quality and follower satisfaction and development.

2.4.4 Path-Goal Theory:

Another contingency approach is path-goal theory, developed by House (1971) and

others. It takes expectancy theory as its starting point, which House then adapted to

leadership theory, house & Mitchell (1974).

Expectancy theory concerns itself with the process of motivation. It states that people

choose what to do in a given circumstance based on a calculation of the expectancy, instrumentality, and valence in the situation.

- Expectancy is the belief that your effort will result in performance.

- Instrumentality is the belief that your performance will be, rewarded.

- Valence is how much you value the reward or outcome.

36


The fundamental tenet of path-goal theory is that followers will react favourably to a leader to the extent that they perceive and calculate that she or he will help them to

attain goals. If a leader clarifies the nature of the tasks and smoothes the path to the

goal by reducing or eliminating obstacles, then the followers will work hard. This is

because they perceive (have an expectancy) that working hard leads to (is instrumental

in) high performance and high performance leads to valued rewards (the rewards have

high valence) such as pay or status, Shackleton (1995).

The theory states that there are four types of leader behaviour, which can affect

motivation of followers, Indvik (1986):

1. Instrumental leadership (sometimes called 'directive'): This involves giving

specific guidance to followers, clarifying their role asking them to follow standard

rules, explaining how work should be accomplished, and so on. It is similar to the

high-structure, low-consideration style in the Ohio studies or the high-task, low-

people approach in the Situational Leadership model of Hersey and Blanchard.

2. Supportive leadership: This involves being friendly and approachable to

followers, sensitive to their needs, and concerned for their well-being and status. It is

similar to the low-structure, high-consideration of the Ohio studies or the low-task,

high-people approach of the situational leadership model.

3. Participative leadership: This involves sharing information with followers,

consulting with them and involving them before making decisions. It is like the

high/high of the Ohio studies, or the situational leadership model.

4. Achievement-oriented leadership: This involves setting challenging goals and

emphasizing excellence while simultaneously showing confidence in followers' ability

to achieve those high goals.

House (1977) points out that all of these four styles can be used by a single leader,

depending on the circumstances. Showing such flexibility is, in fact, one feature of an

effective leader. Some of the main theories on leadership styles are described as

follows:

2.5 Charismatic Leadcrship:

Charisma is a Greek word that means divinely inspired gift, such as the ability to

perform miracles or predict future events. Although psychologists played a major role

37

Behavioural Aspects of Transfomational Leadership in Manufacturing Organisations

in the development of all of the leadership theories, most of the charismatic leadership

research from the 1920s to the 1970s was accomplished by historians, political

scientists, and sociologists, Yukl (1994,1998,2002). Of this early research, probably the single most important work was written by Weber (1947). Weber was a sociologist

primarily interested in the forces of authority in society and how these forces changed

over time. Weber maintained that societies could be identified in terms of one of three

types of authority systems: traditional, legal-rational, and charismatic. Charisma is

believed to result from follower perceptions of leader qualities and behaviour. These

perceptions are influenced by the context of the leadership situation and the follower's

individual and collective needs. Theories of charismatic leadership within

organisations; are described here.

2.5.1 House's Charismatic Leadership Theory

House (1977) proposed a theory to explain charismatic leadership in terms of a set of

testable propositions involving observable processes rather than folklore and

mystique. The theory is based on findings from a variety of social science disciplines.

Ile theory identifies how charismatic leaders behave, how they differ from other

people, and the conditions where they are most likely to flourish. The inclusion of

leader traits, behaviour, influence, and situational conditions, makes this theory more

comprehensive in scope than most leadership theories. The extent to which a leader is

charismatic is determined by the following indicators, Yukl (1994):

1. Followers'trust in the correctness of the leader's beliefs.

2. Similarity of followers' beliefs to those of the leader.

3. Unquestioning acceptance of the leader by followers.

4. Followers' affection for the leader.

5. Willing obedience to the leader by followers.

6. Emotional involvement of followers in the mission of the organisation.

7. Heightened performance goals of followers.

8. Belief by followers that they are able to contribute to the success of the group's

mission.

38

Behavioural Aspects of Transformational LeadershiI2 in Manufacturing Organisations

According to the theory, charismatic leaders are likely to have a strong need for

power, high self-confidence, and a strong conviction in their own beliefs and ideals. A

strong need for power motivates the leader to attempt to influence followers. Self-

confidence and strong convictions increase followers'trust in the leader's judgment. A

leader without confidence and convictions is less likely to try to influence people, and

when an influence attempt is made, it is less likely to be successful.

Charismatic leaders are likely to articulate ideological goals relating the mission of the

group to deeply rooted values, ideals, and aspirations shared among followers. By

providing an appealing vision of what the future could be like, charismatic leaders

give the work of the group more meaning and inspire enthusiasm and excitement

among followers. The net effect is greater emotional involvement by followers in the

mission of the group and greater commitment to its objectives, YukI (1994,1998).

Since charismatic leaders rely on appeals to the aspirations and ideals of followers, a

necessary condition is the possibility of defining task roles in ideological terms that

will appeal to followers. Charismatic leaders are likely to set an example in their own

behaviour for followers to imitate. This role-modelling involves more than just

imitation of leader behaviour. If followers admire and identify with a leader, they are likely to emulate the leader's beliefs and values. Charismatic leaders are likely to

communicate high expectations about follower performance while simultaneously

expressing confidence in followers, Bass (1981,1990).

Charismatic leaders are likely to behave in ways that arouse motives relevant to the

group's mission. Arousal of achievement motivation is relevant for complex,

challenging tasks requiring initiative, calculated risk taking, personal responsibility,

and persistent effort. Arousal of power motivation is relevant for tasks requiring

followers to be competitive, persuasive, and aggressive. Arousal of affiliation

motivation is relevant for tasks requiring cooperation, teamwork, and mutual support

among followers. Motives are aroused by giving inspirational talks with emotional

appeals to followers' values, with emphasis on such things as "loyalty, " "being the

best, " and "defeating the enemy", Yukl (1994).

39

Behavioural Aspects of Trans formaCional Leadership in Manufacturing Organisations

Empirical studies have been conducted to directly test the theory. Smith (1982) had

people nominate charismatic and non-charismatic leaders, then asked followers of the leaders to describe them on questionnaires measuring the indicators of follower

reaction. The results showed that followers of charismatic leaders had more self-

assurance and considered the work as being more meaningful. However, contradictory to the theory, they did not display unquestioning obedience to the leader.

Howell and Frost (1988) conducted a laboratory study in which actors were coached

to exhibit different patterns of leadership behaviour toward followers who were

college students. The charismatic leader explained the importance of the work, indicated high performance expectations, expressed confidence that followers would

achieve these high expectations, empathized with the needs of followers, and acted

confident and dynamic (e. g., used a captivating tone of voice, maintained eye contact, leaned toward the subject, alternatively paced or sat on the edge of the desk).

Followers of a charismatic leader had higher performance, greater satisfaction, and

less role conflict than followers of directive or considerate leaders. However, the study

did not test whether a charismatic leader is necessarily any better than a non-

charismatic leader who shows concern both for the task and for his people.

A study by Podsakoff et al (1990) asked followers to describe their leader as

charismatic or transformational using a questionnaire. Leaderss who articulated a

vision, modelled desirable behaviours and had high performance expectations of followers (all three behaviours characteristic of charismatic leaders) had followers

who trusted their leader more, were more loyal and were more motivated to do extra

work or to take more responsibility. Work by Howell and Higgins (1990) involved content-analysing interviews with

executives in 28 Canadian organisations. Some executives were seen as 'product

champion', meaning that they had led the introduction of innovations in the

organisation, such as new products or methods. These product champions showed

greater evidence of three of House's charismatic behaviours than did executives who

were not product champions. These behaviours were communicating ideological

goals, and showing both self-confidence and confidence in followers.

40

An intriguing study was conducted by House and his colleagues on charismatic leadership in former presidents of the USA (House ct at 1991). They set out to test the

hypotheses from House's theory that charismatic American presidents would have

high need for power, that charismatic behaviour would be related to president

performance and that charismatic bchaviour would be more common among recent

presidents compared with presidents from the more distant past. Ile assumption of

greater frequency of charismatic presidents in recent years was bascd on the

hypotheses that charisma is associated with crises and that there arc more frequent

political crises nowadays, plus the fact that the role of the prcsidcnt has changed to

accentuate the visionary or ideological aspects of the role rather than the

administrative one. Thc decision as to who was a charismatic prcsidcntý and who not,

%N-as made by a panel of historians. They categoriscd 31 former presidents %vho had

lasted at least two years of their first term of officc. House ct at then content analysed

the prcsidcnts' inaugural speeches for power themes and images. To assess the

presidents' charismatic behaviour, they consulted biographies of cabinet members to

discover if presidents showed high levels of self-confidence, confidence on followers,

high expectations of followers and strong ideological commitment. Leadership

effectiveness was measured by ratings of prestige and greatness and by analysis of

their cconomic and social actions. Ile study provided good support for House's

theory. Need for power strongly predicted the level of charisma of presidents.

Charismatic bchaviours %,,, cre positively related to ratings of performance, as %vcrc the

frequency of crises. Charismatic Icadership was more often associated with recent

presidents rather than those in the more distant pasL

The potential impact of the vision articulated by charismatic leaders has been

illustrated in a study conducted by O'Connor, Mumford, Clifton, Gcssner, and

Connelly (1995). They obtained a sample of 80 notable historic leaders, half of'%vhom

were socialiscd and half pcrsonalised. Socialised charismatic leaders evidence

prosocial. visions whereas pcrsonaliscd charismatic leaders evidence visions bound up in their own individual concerns. Other studies by Hunt, Boal, and Dodge (1999)

Kirkpatrick and Locke (1996), and Yorges, Weiss and Strickland (1999) also indicate

that charismatic leaders, and the accompanying visions, may exert a marked impact on leader performance and prove capable of accounting for outstanding leadership.

41

Behavioural Aspccts of Transformational Lcadcrshi2 in Manufacturing Organisations

2.5.2 Bass Extension Of IIOUSC'3 Theory

Bass (1985) proposed an cxtcnsion of Housc's theory to include some additional

antcccdcnt conditions, leader attributes, and consequences of charismatic leadership.

According to Bass, charismatic leaders arc more than just conridcnt in their beliefs;

they see themselves having a supcr-natural purpose and destiny. Followers, for their

part, not only trust and rcspcct the leader; they may idolize and worship the leader as a

super-human hcro or spiritual figurc. Being viewed as larger than life, a charismatic lcadcr becomes the catalyst for psychodynarnic mechanisms of follo%vcrs, such as

projcction, rcprcssion, and rcgrcssion. Individual psycho-dynamics are magnificd by

group processes. A charismatic Icadcr is cspccially likcly to cmcrge when followcrs

share norms, bclicfs, and fantasies that can serve as the basis for cmotional and

rational appeals by the Icadcr.

Bass (1996) suggests that charismatic leaders differ greatly in their pragmatism, flexibility, opportunism, and manner of appeal. Charismatic leaders arc more likely to

emerge when an organisation is in a state of strcss and transition. Charisma is fostered

when formal authority has failed to deal Nvith a severe crisis and traditional values and beliefs arc questioned. Thus, charismatic leadership is more likely to be found in a

new organisation struggling to survive, or an old one that is failing, than in an old

organisation that is highly successful.

For example, Southwest Airlines is known for its remarkable productivity, 'which

constantly breaks industry standards (and for its charismatic leader, Herb Kelleher).

Many of the company's approaches are considered unconventional relative to the

airline industry. For example, while turnaround time at airport gates typically ranges from 30 to 50 minutes, Southwest is able to turn its planes around in under 15

minutes. This competence was borne out of necessity (Pctzingcr, 1995). In mid-1972,

when Southwest was in serious financial straits, the company was forced to sell one of its four 737 jets, which meant a 25% reduction in capacity. Employees realiscd that

layoffs would soon have to follow. Rather than face a layoff, the workforce proposed to company president Kelleher and senior management that Southwest maintain its

existing schedule built around four planes even though it would have only three

aircmft. To succeed, they would turn planes around 10 minutcs-an unheard-of feat for

42

the airline industry. Greater tcamwork and job redesigns %vcrc the solutions. Soon

supervisors and pilots wcrc assisting with baggage. Planes were restocked through the

rcar of the craft while passcngcrs were disembarking at the front. Flight services crews

worked their way up to the front of cach plane collecting trash and crossing scat belts

as passcngcrs dcplancd ahead of them. Tickets were collcctcd on the plane instead of

at the gate. No scat assignments meant that passcngcrs could move quickly into the

plane at a rapid but orderly pace. With these initiatives that broke industry rules, Southwest achieved its target of the 10-minute turnout, much to the shock of its

competitors. Out of sheer necessity, Soutll%vcst successfully clialicngcd tile status quo

of an industry, Pctzingcr (1995).

As CEO, Kelleher inspired thousands of employees to be passionate about Southwest

Airlines. When Kelleher sent a letter to the home of every Southwest employee asking

them to help cut costs, they responded immediately. Kelleher %vrote to each employee

aflcr the cost of jet fuel rose dramatically, pointing out that South%vcst's profitability

was injeopardy and asking that each worker help out by saving $5 per day. Within six

weeks, employees had implemented ideas that saved the company more than $2

million. Southwest hasn't lost profit margins since 1973, and its profit is the best in

the industry. While other airlines have suffered bankruptcies, crippling strikes even

failure, Southwest has thrived. Kelleher gives the credit to South%vcst's employees.

"There's no magic formula, " he says. " Its just a bunch of people taking pride in what

they're doing. " Part of the success, no doubt, is due to Kelleher's charismatic

leadership, Hal Lancaster (1999), Daft (2002).

2.53 Conger and Kanungo's Charismatic Theory

Conger and Kanungo (1987) proposed a theory of charismatic leadership based on the

assumption that charisma is an attributional phenomenon. Followers attribute certain

charismatic qualities to a leader based on their observations of the Icadces behaviour.

Conger and Kanungo identify aspects of leader behaviour responsible for these

attribuflons, drawing on the findings in research comparing charismatic and non-

charismatic leaders, Conger and Kanungo, (1992). The bchaviours arc not assumed to be present in every charismatic leader to the same extent, and the relative importance

43

of cach aspcct of bchaviour for attribution of charisma dcpcnds to somc cxtcnt on the Icadcrship situation. Ilic major fcaturcs of the thcory arc; cxtrcmity of the vision, high

personal risk, use of unconventional strategies, accurate assessment of the situation, follower disenchantment, communication of sclf confldcncc, and use of pcrsonal

powcr.

A major concern of the theory is the types of behaviour on the part of leader that make it likely that they will be seen as charismatic. Congcr and Kanungo do not view

charisma as some mystical or extraordinary quality possessed by just a few

exceptional people, as Weber did. They imply that there is a set of ordinary behaviours, which can be learned or adopted by a wide range of people. Charisma is

more likely to be attributed to leaders who describe a vision, House and Shamir,

(1993) paints a picture, which is very different from the existing state of affairs. The

vision must not be so different that fbllo%vcrs view it as bizarre, and nor should it be so

similar to the status quo that it is not seen as a radical departure, Congcr and Kanungo,

(1998). Non-charismatic leaders opt for small incremental changes, or what Kirton

(1984) describes as adoption (doing things better) rather than innovation (doing

things differently). This vision dcrines the purpose of the change in a way that gives

meaning to the tasks demanded of followcrs, a prcncss Conger (1991) describes as 'framing'. They use personal power, perhaps based on their knowledge, expertise, to

persuade and influence followers, rather than position power. Persuasive appeals

through the use of emotive phrases, which capture the imagination of follo%vcrs', arc

useful to convey the vision and motivate others towards its accomplishment, Shackleton (1995).

2.6 Transactional Leadership

Hollander (1978) has generalized the process of influence and counterinflucncc

among members in leaderless groups to describe the power and influence leaders have

in formal organisations. He called this generalization of social exchange theory the

transactional approach to leadership. The transactional approach to IcadcrshiP has

several fundamental tenets. First, the leader-folioNvcr relationship can be construed

partly as an exchange of benefits. Ilus, leaders give something to followcrs (often not tangible or monetary) and also get something from them in return. One of the most

44

important benefits that can be cxchangcd is social approval. 11c Icadces bcncrits often include status and dic opportunity to exert influcncc and exercise authority. Some of the important but subtle bcncrits leaders provide to followers include structuring and directing their activities. This includes the Icadces "dcrinition of reality, " that is, his

analysis of the environmental pressures and opportunities the group faces.

Bccause of the contingencies of these mutual bcncrits, a sort of "psychological

contact" exists bct%vccn leaders and follo%N-crs. In some cases, it litcrally may be a

written contract (e. g., certain labour-managcmcnt issues), but more often it is not.

Whcthcr formal or informal, ho%vcvcr, the psychological contract involves the parties'

undcrstanding of their mutual rights and obligations, and dictates to a large extent the

amount of po%vcr leaders can use to change the atfitudcs and bchaviours of follo%vcrs.

From this perspective, cffective leadership exists when everyone pcrccivcs a fair

exchange of benefits. If leaders receive benefits substantially disproportionate to their

(perceived) contributions, ho%vcvcr, followcrs may fccl a sense of injustice. Followcrs

may also fccl a sense of inequity in the relationship if they perceive the Icadcr as

callous or indifferent to their interests. Moreover, followcrs may fccl frustrated if the

leader makes mistakes, especially if the group suffers as a result of the Icadces not

listening to follower's input or advice. Any of these cvcntualitics may prompt

followcrs to redress perceived inequities in someway. In the corporate scctor, this can

include threats of work stoppage, industrial sabotage, or strikes.

2.7 Bass Theory of Transformational and Transactional Leadership

Bass (1985) believed that transformational leaders possessed those charismatic leader

characteristics described carlicr, he used followers' perceptions or reactions to

dctcrminc %vhcthcr or not a leader was trans formational. Thus, transformational

leaders possess good visioning, rhetorical, and impression management skills, and

they use these skills to develop strong emotional bonds with followcrs. According to

Bass, transactional leaders do not possess these leadership characteristics, nor arc they

able to develop strong emotional bonds with follo%vcrs or inspire followers to do more

than they thought they could. Instead, transactional leaders wcre believed to motivate followers by setting goals and promising re%%ards for desired performance.

45

Behavioural AsRects of Trans format ion3l Leadership In ManufacturonC Organisationj

2.8 Transformational and Charismatic Leadership

The idcalizcd influence aspect of transformational Icadership is vcry close to the

charismatic leadership. Ilowcvcr, according to Bass, there arc major diffcrcnccs

bct%%vcn trans formational and charismatic leaders. Charisma is a nccessary but not

sufficicnt component of trans formational leadcrship. Some Icadcrs may be

charismatic, but may havc no trans form ational Icadcrship characteristics.

2.9 Burn's Theory of Transforming Leadership

Bums (1978) described transformational leadership as a process in which "leaders and followers raise one another to higher levels of morality and motivation. "

Transformational leaders seek to raise the consciousness of followcrs by appealing to

higher ideals and moral values such as liberty, justice, equality, peace, and humanitarian, and not to baser emotions such as fear, grccd, jealousy, or hatred. In

terms of MasloNvs (19S4) need hicrarchy, trans formational Icaders activate higher-

order needs in follo%%, crs. Followers are clevatcd from their "everyday sclvcs" to their

"better selves. " For Bums, transformational leadership may be exhibited by anyone in

the organisation in any type of position. It may involve people influencing pccrs and

superiors as well as followers. It can occur in the day-to-day acts of ordinary people, but it is not ordinary or common.

Burns contrasts transformational leadership with transactional leadersMip. The latter

type of leadership motivates followers by appealing to their self-interest. Transactional leadership involves values, but they are values relevant to the exchange

process, such as honesty, fairness, responsibility, and reciprocity. Bums also differentiates transactional and transformational leadership from influence based on bureaucratic authority. Bureaucratic organisations cmpbasizc legitimate power and

respect for rules and tradition, rather than influence based either on exchange or

inspiration.

For Burns, leadership is a process, not a set of discrete acts. Bums (1978) described

leadership as a strcarn of evolving interrelationships in which leaders arc continuously

46

cvoking motivational rcsponscs from follo%vcrs and modifying tlicir bchaviour as thcy

mcct rcsponsivcncss or rcsistancc, in a ccasclcss proccss of flow and countcr flow.

2.10 I]aS3TIicoryofTransforniationalLeadcrsliip

Bass (1985) dcrincs transfonnational leadership in terms of the leader's cffect on followcrs. Followers fccl trust, admiration, loyalty, and respect towards the Icadcr, and

they arc motivatcd to do more than they originally expected to do. A leader can

transform followers by (1) making them more a%k= of flic importance and value of

task outcomes, (2) inducing them to transcend their o%%m self intcrcst for flic sake of

the organisation or team, and (3) activating their highcr-ordcr needs.

Bass vie%,., s transformational leadership as more than just another term for charisma. Some charismatic people do not have any systematic trans formational cffcct on followers, even though followers may identify with a celebrity and imitate his or her

behaviour and appearance. According to Bass (1985) "Charisma is a necessary

ingredient of transformational leadership, but by itself it is not sufticicnt to account for

the transformational process. " Transformational leaders influence followers by

arousing strong emotions and identification %Nith the leader, but they may also

transform followers by serving as a coach, teacher, and mentor.

lie conceptions of transformational leadership proposed by Bass and Bums are

similar in many respects, but there arc also some differences. First, Burns limits

transformational leadership to enlightened leaders who appeal to positive moral values

and highcr-order needs of followers. In contrast, for Bass a transformational leader is

one who activates folio-wcr motivation and increases follower commitment regardless

of %vhcthcr the cffects ultimately bcnerit followers. Bass %vould not exclude leaders

who appeal to lo%N-er-ordcr needs such as safety, subsistence, and economic needs.

With respect to transactional leadership, once again there are similarities but also

differences bct%,,, ccn the two theorists' conceptions. Like Bums, Bass views

transactional leadership as an exchange of rewards for compliance. However, Bass

defines transactional leadership in broader tcnns than Bums. According to Bass, it

47

Behavioural Aspccis of Trans formation if Leadership In Manufacturing Organisations

includes not only the use of incentives and contingent rc%vards to influence

motivation, but also clarification of die %%vrk required to obtain rcwards. Bass sees theories such as the Vertical Dyad Linkage theory and the Path-Goal theory as descriptions of transactional leadership. lie vicws transformational and transactional leadership as distinct but not mutually exclusive processes, and he recognizes that tile

same leader may use both types of leadership at different times in different situations.

2.11 Transformational Behaviours

The original formulation of the theory (Bass, 1985) included three components of

trans formational leadership: charisma, intellectual stimulation, and individualized

consideration. Charisma %N-as defined as a process wherein a leader influences

follo%vcrs by arousing strong emotions and idcntirication with the leader. Intellectual

stimulation is a proccss wherein leaders increase follo%N-cr awareness of problems and influence followers to view problems from a new perspective; individualized

consideration includes providing support, cncouragcmcnt, and developmental

experiences to followcrs. Later revision of the theory in 1990, added another

trans formational behaviour called inspiration (for "inspirational motivation"), which is

defincd. as the extent to which a leader communicatcs an appealing vision, uses

symbols to focus follower effort, and models appropriate behaviours (Bass & Avolio,

1990a). 'Me component bchaviours of transformational leadership intcract to influence

changes in followers, and the combined cffccts enables us to distinguish bctNvccn

transformational and charismatic leadership.

2.12 Motivation for the Rcscarch

Transformational leadership is believed to be one of the demanding requirements for

industries in the present cra. Ile main focus is to gain insight into the leadership of

today's manufacturing companies, Scarborough (2001). Transformational leadership

has become a necessity in the post-industrial world of work (Bass, 1997). It has been

specificd as an important mechanism for introducing organisational change and has

reccivcd substantial research attention over the last two decades. As a result, there is

now considerable knowledge about the transformational leadership phenomenon. 14

48

Bchavioural Aspects of Trans format ionatjAadcrshi2- in Manufacturing Organisalion3

ho%vcvcr, has also gcncratcd several conceptual issues, such as the need for more knowledge about the relationship of transformational Icadcrship with business

contextual issues, as several researchers noted (Bass, 1999, Congcr, 1999) that,

transformational leadership research is at a stage where its conceptual examination is

important.

As pointed out by Avolio & Yammarino (2002) that since we have many more

conccptualisations; about, and thcorics of transformational and charismatic Icadcrship

than rigorous empirical studies of them, data about them is actually missing. 711cre is a dcarth of empirical studies that arc longitudinal in nature, or combine quantitative and

qualitative methods. Iberc arc relatively few ficid studies that have bccn done,

attcmpting to systematically manipulate transformational and charismatic leadership

and to study how these theories can be used to explain casual impact on motivation

and performance.

in the last tNvo decades thcrc has bccn accumulating cvidcncc to suggest that

transformational leadership is an influential form of leadership that is associatcd with

high lcvcls of individual and organisational pcrformancc (c. g. Barling, Wcbcr &

Kclloway 1996, Kark & Shamir 2002, HoN%-cll & Avolio, 1993, Barling, Wcbcr &

Kelloway, 1996, Geyer & Steyrcr, 1995, Howcll & Shea, 1998,13ass, 1998, Antanakis

and House, 2002, Jung & Sosik, 2002, Avolio ct al, 2003, Whitt, ington ct al, 2004,

Zhu ct al, 2005). However, we actually know very little about the psychological

substructure; the internal world of transformational leaders, namcly what "makes them

tick", and how they devclopcd this way. T'his point has been indicated by some

prominent scholars of leadership (e. g., Bass, 1998; House & Howell, 1992; Judge &

Bono, 2000, Poppcr & Mayselcss, 2002). We find Judge & Bono (2000) claiming

that: "Even if one considers transformational Icadcrship to be a behavioural theory,

the origins of the bchaviours arc unclear. "

According to Bass (2002), while discussing leadership for the next 33 years from 2001

to 2034, "leaders by the year 2034 will bc prized for their innovativcncss,

responsiveness, and flexibility; all factors linked to their frcqucncy of transformational lcadcrship bchaviour. " Transformational Icadcrs provide vision and direction to the

organisation, and arc able to cnergise and inspire other members of the organisation in

49

the pursuit of organisational objectives. Ilic scarch for and idcntirication of behaviours that incrcase a Icadcr's cffcctivcncss has bccn a major concem of practicing managcrs and Icaduship rcscarclicrs alikc.

As YukI (1998) concluded after reviewing research on this topic, "a variety of different influence processes may be involved in transformational leadership, and different transformational bchaviours may involve different influence processes. Research on these processes is needed to gain better understanding of transformational leadership. " He suggest that transformational leaders can have a dual cffect, exerting their influcncc on followers through the creation of personal idcntirication with the leader and social identification with the work unit, and that these different forms of identification can lead to differential outcomes.

2.13 Intcgration of the Thcoric3

As is evident, a striking dichotomy is articulatcd in the above theories: the grouping of

the charismatic-transformational approach, vs. the burcaucratic-transactional-

management approach. The former focuses on vision, ideals, values, risk, change, and

charismatic leadership, and the latter on control, contracts, rationality, norms,

conservatism, and stability. An elevation and arousal of motives, ideals, and values

characterizes the charismatic-ti-ansforming-Icadcrship approach, whereas exchanges

and self-interest characterize the burcaucmtic-u=actional-managcmcnt approach. This schism could be vic%vcd from several perspectives, the most important of which deals with moral and ethical conviction. Morals and ethics %%, crc central to Burifs

(1978) theory, and evident too in House's (1977) frameworks. Morals and ethics, and

their implications to ideals and values, arc in essence what cffects the decisions

individuals make. Ideals and values guide how priorities to interpersonal and

organisaflonal tasks are assigned, and thus ultimately govcm bchavioural outcomes. Theoretically, if those in power care about their followers - and understand the impact

of their actions on the collective and other social systems - they adopt ideals that

arouse motives within followers, thus facilitating the Icadces charismatic appeal. Those individuals are transforming leaders, and lead followers that are intrinsically

motivated and intimately attached to the leadcesmission. Leaders that do not use such

means arc lcft to influence their followers through rc%%-ards and sanctions. 11cy arc

so

transactional Icadcrs who havc a limitcd influcrice on highcr-ordcr motivcs of

followas.

Revolutionary charisma has been conceived by Wcbcr (1947) from "organisational"

charisma conceived by the nco-charismatic theorists. As noted by Beyer (1999),

current views of charisma have departed from Wcbces perspective, and many

theorists (e. g. Bass 1985; Conger & Kanungo 1998; Sashkin 1988) view charisma in a

"tame" way. Housc (1999) rcfcrrcd to the abovc distinction as the Wcbcdan

(sociological) vs. the organisational (bchavioural) view. As noted by Shamir (1999),

the taming of charisma has advantages in that it can be found and studied in a variety

of settings. Thus, following Bass (1999), Conger and Kanungo (1998), and Sashkin

(1988), our thinking of charisma is directed toward organisational leadership, and leaders who use symbolic means to motivatc followers, arc sensitive to follower

needs, and in whom followers can express their ideals. Charismatic leaders arc viewed

as strong and confident based on attributions that followers make of these leaders.

Followers rcspcct and trust these leaders, who in turn arousc follower motives to

achieve transcendent ideals. Theoretically. these types of leaders display moral

conviction and arc idealized and higWy respected by followers. Trans formational

leaders build strong connections and cmotional bonds with followers, and the cffccts

of transformational leadcrsWp have becn attributed at least in part, to the creation of

such emotional bonds. Considering transformational leadership theory, it would be

expected that leaders who engage in transformational bchaviours that arc focused on

the individual follower, are cffectivc, and consider the welfare of the follower

2.14 Effects of Transformational Leadership

The focus of leadership research has shifted fmm one examining the effects of

transactional leadership to the identification and examination of those behaviours

exhibited by the leader that make followers more aware of importance and values of

task outcomes, activate their higher-order needs, and induce (them to transcend sclf- interests for the sake of the organisation (Bass 1985; Yukl 1989a, 1989b, Yammarino

&Bass 1990, Podsakoff et al 1996). These transformational or charismatic bchaviours

arc believed to augment the impact of transactional leader bchaviours on employee

51

Dchavioural Asrscts of Trans fonnational Leadcrahip in Mangfactufing Organisatiom

outcome variables, because "followcrs fccl trust and respect toward the leadcr and

they are motivated do more than they are expected to do" (Yukl 1989b). Other

researchers who have focused on the same concepts arc House, 1977, Bass, 1985;

Bennis & Nanus 1985; Tichy & DeVanna 1986, Bass, Avolio, & Goodlicim 1987;

Bass. Waldman, Avolio, & Bcbb 1987; Conger &; Kanungo 1987; Boal & Bryson

1988; House, Woyckc, & Fodor 1988; Avolio & Bass 1988; Shamir, House, & Arthur

1988, House, Spangler & W`oyckc: 1989; and Howell & Frost 1989, Barling ct al 1996,

Bass, 1998, Bass & Avolio 1994, Antonakis & Avolio 2002. However approaches of

these researcher differs somewhat in the specific bchaviours they associate with

trans formational Icadcrship, but all of them focus on the same perspective that

cffcctivc leaders transfonn or change the basic values, beliefs, and attitudes of followcrs so that they are willing to perform beyond the minimum levels spccificd by

the organisation, Zaccaro ct al 1991, Gasper 1992, Lowc 1996, Antonak-is 2001).

According to Hicbcrt & Klatt (2001) leadership at its essence is leading change,

nothing demands leaders but truly lead to large-scale change within a dcpartment or

organisation.

The empirical results have vcrified the impact of transformational bchaviours on

employee altitudes, cffort, and "in-roic" performance. For example, Bass (1985) cited

a variety of field studies dcrnonstrating that transformational leadcr bchaviours arc

positively related to cmployccs' satisfaction, sclf-rcportcd cffort, and job performance. Same results have been rcported by Howell and Frost (1989). They manipulated the

bchaviour of leadcrs in a laboratory setting and found that charismatic Icadcr

bchaviours produced bcttcr pcrformancc, grcatcr satisfaction, and enhanced role

pcrceptions (less role conflict) than directive leadcr bchaviours,

Transformational leaders influence followers by arousing strong emotions, but do so

for benign reasons. They seek to empower followers by developing their

independence and building their confidence. They seek the improvement of the

individual, the organisation, or the society. Charismatic leaders, in contrast,

sometimes seek to enslave followcrs'by keeping them weak- and dependent. They arc

interested in personal loyalty, rather than attachment to values and ideals.

52

Transformational leadcrs arc intcrestcd in followus thinking for tlicmsclvcs, and fliinking crcativcly, (Bass ct al 1987, Bass 1998).

Although Bass treats charisma and trans formati onal leadership as distinct concepts,

many writers do not. The work of TichY and Devanna (1986) on trans formational

leadcrship, for cxamplc, talks about articulating a vision, which enthuses followers

and creates considerable loyalty and trust. This sounds very similar to charisma. Therefore, while conceptually they may be distinct, much of the writing fails to make it clear that they arc. Trice and Bcycr (1991) make the distinction between charisma

and transformational leadership by suggesting that charismatic leaders often create

nc-*v organisations, while transformational leaders change existing organisations.

The terms transforming, transformational, and transactional (Burns 1978; Bass 1990)

have become central to the study of Icadcrship and are ofIcn used to diffcrcntiate

leadcrship and management (Duckett & hiacfulane 2003). Rcscarch by Krishnan

(2001) suggcsts that supcrior performance is possible only through stimulating and

motivating followers to higher levels of pcrformancc through transformational

leadcrship. His study found that the values of transformational leaders and

transactional leaders are different - the former charactcrised by a focus on collective

welfare and equality, change orientated and moral values and the lattcr oriented to the

routine and competence values. Superior performance is possible only by

transforming followers' values, attitudes, and motives from a lower to a higher plane

of arousal and maturity. Boehnke et al (2003) even found support for the claim that

the main dimensions of leadership for extraordinary performance arc universal. Studies have found significant and positive relationships between transformational

leadcrship and the amount of cffort followers are willing to exert, satisfaction with the leadcr, ratings of job performance, and perceived cffectivcness of the leader (Bass

1985). Transformational leadership could be potcritially cffcctivc across a variety of

situations, though certain contextual factors like structure of the organisation could facilitate the emergence and impact of transformational leadership (Shamir and Howell, 1999).

53

2.15 Research on the Transformational Leadership Theory

Most of the research on the theory has involved the use of a questionnaire called the

Nfulti-factor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) to measure various aspects of

transformational and transactional leadership (Bass, 1985). Scales measuring separate

aspects of transformational and transactional leadership arc based on factor analysis of

the initial questionnaire and subsequent versions of it. I'lic initial research on

components of trans formational leadership was very limited, because the knowledge

of the subject was too primitive to identify good cx=plcs for use as questionnaire items. Another weakness in early versions of the MLQ, Hunt 1999, Yukl (1998)

involves the wording of the items; most items in the charismatic and intellectual

stimulation scales described the outcomes of leadership (e. g., followers become more

enthusiastic about the work and view problems in novel ways), rather than spccific,

observable actions by the leader to cause these outcomes. In response to critics who

pointed out these weaknesses, Bass and his colleagues have included more items

describing observable leader bchaviours in the revised version of the questionnaire (Bass & Avolio 1990; Yammarino & Bass 1990). Hackett and Allen (1995) suggested

that researchcrs using MLQ should consider using simplcr factor structures to

represent the component factors. Bass (1988) proposal to cxamine a six-factor model

of leadership that combined charismatic and inspirational leadership, Avolio et al. (1999) rcported the best fitting-modcl for the h1LQ survey were those six factors.

Avolio (1999) extended earlier work by providing a ninc-factor model, which included Idcalised (Attributed and Bchavioural), Inspiring, Intellectually Stimulating,

Individualiscd Consideration, Contingent Reward, Active and Passive Management-

by-Exccption, and Laissez-faire leadership. Strong empirical support for this nine- factor model comes from findings reported by Antonakis (2001).

Several studies examined how leadership behaviour described by followers on the

MLQ was related to various criteria of leadership cffcctivcness; such as performance

ratings by superiors and the level of task commitment reported by followers (Avolio

& Howell 1992; Bass, Avolio, & Goodhcim 1987; Hatcr & Bass 1988; Seltzer & Bass

1990; Waldman, Bass, & Einstein 1987; Waldman, Bass, & Yammarino 1990;

Yammarino & Bass 1990, Druskat 1994, Bycio ct al 1995, Vcrnon 1996, Bass &

Avolio 1997, Geyer & Srcyrer 1998, Avolio ct al 1999b, Antonakis 2001). In these

54

studies, the transformational leadership bchaviours were usually correlated more

strongly with the critcria than were the transactional Icadcrship bchaviours, but some

transactional behaviour (e. g., contingent rcward bchaviour and active monitoring)

were also relevant for leader effectiveness. The results of this research support the

conclusion that effective leadcrs use a mix of transformational and transactional

bchaviours. However, the limitations of qucstionnairc correlational research (such as

attributional biases in rating the bchaviour of leaders known to be cffcctivc) make it

difficult to draw any firm, conclusions until the results arc confirmcd by latest research

methods.

Bryman (1992) concludes that Bass's framework for examining transformational and transactional leadership has produced an impressive array of findings, which possess a

good deal in common (1992: 128). However, he also notes that the MLQ

questionnaire method used in the studies has the same problems as we noted with the

Ohio State studies, which used a similar questionnaire, the Leader Behaviour

Description Questionnaire (LBDQ).

The correlational design of most of the MLQ studies gives particular problems. Because two factors are correlated does not imply that one causes the other. Therefore, it is not possible to separate out whether cffcctivcncss causes attributions

of transformational leadcrship, or whether transformational leadership causes greater

cffectiveness; mcrcly that they arc rclatedL One possible rcason why they arc linked is

the common method variance problem. Many of the studies have taken measures of

perceptions of leader behaviour and measures of perceived cffcctivcness at the same time and from the same followers. Therefore, correlations bct%vccn bchaviour and

performance could be artificially increased by the tendency for respondents to answer

questions consistcntly. Where studies have used independent measures of

cffectivcness, the findings arc similar to those in which followers provide both leader

perceptions and performance measures, but the correlations arc quite a lot smallcr. A

study by Yammarino and Bass (1990), for example, found that there was a correlation

of 0.87 when followcrs provided measures of both transformational leadership and

performance (the common method variance problem) but only 0.34 whcn there were independent measures of performance. The latest version of MLQ5X (Bass & Avolio,

55

1995) is still viewcd by social scicntists with sccpticism becausc the NILQ5X still does not capture all possible Icadcrship bcliaviours (House & Antonakis 2002).

Podsak-off, MacKenzie, Moorman, and Fcttcr (1990) reviewed the leadership literature

and identified high performance expectations, intellectual stimulation, individualized

support, fostering the acceptance of group goals, role modelling, and identifying and

articulating a vision (the itcm content of the lattcr five arc subsumed within Bass's

three transformational sub factors) as the key behaviours of transformational leaders.

They developed a 23-itcrn questionnaire (transformational leadership inventory

questionnaire) to measure transformational leadership characteristics. 71is

transformational leadership inventory questionnaire has been used to test

transformational leadcrship characteristics in most research studies recently e. g., Personality, transformational leadership, trust, and the 2000 U. S. presidential vote by

Pillai, Williams, Lowc, and Jung (2003), four phenomenologically determined social

processes of organisational leadcrship by Parry (2002) and others. This survey developed by Podsakoff ct al. (1990) has been widely used in transformational

leadership research, Bass & Riggio (2006) and rarely been criticisc in literature, so

this research use his trans formational leadership survey inventory to establish

transformational Icadcrship characteristics in manufacturing organisations.

2.16 Application of Leadership Theories in Manufacturing Organisations

Manager/supcrvisors are confronted with the issue that if leadership is a competency, that is, if leadership can be learned, then which theories make the most sense to learn

and how can these be taught as foundations for decisions affecting leadership

behaviour and actions. Leadership theories would have little value if they could not be

applied to real world situations, Armandi (2003).

Organisations are not of the same forril as they were 10 or 20 years ago. Leadership is

migrating to the lowest levels, and more and more people have direct influence in

shaping an organisation's destiny. With these changes comes a need to rc-cnginccr

relationships in the organisation and to take into consideration that, increasingly, thc

56

fonnal structures are blurred and the infon-nal structures have more influcncc on bottom-line performance, Avolio (1999).

The significant trend during the last 10 years has been to examine leadership by using

more of a process perspective. Part of this emphasis parallels trends in total quality

management (TQM) and rc-cnginccring, which has been forced to examine many

organisational processes, including human system processes. I'lic focus has forced me to take a much closer look at the interaction between leaders and followers and the

context in which each is interacting.

Organisations are increasing their reliance on employee involvement because their

success depcnds on the organisations ability to harness cmployce skills and knowledge. In ordcr to remain competitive, organisations must nurture employees and

encourage their initiative. This proactivc climate requires more than just traditional

managcrs/supcrvisors - it requires managcrs/supcrvisors who arc also are leaders - who can help dcvclop cmployccs; and instil a sense of commitmcnt and engagement, Armandi ct al (2003).

Many people use the terms "manager" and "leader" interchangeably, they refer to different functions, and a manager/supcrvisor is appointed by the organisation and is

given formal authority to direct the activity of others in fulfilling organisation goals. However leader is a person who influences others because they willingly do what he

or she requests. A leader can be appointed formally by an organisation or may emerge informally as "the people's choice. " A leader can be a manager/supervisor, but a

manager is not necessarily a leader. If a manager is able to influence people to achieve

organisational goals, without using his or her formal authority to do so, then the

managcr/supervisor is demonstrating leadership, Armandi (2003). The key point in

differentiating between these two concepts is the idea that employees willingly do

what leaders ask - or follow leaders - because they want to - not because they have to.

Leaders may not possess the formal power to rcward or sanction performance. However, followers give the leader power by complying with what he or she requests. On the other hand managers/supcrvisors may have to rely on formal power to get followers to accomplish organisational goals, Armandi (2003).

57

Dchavioural Asrscts of Trans forma tional Lcadersbil2 in Manufacturing Orranisations

71c: rcscarclicr conccpt of "Icadcrship in manufacturing organisatione' is a proccss ill

which the Icadcr's bchaviour cmpowcrs a group of peoplc to bc productivc/innovativc

in ordcr to achicvc the organisational goals. The bchavioural componcrits of

Icadcrship includc:

Instilling an innovative culture by cmpowcring the followas, to build

conridcncc in them while doing their work. Wlicn a leader cmpowcrs the

followcrs by giving thcm discretion in tlicir work, hc1she transfonns the

followers into dccision-mak-crs and thus gives them the chancc to be

innovative. This helps flicm to improve their working process and thcrcby

the quality of work.

For example, in the north eastern United States, at a large sun glasses factory,

an opcrations worker dcscribed how lie had made a suggestion to the chcmist in his area and how his suggestion had led to a change in the chemical

processes used to bond gold to sunglass frames. In the first few months, his

unit had saved the company more than $700,000 by increasing the level of

bonding to the metal, thus reducing the wastage of actual gold. Ile was askcd

when he had discovered the alternative way of processing the gold. His rcply

was, "sevcml years back", he was then askcd why he took several years to get his idea implemented. He said, "it took me scvcral years to learn that I should

not leave my brain at the door when I come to work. The previous plant

mangcr didn't care to hear our ideas. Phil (the current plant manager) carcs,

and I bring my brain to work every day now. Once I made the

recommendation to our chemist, it was implemented, within a few days"

quoted by Avolio (1999). Transformational leaders scck fccdback from their

followers about working processes, and implement the suggestions obtained from their followers (if appropriate) to improve the process and reduce the

scrap rate in manufacturing organisations.

2. Ignoring casual mistakes by empowering the followers to be sclf-awarc of

their mistakes. Ilis leads to a reduced amount of rcwork-, as the followers

bcing sclf-axvare, try to minimise futurc mistakcs and thus incrcase

productivity.

58

3. Incrcasing the intcraction betwccn lcadcrs and followas by sccking fccdback from followers or vice vcrsa.

Crcating a fmnily typc culturc in which pcople arc willing to mak-c sacrificcs,

sparc: flicir pcrsonal intcrcsts for the sak-c of organisational goals, rcspcct cach

othcr's fcclings, and crcatc an cnvironmcnt of trust =ong organisational members. When an organisation has a family typc culturc, followcrs do their jobs considering it as their personal duty and so the chanccs of crrors or

making mistakes is reduced, dius scrap or rework probicnis can bc ovcrcome.

Early leadership theories were content theories, focusing on "what" an cffective leader

is, and not on "how" to effectively lead. 1, cader trait and bchavioural theories tried to idcntify thcsc charactcristics and flicir behaviours are describcd as follows:

2.16.1 Trait Theories

In the 1920s and 1930s, research focused on trying to identify the traits that

differentiate leaders from non-Icadcrs. The goal was to identify sets of traits to assist in selecting the right people for positions requiring cffective leadership. None of the

six traits that were found to be associated with leadership (drive, the desire to lead,

honesty and integrity, self-confidence, intelligence, and job-rclcvant followers

(Kirkpatrick and Locke, 199 1).

A major reason for the failure of trait theories is that they do not take into account leadcr-followcr interactions or situational conditions.

2.16.2 Behavioural Theories

The intention of the bchaviouml theorists was to identify detenninants of leadership so

that people could be trained to be leaders. Studies conducted at the Ohio State

University, and the University of Michigan idcntiricd two bchavioural dimensions that

point to tNvo general types of leader bchaviours. The first - considcration, or employee

orientation suggested emphasis on employees feelings and interpersonal relationships. The second - initiating structure, or production orientation - suggested a focus on tasks

59

Dchavioural AsMts of Transformational Lcadership in Manufactuflng Organisations

to achicve goals. Rcscarch findings on which dimcnsion is most important for

satisfaction and productivity wcrc inconclusivc. I lowcvcr, cmployce oricntcd Icadcrs

appeared to be associated with high group productivity and job satisfaction.

Another approach to leader behaviour which focuscd on idcntifying the best

leadership styles is the work at the University of Iowa, which idcntiricd democratic

(participation and delegation), autocratic (dictating and ccntralised), and laissez-faire

styles (group freedom in decision making). Research findings of this approach were

also inconclusive.

The dimensions identified at University of Michigan provided the basis for the

development of a managerial/supcrvisor style grid based on tile dimensions; concern for people and concern for production (Blakc and Mouton, 1964). Five styles that

were identified arc:

1. Impoverished leader,

2. Task management; 3. Middle of the road; 4. Country club management; and 5. Team management.

Managers who scored high on both these dimensions simultaneously, labelled team

management, performed best (%Vren, 1994).

These theories failed, as it became apparent that appropriate leader types arc

moderated by situational constraints. Contingency and transformational theories of leadership dominate current leadership thinking (DuBrin, 1998).

2.163 Contingency Theories

2.16.3.1 The Fiedler model (Fiedler et aL, 1994)

Ibis first comprehensive contingency model proposes that cfrcctive group

performance depend on the match bctNvecn the leadces style of interacting with

60

Behavioural Asiscts of Transforma-lionalLcadershipja Mmufacturina Organisations

followers and Ole degree to which the situation has allowed the Icadcr to control and influcncc.

Building on the findings from bchavioural approaches, Ficldcr suggcstcd that

leadership styles were either relationship or task oriented. He created the least-

preferred co-worker (LPQ questionnaire for managers to complcte to measure their leadership stylcs. Respondcnts were asked to describe the co-workcr with whom they have worked that thcy liked the least by responding to a list of adjectives. If the least

prcfcrrcd co-worker is responded to in relatively positive terms (high LPC score), the

style is labelled "relationship oriented. " If the co-workcr is described in relatively

negative tenns (low LPC), the style is labclled "task oriented. " Fiedlcr bclicvcd that a

person's IcadcrsMp style was fixed, and that the right style needed to be matchcd with the right situation, Yuk-I 1998).

The managerial lesson from these theories is that there doesn't appear to be one best

leader behaviour that is appropriate across situations. However, the question surfaces

as to whether these are theories of leadership or managemcnt. Do they explain why

cmployccs follow, or do they prescribe the corrcct bchaviour for diffcrcnt situations? In an effort to explain the "followcr-sMp" phcnomcnon, the section follows reviews the theory on Icadcr types.

2.163.2 Attribution theory and charismatic leadership theory (Yuk*I, 1994;

Conger and Kanungo, 1998)

Attribution theory is a theory that suggests a particular way of understanding the judgements people make about behaviour. The attribution theory of leadership

proposes that leadership is merely an attribution that people make about other individuals. Regardless of situation, people tend to judge people high in task and high

in relationship behaviour as the best leaders. The perception of cffcctivc leaders is that

they are consistent and unwavering in their decisions.

Charismatic leadcrship thcory has its roots in attribution thcory and suggcsts that followers make attributions of heroic or extraordinary leadership abilities when they

61

obscrvc: ccrtain bchaviours. Charismatic Icadcrs have certain traits and characteristics including scif-conridcncc, vision, ability to articulate the vision, strong convictions

about the vision, behaviour that is out of the ordinary, and cnvironmcntal sensitivity. Research has demonstrated that charismatic leadership correlates significantly with follower performance and satisfaction, YukI (1994). People working for charismatic leaders arc motivated to cxcrt extra cffort and, because they like their lcadcr, express

greater satisfaction. Research also demonstrates that people can be trained to display

more charismatic traits such as maintaining eye contact, having a relaxed posture, and

animating facial expressions, Shackicton (1995). Charismatic leadership may not

always be ncedcd to achieve high levels of performance. It is most appropriate when

employees' tasks have an ideological component. In fact, this leadership style can become a liability whcn an organisation is in crisis and needs a dramatic change. I'lic

charismatic Icadces apparent self-confidence may rcndcr him or her unable to listen to

others and uncomfortable with challcnging assumptions.

2.16.4 Visionary and Transformational Leadership Theory (Ilughes et al., 1999)

Visionary leadership goes beyond charismatic leadership by its ability to create and

articulate a realistic, credible, and attractive vision for the future of the organisation

that improves upon the present situation. This vision cncrgiscs followers to cngagc all

of their skills, kmowledgc, and abilities to make the vision happen.

A vision taps peoples emotions, has clear imagery, and is the "glue" that holds

organisational members together, Nwankwo & Richardson (1996). Visionary

organisations have been found to outperform comparison companies six-fold on

standard financial criteria, and their stocks outpcrformcd the general market by fifIccn

times (Hughes el A. 1999).

The key properties of a vision are inspirational, and value-ccntred. The visionary leader can articulate the vision and direct employees in innovative ways to meet the

challenges of the future. Once the vision is articulated, visionary leaders display three

qualities: 1. Ability to explain the vision to othcrs; 2. Ability to cxpress the vision vcrbally and through behaviour, and

62

Dchnioural AsMts of-Transformation3i Leadershig in manufacturing Oftanisations

2. Ability to cxtcnd or apply the vision to diffcrcnt leadcrship contcxts.

The world's most rcvcred leadcrs have made cxccptional changes in human

cndeavour, in an organisational scnsc, they have ofIcn rcinvcntcd meanings for pcopic

and work itself. Thomas Watson Jr. (113M) Jack Welch (GE), the late Sam Walton

(Wal-Mart), Jan Carizon (Scandinavian Airlines), and Akio Morita (Sony) arc

conspicuous for their international rcputations as transformational Icadcrs, (Holt,

1998).

Bill Gates of IBM has been called a visionary leader and has articulated a very clear

vision: A computer on every desk-top and in every home. To fulfil this vision,

employees were provided with the resources and goals necessary to challenge their

creativity by developing user-fricndly practical software.

2.16.5 TranS2ctional versus transformational leadership

Transactional leaders, guide followers in the direction of established goals by

clarifying role and task requirements. However, those who are charismatic and

visionary can inspire followers to transcend their own self-interest for the good of the

organisation. Transformational leaders pay attention to the concerns and

developmental needs of followers, help them look at old problems in new ways, and

arc able to excite and inspire followers to achieve goals, Podsak-off ct al (1990). The

trans formational leader has charisma but differs from the charismatic leader in that he

or she encourages followers to question established views including those of the

leader.

Overall research evidence (Hater and Bass, 1988) indicates that transformational

leadership, when compared to transactional leadership, is more strongly correlated

with lower staff turnover rates, higher productivity, and higher employee satisfaction.

Transformational leaders are viewed by superiors as being more compctcnt, higher

performers and more promotable.

63

Thus leadership has emerged as a personal characteristic that impacts others

regardless of task or situation, (Herbert & Klatt. 2001). Perhaps transactional

leadership or those processes as mentioned in contingency theories are really focusing

on being a good managcr/supcrvisor - matching behaviour to situations. 711c

charismatic, visionary, and transformational leaders behave as such because they

inspire or excite individuals to perform based on their belief in the person, his or her

viewpoint, and/or vision for the future. 7liese types of leaders arc relevant to today's

workplace, which is charactcriscd by flexibility, change, and innovation, (Armandi,

2003). While it is important to have people with the appropriate orientation dcrining

tasks and managing interrelationships, it is even more important to have individual's

lead who can bring organisations into futures they have not yet imagined. This is the

essence of creating and sustaining competitive advantage.

The question of applicability of transformational leadership theory to managers below

the CEO. As articulated by Lussicr and Achua (2001), that leadership should focus on

accomplishments because they are the key to leadership, this shows that

"transformational leaders can emerge from different levels of the organisation" (Lussicr and Achua, 2001) since they try to transform the organisation (or the part

they particularly arc involved with) through trust, sensitivity to others' needs, and risk-

taking in order to increase organisational performance. Intellectual Stimulation component of transformational leadership or leadership by

developing followers, rcfcrs to the care that the leader shows toward followers about their developments, and about them as individuals. The leader is alert to followers'

needs, provides challenges and leaming opportunities and delegates to raise their skills

and confidence. The result is that followers are more likely to be willing to develop

compctcnce and take initiative, (Shackleton, 199S).

The case of the Swiss watch industry is a useful analogy for the power of intcllcctual

stimulation of transformational leadership. In the 1960s, the Swiss watch was the

cpitome of watch making., with its finely crafted gears and superb accuracy. The

Swiss dominated the watch industry and cmploycd 65,000 people. By the early 1980s,

that number had halvcd, and the mark-ct was dominated by the quartz watch

manufactured in Hong Kong, Taiwan, and Korea. Quartz watches are so much

64

13chavioural Aspects of Trans fompt ional Leadashin imManufacturint Organisalions

cheaper to manufacture and give cxccllcnt accuracy. Yct the sccds of failure lay in thc

hands of the Swiss. The idea for the quartz watch came from Switzerland, but they

thought little of the idea. A Swiss manufacturer had presented the idea to a mccting of

the watch industry, and representatives from both Tcxas Instrumcnt and Sciko were

thcrc. It was they who saw the potential and developed it, (Shackicton, 1995),

Application of leadership theory to practice can be used to cnbance leadership

decisions and bring leadership behaviour that is more competent, and appropriate for

the environment and the respective situation. Managers, with some training, will be

able to develop a set of questions or guidelines (Rausch and Washbush, 1998) that can

help them analysc their own and their firm's leadership styles and approaches based

upon the leadership literature.

The World Wide Web and the rise of global economy arc rapidly changing the way business is conducted. Organisations that hope to prosper need special leaders, leaders

that are more than just accomplished administrators and managers. They need leaders

that have some charisma and possess the ability to inspire followers to subordinate

their own interests for the good of the entire organisation, Friedman (2()00). What

organisations; necdý if they desire prosper, are transformational leaders. One of the

greatest transformational leaders of all time was, arguably, the Biblical Abraham, the

progenitor of three major religions. Clemens and Maycr (1999) found valuable lessons

for individuals interested in deriving leadership lessons from Western literature.

According to them Bible is another source to tap in order to learn about cffective leadership. Some of history's earliest leaders arc found in the Bible. The Bible is

replete with stories of leaders, some successful and some unsuccessful. Some of the

Biblical leaders were charismatic and others were quite uninspiring. Weber discussed

the Biblical exarnples of prophets in his seminal works. One Biblical leader who was

arguably the most successful transformational leader in history was Abraham.

The story of the Hebrews starts with Abraham, a simple clan chief who believed in ;a

single God. Abraham lcft Ur of the Chaldees to become "the father of a multitude of

nations (Genesis 17: 5). Abraham sowed the seeds that helped destroy paganisrn,

planted the roots for the three major monotheistic religions (Judaism, Christianity. and

65

Islam) and permanently changed tile world with the ideas of monotheism, justice, and

compassion. At least one-half of today's world has been influenced by Abraham's

vision. Pope John Paul II has expressed strong interest in visiting Ur (in Iraq), the birthplace of Abraham). What characteristics did Abraham possess that made him so

capable as a leader? These are in fact those charactcristics that are possessed by

transformational leaders. Abraham was known in the ancient world as a "prince of God" (Genesis 23: 6) Abraham not only had a vision but was also able to communicate this vision to descendents living hundreds of generations later. Approximately two

thousand years after his death, the Talmud states (Ethics of the Fathers 5: 19)

"whoever possesses the following three traits is of the disciples of our forefather

Abraharn.... a good eye (a generous nature), a humble spirit, and a modest soul (modest dcsircs). "

The Bible (Genesis 14) relates how Abraham mobiliscd his clan and, with only 318

people, waged war with four powerful kings in order to rescue his ncphew Lot.

Abraham was greatly outnumbered but pursued these four powerful adversaries who had themselves just soundly defeated rive powerful kings (the Kings of Sodom, and Gomorrah and three allies). Abraham was not only courageous but loyal to the

members of his clan, even one who lcft to live in Sodom. Transformational leaders

need courage to take risks and confidence to carry out their visions, Black and Portcr

(2000); Nahavandi (2000) and Northouse, (1997).

Abraham was extremely hospitable to strangers. The Bible (Genesis 18) relates that on one hot day, Abraham was sitting at his tent's entrance and noticed three strangers. Ile

ran towards them and invited them to come to his home and "wash their fcct" and cat a "'morscl of brcad. " Abraham did not offer them very much in order to make it easy for them to agree, even he provided them with freshly baked bread, curd and milk, and tender calf Moreover, Abraham stood over them and acted as host and waitcr. A

transformational leader cares for his followers and nurturing and supportive, Black

and Porter (2000); Nahavandi (2000); Ross and Offcrinan (1997).

Abraham had the ultimate divine gift since God assured him that (genesis 12: 3): "I

will bless those that bless you, and him that curses you I will curse. " Moreover, almost

66

four thousand years aftcr his death, he is still a role model for billions of people. His

burial place, the cave of hlaclipciali in licbron, is a holy place that is visited by

hundrcds of individuals cvcry day.

The story of Abraham's test, in which God asked him to sacrifice his bclovcd son

Isaac, indicated Abraham's willingness to make personal sacrifices for God (Gcncsis

22), (Al-Quran, Surah 37, verse 102-107, As-Saffat)). What was the reason for this

test of Abraham? This may have been God's way to indicating to Abraham that

spreading monotheism would require great sacrificc on the part of bclicvcrs.

Charismatic transformational leaders must be willing to make sacrificcs; on behalf of

an organisation, Black and Porter (2000). Moreovcr, trans formational leaders motivate

followers to sacrifice their own sclf-intcrcsts for the greater good, Northouse (1997).

Abraham was a person who was willing to make a great sacrifice and that is why he

proved that he was the right choice as the first patriarch. 11iroughout the centuries,

Abraham's followers - bclicvcrs in monotheism - also made great sacrifices; to spread

his values in a pagan world.

The traits by many of the influential Biblical leaders, spccially Abraham, possessed,

arc the same characteristics that any transformational leadcr nccds to change an

organisation: a vision, a degree of charisma, confidcricc, courage, a willingness to be

diffcrcnt, conccm for others, and above all willingness to make great sacrifices for

one's vision.

Some of world's most respected leadcrs of 2004 (According to Price Waterhouse

Coopers & Financial Times Study) are:

" Bill Gates (Microsoft)

" Jack Welch (GE)

" Carlos Ghosn (Nissan)

" Warren Buffett (Berkshire Hathaway)

" Micheal DclI (Dcll Computers)

" Hiroshi Okuda (Toyota)

" Jeff Immelt (GE)

" Carly Fiorina. (HP)

67

Dch3vioural AsUcts of Trans formational Le3dershin imManufacturinc Organisations

Steve Jobs (Apple)

e Fujio Mitarai (Canon)

Exarnplcs of transformational Icadcrs in industry:

1. Jack Welch (GE)

2. Lou Gerstner (IBM)

3. Micheal Dcll (Dell Computers)

4. Steve Jobs (Apple)

S. Hiroshi Okuda (Toyota)

6. Jan Carlzon (Scandinavian Airlines)

7. Richard Kovaccvich (Northwest Corporation)

These leaders are described as follow:

1. In 1981, at the age of 45, Welch became General Electric's youngest chief

cxccutivc ever. Richard Ellsworth, a 20-ycar General Electric watcher who teaches at

Claremont Graduate School in California, credits Jack Welch with transforming GE

from a lethargic and bureaucratic company into the very model of an innovative

powerhouse that is quick to seize opportunities, Beneath Welch's relentlessly demanding management style, "Welch may be the most brilliant chief executive in

America", Robert Reno of Newsday, Lowe, J. 2001). GE's deccntraliscd management

approach, which Welch reformulated, along with central resources and support,

provided the foundation for training a slew of great business executives. As a result, the disciplined structure and culture of GE has been adopted by businesses throughout

the world, Sloan (1999). Welch, the most typically American of all companies is the

most blatantly American of any chief executive in the world, ascended in GE because

of his charisma, inspirational motivation and ability to lead. He brought remarkable

vision to the job. Welch worked at GE for 40 years. An article in The Wall Street

Journal describes Welsh's leadership agenda.

Mr. Melch, the neiv CEO, agrccs that GE cither must kccp gaining or risk being

trampled by theforeign compaition that can produce highly quality goods, faster and

cheaper. Many of GE's old line manufacturing businasses, such as consumer

68

appliances, electronics and industrial equipment have been buffacd by foreign

competition and by the recession ... .... Air. IfIcIch blanics theforcign threat to GE and

other American companies on many of the managcnicill principles that GE itself

helped to shape in the 1960s and 1970s, a tinic, he says, when companies were

managmictit not lead. 116 argues that managing assets, as if they were investment

por(folios. seeking short-term profits at the sacrifice of long- term gains, and stressing

consm-atism over innovation may have pcmiancntly crippled many Anterica's major

industries.

At the beginning of 1985, people were wondcring what Welch would do to increase

revenues at GE. The early stages of revitalisation were marked by divestiture and cost

cutting that resulted in a leaner and more agile organisation; but no growth strategy had been announced. Ibcn in December 1985, Welch embarked on the second act of GE's rcvitalisation drama by initiating the $6.28 billion acquisition of RCA. The

acquisition makes GE $40 billion plus company with over 400,000 employees. The

integration of two giants will be a complex and difficult task. The task will be made

more difficult because of the relentless global competition these businesses will face

while they work to put their internal house in order. Some of the specific challenges arc to implement a culture that encourages GE's

business leaders to "own your business. " Ile move to dcccntmlisation means that

mangers have to design their own management proccsses, human resource systems,

and subcultures. Before the announcement of the acquisition there were pockcts of

resistance to the change in GE's culture, Tichy & Dcvanna (1990).

2. IBM is one of the world's largest information technology companies, covering 150 countries world wide and employing over 300,000 people. The corporation is

known too for its CEOs, who have become landmarks in the corporate world. One of

whom is the very famous former CEO of IBM, Lou Gerstner, a transformational leader (Rcnata Fox & John Fox, 2004).

Discussing the state of IB1%1 and where the corporation is headed, CEO Gerstner in an interview with IBM's employee bullctin THINK said:

69

fichavioural Aspects of Transformational Leadership in Manufacturing Organisations

We have completed, for the most part, the task of restructuring the institution. Our

success now is going to be a function of personal behaviour-the behaviour of each and

every one of us. We can't fix it with systems anymore. Defining IBM's commitment

to success, CEO Gerstner called upon the American dream -a system of beliefs in

individualism, achievement, the free-enterprise system, and freedom from controls.

An institutional ised value of American culture, the American dream lcgitimises IBM's

commitment to success, (Renata Fox & John Fox, 2004).

I Steve Jobs of Apple Corporation is known as a transformational leader.

Leadership styles played a critical role in the inability of Xerox to capitalise on its

invention of the first user- friendly personal computer. The researchers in the Xerox

Palo Alto Research Center (PARC) developed the first graphical user interface, mouse

and mcnu-drivcn computer-technological advances that made computers accessible

to the novice user (Bennis & Biederman, 1997). The lab's charismatic leader, Bob

Taylor, recruited only the very brightest scientists, gave them the freedom to innovate

and inspired them to work together to solve tremendously complex problems. Researchers at PARC invented new products, obtained multiple patents and pioneered

many of the computer technologies. However, because Xerox PARC was not well integrated into the rest of the company, Xerox's top management was sceptical of the

inventions the lab developed and didn't see how they could fit in with their current

copying equipment (Poe, 2000). Xerox lacked a transactional leadership style in the

top management team to provide the structure and systems that could capture the

knowledge generated in the PARC labs. Steve Jobs visited the PARC facility in 1979

and immediately saw the future of computing in the mouse-driven graphical user interface (Bennis & Biederman, 1997). Jobs left the PARC labs without any hardware

or software but with a vision how computers should operate. Jobs and his Apple

crnployces were able to convert the innovative PARC ideas into Macintosh computer,

-which debuted in 1984, changing the face of computing. Because of Jobs leadership,

Apple created the systems and structure that were able to convert their knowledge into

a valuable product. Jobs used a transformational leadership style to create a vision for

the Macintosh and challenge his employees to reach nearly impossible goals, (Bryant,

2003). John G. Searle, professor of organisation and management at the Yale School

70

13cbavioural Aspects of Transformational Leadcrshil! in Manufacturing Organisations

of Management says: "[Jobs] is the supreme example of a transformational leader who

stands for higher order values.... he has caused people to do things they might never

have done before. "

4. Another example of transfonnational leader in computer manufacturing industry is Michael Dell, chairman of Dell Computer Company. Ludcman and

Eflandson, principals of the Carpentria, California, consultancy Worth Ethic

Corporation (www. worthethic. com) illustrate him by saying that Dell computer

chairman Michael Dell demonstrates the power of the leader whose authenticity and

openness to learning pervades and motivates an entire company. They substantiate this

claim by citing numerous comments about Michael Dell's leadership style by Dell

Computer managers, "I continue to be impressed by his openness and his willingness

to be vulnerable, " and "he's so clearly a learner. " Ludeman observes, "He's always

trying new things. What does that mean to his organisation? It means people think of

problems as nothing to hide, but rather as things to seek help in finding answers"' -

answer that usually involve doing something new or different. "In some cases that

means the company responds more quickly to changes in its operating environment. "

Dell embarked on a revolutionary direct-retail system called mass customisation.

Through Dell's offering, an individual could configure a PC that met his or her unique

specifications and requirements, and Dell would subsequently build it to orderwithin

t, %vo or three days. Dell provided both on-sitc and remote customer service to ensure

that transaction and set-up were as easy and as smooth as possible. In 1992, Michael

Dell, at twenty-sevcn years of age, became the youngest CEO of a Fortune 500

company. He continued revolutionalising the PC retail market space by being the first

to offer, sell, and service PCs over the intemet, Dumaine (2002), Mayo & Nohria

(2005).

5. in the late 1990s, Toyota Motor Corp. (Japan) was in the process of

implementing a $13.5 billion strategic vision framework designed to make Toyota

global automotive leader by the year 2004 [Bremner, (1997); Ibison, (2001 a); lbison,

(2001c)]. Realizing this expansion strategy involved such strategic objectives and

tasks as: a) shaking up the firm's insular, consensus-driven culture; b) extending

Toyota's edge in high-speed, flexible car making; c) pursuing perhaps the most

71

Behavioural Aspects of Trans formational Leadershi2 in Manufacturing Organisations

aggressive overseas expansion in automotive history; d) outflanking Detroit in

cmcrging markets and going after the U. S. 's "Big Three" automakcrs; c) using new

designs to create excitement about the Toyota brand; and c) cutting costs even more.

Implementing these strategic objectives a restructuring of tile design division, for

example, led to the introduction of 12 new models in 1996, some of which were

created in 14.5 months, less than half the time competitors needed. These new models

led to major sales gains in the U. S. and Toyota! s new "Europe Car" was turning out to

be a major competitor in Europe's minicar segment, Burt (2002). Its sturdy, simply

designed, fuel-cfficient Asian car, built with local parts, was expected to help Toyota

become a market leader in Southeast Asia and eventually in China. Continuing this

trend, more recently the introduction of its redesigned Carnry, began 18 months ahead

of time, Hakim (2001).

Since 1995, Toyota had saved nearly $2.5 billion in costs, mostly by developing ways

to use fewer parts and eliminating production waste. This was an astounding feat,

considering how frugal Toyota was in the past. In 1997, CEO Hiroshi Okuda ordered

managers to come up with $800 million in extra cost savings every year for the

foreseeable future.

Probably the toughest task at Toyota was changing the company culture. To make

tradition-shackled Toyota more multinational in outlook, Okuda intensified his efforts

to flatten the corporate pyramid at headquarters, to pay to performance rather than

seniority, and to promote frustrated young managers. Many older executives were

stripped of fancy titles and given narrower responsibilities to make way for younger

executives. Okuda admitted, however, that it might take years to change the corporate

culture. Programs to further improve service, quality, and marketing were also being

introduced and further organisation changes were planned. To increase U. S. market

penetration, Toyota formed a Racing Development unit which spent tcns of millions

of dollars to develop a winning reputation on the U. S. racing circuit. Toyota even

went so far as to pledge to spend over $8 billion in the U. S to diversify its workforce

and reach out to more minority suppliers and customers, in an effort to more closely

meet society's general cultural expectations in the U. S., where workers generally

accept Toyota as a local manufacturer, Barboza (2002); Hakim (2001). In 2002,

72

13chavioural Aspects of Transformational Leadershi2 in Manufacturing OrganiSations

Toyota rcmaincd the quality leader worldwide among all auto manufacturcrs, White &

Lundegaard (2001).

6. Jan Carlzon, CEO of Scandinavian Airlines and author of Moments of Truth

[Carlzon, 19871. When be bad occasion to explain how be bad chosen to empower his

cmployccs and to make them totally responsible for the fifty million "momcnts of

truth" that occur annually when an employee of the company has a direct onc-on-one

contact with a customer, he was often asked how many of these "moments of truth"

had gone sour. Carlzon always readily confessed that there had been half a dozen

serious instances of costly errors in approximately six years. When asked how the

cmployccs responsible for costly errors had been punished, he always answered: NVhy should we have punished them when it was our fault? We believe the task of leaders ... is to articulate the values of the organisation, to create a system in which

people can be productive, and to explain the goals that the system was established to

achieve... If we in top management had done those jobs properly.. those few errors

would not have occurred. That is why we went back to evaluate our own

corrimunication skills" O'Toole (1995).

7. Richard Kovacevich, CEO of Northwest Corp. has been called one of the best

banker in America because of his careful attention to the structures and systems that

keep banks stable and profitable. Kovacevich has inspired his followers with a vision

of transformation-of becoming the Wal-Mart of financial services- and it looks as if

the company is well on its way. At Northwest, for example, the average customer buys nearly four financial products, as opposed to the industry average of two, which

translates into approximately triple the amount of profit for Northwest. Kovacevich

leads with slogans such as "Mind share plus heart share equals market share. "

Although some people think it sounds hokey, Kovacevich and Northwest employees don't care. It's the substance behind the slogans that matters. Employees arc rewarded for putting both their hearts and minds into their work. Kovacevich constantly tells

employees that they are the heart and soul of Northwest and that only through their

cfforts can the company succeed. Under Kovacevich transformational leadership style, Northwest has turned into a banking powerhouse, (Daft, 2002).

73

Dchavioural Aspects of Trans format ional Leadership on Manufacturing Organisations

One of the transformational leader noted while studying trans form ational leadership in Pakistani manufacturing organisation, is a leader number 51 of organisation number I (Project Director) who was a high scorer on transformational leadership scale rated by

his followers. Under his leadership, the organisation has made tremendous innovations

in the manufacture of armed vehicles as well as develops valuables parts in house,

which were previously imported from foreign countries. He gives discretion to his

followers in doing theirjobs, and appreciating followers by giving them reward in the

form of bonuses or appreciation certificates. His behaviour enables followers' to build

confidence in them while doing theirjobs and increased his followers' commitment to

work. A non-transformational leader from organisation number 4 (leader number 44 on

organisational structure as shown in on appendix page number ES), a General

Manager who was strict to his followers, and does not favour discretion to his

followers instead he insist on following the rules and procedures. He kccps a distance

from followers for any unnecessary discussion or a chat. His followers were observed

under pressure for meeting the production targets and following the proper

procedures. It was noted by the researcher that as a result of strictness on followers by

their leader, there were quality problems in that organisation and rework as well as

scrap rates were high.

2.17 Possible benerits that transformation leadership might be expected to bring to the manufacturing Industry in Pakistan.

13cncf its that transformational leadership may bring to the manufacturing industry in

Pakistan are:

0. Bringing transformational leadership skills and practices into manufacturing

organisations in Pakistan will have a significant impact on the performance in

manufacturing organisations. Many empirical studies have reported that

transformational leadership has a positive impact on organisational performance, Kirkpatrick & Locke (1996), Avolio, et al (2003), Jung & Sosik

(2002), Avolio (1999). Applying transformational leadership in manufacturing

organisations in Pakistan would increase the innovative capacity of the

74

Behavioural Aspects of Trans fomiational Leadership. in Manufacturitig Organisations

manufacturing organisations, as Daft (2002) described 'applying

transformational leadership in the organisations would increase the innovative

capacity of the organisations'.

It can bring quality improvement in the products because trans fon-national

leaders give discretion to their followers while doing their work and since followers feel self-efficacious, they are likely to be innovative in their work. Followers also communicate cffcctively with each other to learn, and to apply

new skills and technologies to reach organisational goals, Bass (1995),

Ozaralli (2002). According to Bass & Riggio (2006), trans formational leaders

are being observed as doing more to improve quality of production and

service.

It provides satisfaction to followers with their work. As described by Bass

(1998) that not only employees' performance is better when they believe their

leader is transformational, but they are more satisfied with the organisational

performance appraisal systems, Murray et al (2004).

10. It increases followers' commitment to the organisational goals. Berson and Avolio (2004) found that transformational leaders were better able to get followers committed to organisational goals, due to their better abilities to

communicate with followers.

Transformational leadership at all levels in a manufacturing organisation can

make a big difference in the organisation's performance and not just at the top

leadership positions, Bass, (1998). It has been found by Hickman (2004) that

transformational leadership throughout the organisation can increase

profitability.

2.18 Summary

The concept of leadership has drawn heightened attention from social scientists for

many decades. Recently, the focus of leadership has shifted from traditional or

75

13chavioural Aspects of Transfommlional LeadershiR in Manufacturing Orgmisations

transactional models of leadership to a new gcnre of leadership theories, with an

cmphasis on trans formational leadership (Bass, 1985).

Until the early 1980s, the most leadership work in psychology and management was

focused on the more managerial aspects of leadership that Bass labelled

"transactional. " This work was what House (1971) discussed in his path-goal theory

of leadership, as well as what Hersey and Blanchard (1977) referred to in their

situational theory of leadership. By moving the construct of transformational

leadership to the foreground, Bass was able to bring the ficld of leadership research

closer to what the layperson had in his or her mind when asked to describe exemplary

lcadcrship.

Bass (1985) shifted his position on transformational leadership to include a moral

component that was later described as the "idealized, " not "idolized, " component. The

inclusion of the moral component, which was prominent in Bums (1978) reference to

transforming leaders who were "morally uplifting, " has motivated a very important

discussion on what differentiates charismatic leaders from inspirational or

transformational leaders; what differentiates 'good' charismatic leaders from 'bad'

ones. The whole area regarding the measurement of transformational leadership has

stimulated much healthy debate about how it should be measured, and multi-factor leadership questionnaire and transformational leadership questionnaire were

discussed.

This chapter provides the reader with leadership concepts, its approaches, and literature on transformational leadership. It also describes applications of leadership

theories in manufacturing organisations with some real examples of transformational

leaders in industry. It has also described the possible benefits that transformational

Icadership can bring to the manufacturing industry in Pakistan. However there is a gap

bct%vcen transformational leadership research with reference to contingency approach

or situational leadership theory. Literature on transformational leadership, with

situational determinants is silent, i. e., what are the transformational leaders behaviours

with respect to situational determinants, and what are the characteristics of

transformational leaders that make them favourable for today's manufacturing

76

Behavioural Aspects of Transformational LcadershipinNianufactudng Organisations

organisations. For looking into the conccpts of situational dctcmiinants, litcrature on

situational detenninant will be reviewed in the next chapter i. c., chaptcr 3.

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Behavioural Aspects of Trans fomiational Leadushin in Manufacturing Organisations

Chapter3 Literature Review-Research Questions

3.1 Introduction

This chapter is aimed at introducing the literature reviewed for situational determinants for leadership. According to Bass and others, we know a great deal today

about the actions, behaviour, and influence of trans formational leaders (Bass, 1985,

1999a, b; Bass & Avolio, 1990). However, we know very little about the psychological

substructure, the internal world of these leaders, namcly what "makes them tick" and how they developed this way (Bass 1998, House & Howell, 1992, Judge & Bono,

2000). Transforniational. leadership has an impact on organisational performance (Howell and Avolio, 1993, Parry 1994). The focus of this research is to gain insight

into the leadership of today's manufacturing organisations and to understand how

transformational leaders are effective in manufacturing organisations, Scarborough

(2001). A series of fundamental research questions is presented to address a variety of

basic questions whose answers will. further broaden transformational leadership

research and application to a manufacturing context. Although much survey and

experimentation has been completed on whether task or relations-oriented and

directive or participative leadership emerges and is successful and cffcctive in

structured (compared to non structured) task situation, relatively little has been done

so far to suggest bow transactional or transformational leadership fits better with one

kind of task situation compared to another, Avolio, & Yarnmarino (2002).

Aftcr a review of literature on situational determinants, it was observed that most

prominent scholars of organisational research have focused on variables like

situational strength, attribution theory, feedback, and organisational culture. For

cxample, situational strength (Scarborough, 2001), attribution (Avolio, ct al.

2002, Yuki, 1989), feedback (Scarborough, 2001, Zaccaro & Klimosk-i, 2001, Brian

and Barber, 2004, Parry, 2000, Steyrer, 2002, Daft, (2002)) and organisational culture

(Parry, 1998, Davis, 1984, Brown 1998, Bate, 1994, Ciulla, 1995). These variables

have also been the major focus of understanding leadership i. e., Yuk-l (1998), Bass

(1981,1985,1998), Shackleton (1995), Hughes et al (1993), Hicbert & Matt (2001),

Hunt (1991). These situational determinants are described in details as follows:

78

13chavioural Aspects of Transformational Leadershinin Manufacturing. Organisat'

Thc situational research provides strong evidence that aspects of the situation influcnce the activity pattern and behaviour content of leadcrs (Yukl, 1989).

Situational theories of leader cffectivcness are concerned with the moderating influence of situational variables on the relationship between leader behaviour and

outcomes or between leader traits and outcomes. These theories assume that different

situations require different patterns of behaviour or traits to be cffectivc.

11crscy and Blanchard's (1988) situational leadership theory examines how the

cffcctivcncss of task and relations behaviour is contingent on follower maturity. nic

theory prescribes different combinations of these bchaviours depending on a followces confidence and skill in relation to the task. The theory emphasizes flexible,

adaptive leadership that is responsive to changing conditions.

The path-goal theory (1971) of leadership examines how four aspects (dircctivc,

supportive, participative and achievement-oriented) of leader behaviour influence

follower satisfaction and motivation. In general, leaders motivate followers by

influencing their perceptions of the likely consequences of different levels of cffort. If

followers believe that valued outcomes can be attained only by making a serious cffort

and that such an effort will be successful, then they are likely to make the effort. Aspects of the situation such as the nature of the task, the work environment, and follower characteristics determine the optimal level of each type of leadership

behaviour for improving follower satisfaction and effort.

Vroorn and Yettons normative model (1973) of participation examines the effects of different decision procedures on two intervening variables- decision quality and decision acceptance-which jointly influence group performance. The situational

moderator variables are characteristics of the decision situation that determine whether

a particular decision procedure will increase or decrease decision quality and

acceptance. Leaders are more effective if they use decision procedures that arc

appropriate in a particular situation. Later, the model was extended by Vroom and Jago. The situational theories provide some insights into reasons for leadership

Cffectivcncss, but they all have conceptual weaknesses that limit their utility (Yuki,

1989).

79

Pchavioural Aspccts of Transformational Leadershipin Manufacwflng Organisat'

3.2 Situational Strength

The first researcher who forinally recognised the importance of the Icadcr, follower,

and situation in the leadership process was Fred Fiedler (1967) with his contingency

model of leadership. The situation may be the most ambiguous aspect of Icadcrship,

the nature of task, the work setting, presence of formal rules and regulations are a few

of the situational variables that can affect the leadership process. 17he situation can

constrain or facilitate a leader's action and leaders can change different aspects of

situation in order to be more cffective (Hughes, Ginnctt, & Curphy, 1993). I'lie

concept of situation strength has been used to study the cffcct of various concepts of

the leadership behaviour (Carpcnter, Golden, 1997, Mullins, & Cummings, 1999,

Carpcntcr, Fredrickson, 2001). A framework of situational strength by Mischel (1977)

is defined as those strong situations in which most actors construe the situation in the

same way, most draw similar conclusions as to appropriate responses, and most are

Inotivated and able to respond. In strong situations, the situation itself provides

incentives to make the appropriate response, and the necessary skills to respond arc

present in most individuals. A red traffic light is an example of a strong situation.

hlischel argues that in strong situations, but not weak ones, situational factors

dominate individual differences in determining decision-makcrs courses of action.

Thus, the behavior of drivers at red lights is better predicted by the color of the light

than by the traits and dispositions of individual drivers, even though a few drivers do

run red lights. Conversely, weak situations are defined by Mischel as those in which

there is ambiguity about the meaning of the situation and the appropriateness of

various responses, where incentives for any particular response are unclear, and where

individuals' ability to respond may vary. According to Mischcl, individual differences

play a more significant role in such situations (e. g. a yellow traffic light), since no

clear directions are provided by the situation (Mischel, 1977).

Among the most successful leadership models is a group characterized as contingency

or situational models (described in chapter 2). The common theme of these models is

that there is not one best way to lead; effective leaders adapt to their behaviours to

each unique situation (Hiebert & Klatt, 2001). Situations may be defined entirely in

terms of rule. Rules may specify what should and should not happen, what should be

worn., and how to deal with different situations (Magnusson & Endlcr, 1977).

80

13chavioural Aspects of Transformational Leadushin in Manufaciftiring-Organisations

It is also likely that the type of employee in the strong situation company will have

adapted to that strong situation and will not challenge the system. This is not true of

the weak situation where the individual is probably more used to, and acccpting of,

ambiguity and a lack of a strong company policy, and is likely to deliver an individual

response akin to their own ways of behaving in the particular situation.

Thc Trait approach assumes that how people will behave in novel, ambiguous, or what

we call "weak" situations. Situations that are governed by clearly specified rules, demands, or organisational policies-"strong" situations-often minimize the effects traits have on behaviour, Hughes, Ginnett & Curphy (1993).

As a good example for leadership effectiveness by Jenkins (2005), quoted here; in

soccer, what is the primary leadership style for a coach? Delegating on the sidelines and leaving the execution of the game to the team and its players. The delegating

coach "empowers the team to act independently (from the leader), " with the coach

providing the "appropriate resources to get the job done.

To know about the behaviours of transformational leaders in manufacturing

organisations with respect to situational strength, the first research question can be

stated as:

Research Question No. I: Do transformational leaders create a weak situation for their followers In

manufacturing organisations?

Situation strength key phrases noted during the interviews of manufacturing leaders

and during study of manufacturing organisations were: process sheets and drawings of

the parts to be manufacturcd/assembled are clearly def'tncd/docwncnted and arc

available for followers; quality assurances requirements are available for the

assessment of quality matters; rules and regulation exist in the organisation; a standard

code of conduct for employees is available in the organisations; discretion given to

followers by their leader in performing their jobs can be described as strong

situational variables.

81

Pchaviouml Asrects of-Transfornutional Leadcrshipin Manufacturing Organism'

On the contrary, if these variables are absent in manufacturing organisations, the

situation strength is defined as 'weak'. A table of situational strcngth variables so dcrincd by the researcher in terms of situational strength for manufacturing

organisations is shown in table 3.1

STRONG SITUATION WEAK SITUATION 1. Rules and procedures indicate a wish 1. An absence of any rules or regulations that the by the organisation to produce a strong organisation is trying to maximise discretion. situation. 2. Low discretion to followers in the 2. High discretion to followcrs in the puforniance pcrfonnancc ofjobs by the leaders. of job by their leader. 3. A low willingness to delegate by 3. A great willingness to delegate by the leaders to Icadcrs to followers. followers. 4. Low dccision-making power by 4. High dccision-making power by leader to leader to followers. followcrs. 5. Targcts/goals are set by the leaders 5. Targcts/goals arc set with the involvement of for followers. followers by the leaders. 6. Scqucncc of operation is important. 6. Quality of the job is important. 7. The attitude of leaders- if they stress 7. The Attitude of the leader - if they stress adherence to procedures it indicates a trust and discretion then thcre is an indication of a wish for a strong situation. preference for a weak- situation.

8. The response of the followers -if 8. The response of the followers if they say they say they are constrained in terms that they have high discretion then it is probably of decisions then the situation is probabI3 we.. Strong. 9. Strictness in terms of following rules 9. Flexibility in terms of following rules & & procedures procedures 10. Focus on procedures. 10. Focus on end results. 11. Presence of detailed process 11. Unavailability/skctchy detailed process specification sheets, detailed product specification sheets, detailed product drawings, drawings, quality assurance quality assurance requirements, and code of requirements, and code of conduct in conduct indications for a weak situation. the organisation indicate strong situation.

Table 3.1 Situation Strength- Key Phrases

3.3 Attribution Theory

Attribution theory is derived from Heidces (1954) concept of people as 'naive

psychologists'. In this concept, people actively search for explanations of the

behaviour that they observe, and forni hypotheses as to the causes of the behaviour

82

13chavioural Aspects ofTransfo=tionalLeadersliipinlianxifacturinjOrganisal' -.

that they obscrvc. The resulting causal attributions detcmiinc, in turn, cognitive,

affcctivc, and bchavioural responses toward tile actor. Wcincr (Wcincr ct al 1972)

proposed a simple two-dimensional representation of causal attributions, based on

perceptions of dimensions of locus of causality and stability. Ilicsc dimensions, in

turn, defined four basic typcs of causal attribution. Effort and ability arc internal

attributions. Effort is unstable, while ability is stable. The external attributions arc task

difficulty (stable) and luck (unstable).

Attribution theory entered the mainstream of organisational literature with the

publication of Green and Mitchell (1979), followed shortly after by Knowlton and

Mitchell (1980) and Mitchell, Green and Wood (1981). In the attribution model of

leadership, follower's pcrfonnancc observed by the leader is translated into the

leader's bchavioural response based on his or her attributions as to tile causes of the

followers behaviour.

Some leadership theories, seek to clarify the construct of leadership by cxamining

what leadership consists of (e. g., traits, bchaviours). Others arc more concerned with

the process of leadership; that is, how leaders decide what action to take and the

impact of those actions on others (e. g., the path-goal model). This distinction is

applicable to the attribution leadership research. For example, one line of research has

demonstrated how descriptions of leader behaviour are affected by such factors as

knowledge of group performance (Butterfield, Powcll, & Mainicro, 1978; Farris &

Lim, 1969; Lord, Binning, Rush, & Thomas, 1978; Mitchell, Larson, & Green, 1977;

Rush, Thomas, & Lord, 1977).

A second line of attribution research, rather than attempting to tap these implicit

leadership theories, seeks to determine their effects on the leadership process. At the

forefront of this line of inquiry is a two-step attributional. model of leadership

proposed by Green and Mitchell (1979). This model suggests that leaders, given

evidence of follower performance, infer the cause of the performance (i. e., make

attributions) prior to determining the appropriate action to take. This model has

evoked a series of direct empirical tests (Green & Liden, 1980; ligen, Mitchell. &

Fredrickson, 1981; Mitchell & Kalb, 1981; Knowlton & Mitchell, 1980; McFillen &

83

Behavioural Aspects of Trans fonnal imnaMcadcrship-in-M anufacturing Organisations

New, 1979; Mitchell & Wood, 1980, Mitchell & Lidcn, 1982; Mitchell, Grccn, &

Wood, 198 1; Wood & Mitchell, 198 1).

Attribution theory describes how individuals develop causal explanations for

bchaviours and outcomes, and how their causal cxplanations influcncc subsequent

reactions (Martinko, 1995). Although thcre arc many variations of attribution theory,

research on attributions has primarily focuscd on two conccptual approaches; (1)

achievement motivation models (e. g., Wcincr, 1986) which cmphasizc how

individuals explain their own successes and failures; and (2) obscrvcr models (e. g., Kelley, 1973) which emphasize how individuals explain the bchaviours and outcomes

of others.

Attribution theory has played a prominent role in the dcvclopmcnt of the attributional leadership model (e. g. Green & Mitchell, 1979; Mitchell, Green, & Wood, 1981). The

attributional leadership model is grounded in the concept of responsibility assignment. The leader makes observations to determine which causal factors are responsible for

the followers behaviour and outcomes. These attributions about causality then

influence the leadees reactions to the follower.

An important determinant of the casual attributions developed by a leader is the

leadces information processing of the followees behaviour along the three dimensions

of Kelley's (1967) covariation model: (1) distinctiveness - did the followces

behaviour occur during the performance of this task only? (2) consistency is this behaviour unusual for the follower in other situations? (3) consensus is this behaviour unusual for the follower's cohort? The conclusions reached on these three dimensions influence whether the leader makes causal attributions of responsibility for

the behaviour to the follower (an internal attribution) or to some aspect of the follower's situation (an external attribution).

The attributional leadership model also posits that leaders evaluate follower

behaviours by using classification schema such as the classical two-dimensional

model of Weiner et al (1972). The Weiner model is composed of (1) a locus of control dimension which delineates whether the primary cause of the behaviour is a

characteristic of the follower (an internal attribute) or a characteristic of the situation

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Behavioural Aspects of TgnsfDrmational LeadershipjaManufacturine Organisations

(an cxternal attribute); and (2) a stability dimension which delineates wlictlicr or not the follower's bchaviour is likely to rcmain constant (stable) or change ovcr time

(unstable). The crossing of the locus of control and stability dimcnsions produces a2 by 2 matrix of four causal factors that a leader can utilize to explain a followces

behaviour: stablc/intcmat (ability); stabic/cxtcmal (task difficulty); unstablctcxtcmal (luck/chancc); unstable/internal (effort).

As a leader determines the causal factor(s) for a follower's performance, the ascribed

attributions influence both the leader's expectations for future performance and his or her behaviour toward the follower. Leaders are more likely to take corrective action

toward the situation when performance problems are attributed primarily to external

causal factors. In contrast, leaders arc more likely to take corrective action toward the

follower when a performance problem is primarily attributed to internal factors

(Mitchell & Wood, 1980). In addition, corrective action is more likely to be punitive

in nature when the leader attributes poor performance to a lack of cffort, as compared

to a lack of ability.

Ile relationship, which exists between leaders and their followers, can play an important role in determining performance and satisfaction of all of the individuals

involved in the relationship, and how both perceive the actions of the other and to

what they attribute to those actions. Attribution theory suggests that any event can have a variety of causes. This gives rise to the idea that we all act as 'naive

psychologists' in trying to create some order out of the abundance of possibilities,

which arc presented to us in our lives. Therefore, attribution theory can be defined as

the manner in which people try to discover cause-and-effect relationships in the

events, which occur around them. This attribution process is crucial to Icader-follower

relations.

Attribution theory suggests that we observe the behaviour of others and then attributc

causes to it. Initially put forward by Heider (1958), attribution theory focuses on the inferences that arc used to deduce someone else's disposition or traits, from

observations of their behaviour. it has the advantages and disadvantages of being tied

to a relatively small number of core theoretical statements Ileidcr (1958), Jones &

85

lichavioural Aspects of Trans fomiational Leadershil? in Manufacturing OrConisations

Davis (1965) & Kelly (1967). Central to 11cicices theory is the proposal that people

see bcbaviour as being caused either by the individual in question (i. e. dispositional),

or by the cnvironmcnt (situational). It makes a distinction between internal and

external causes - that is, whether people initiate actions themselves, or purely rcact to

the environment in which the action takes place.

Research shows that people do have a strong tendency to attribute others' actions to

internal, dispositional factors when evidence to the contrary is lacking

(Shacklcton, 1995). The question is: how do we decide what type of attribution to

make? Kelley's Co-variation Model (1967) extends the work of Ilcidcr and attempts to

explain exactly how we make judgements about internal and external causes. The

principle of co-variation states that an cffect is attributed to one of its possible causes,

with which over time, it co-varies' (Kelley, 1967). That is to say that if two events

repeatedly occur together, we are more likely to infcr that they arc causally related

than if they very rarely occur together. Kelley's model suggests that if the behaviour to

be explained is thought of as an effect of something, which has occurred, the cause

can be one of three kinds. The extent to which the behaviour co-varics with each of

these three kinds of possible cause is what people actually base their attribution upon.

The attribution theory of leadership suggests that a leadeesjudgcment about his or her

employees' actions is influenced by the leadees attribution of the causes of the employees' performance. That is to say, leaders observe the performance of their followers and then try to understand why the followers' behaviour met, exceeded, or failed to meet the leadees expectations. The leadces attributions of employees' behaviour then dctcm-dne how the leader responds, just as much as does the actual behaviour itself

Once an attribution has been made as to the cause of an employee's behaviour, the manager or leader then selects actions to deal with the behaviour. Thus, if a leader attributes a followces poor performance to internal factors such as low effort or a lack of ability, he or she may reprimand, dismiss, or provide training for the employee concerned. If, however, poor performance is attributed to external factors such as a lack of material, or to work overload, the leader would need to conccntmte on these factors and improve the situation instead of giving negative feedback to the employee.

86

Behavioural Aspects of Tnnsformational Leadcrship in Man factur'nZDrea n isat ions

Mitchell and wood (1979) have developed an attributional model of leadership which

attempts to link leader's actions to employees poor pcrfbrmancc as shown on figurc

3.1. This shows the connection and relationship between the components of

cmployce's observation, information eucs (i. e., distinctiveness, consistency and

consensus, casual attribution, perceived sources of responsibility and, finally the

response that the leader makes.

Green and Mitchell's (1979) two-stage model describes the manncr in which

supervisors respond to poorly performing followers. In the first step of the process, the

leader diagnoses the cause of the employee's incffective performance using Kelley's

(1967) co-variation principle. Leaders analyse the follower's behaviour with regard to

its consistency over time, distinctiveness across settings and consensus across

employees. They then attribute the poor performance to factors that are either internal

or external to follower. In the second step of the model, leaders implement a

corrective response to improve the performance. Green and Mitchell predict that

leaders will select more punitive, corrective actions when poor performance is

attributed to factors intemal to the follower.

Infonnation cues *Distinctiveness *Consistency

Obscrvation of Poor Quality of Production *Rejects *Excess wrap *Returned products *Excessive production costs

Pcrceived Soume of Respmsibility

I

Casual attnbution of Poor quality

Internal causes

: Low effort Low convnitrnmt Unkage *Lack of ability No. I

Extcmal Causes

*Poor equipment Unfair deadlines Illness of production team members

Figure 3.1 An attributional Leadership model Source: Adopted from Mitchell and Wood (1979).

Exader behaviour in PtsPonse to Attribution

*Rcpdnund *Transfer

Linkage *Dcrno6on No. 2 *Rcdcsignjob

*Personal concern Training

87

3.4 Explanations In terms of Cause

Fischhoff (1976) has noted that psychologists - especially those interested in

attribution theory should read some philosophy. Many, perhaps most, of us lack a

training in the conceptual analysis that characterizes philosophy, but we can bcncrit

from the attention philosophers have devoted to such questions as what is 'bchavioue

(Drctskc, 1988), what is an'cvcnt'(Paclitcr, 1974), what is a'disposition' (Rozcboom,

1973) or, what is a 'cause? It is, to say the least, ironic that an idea so fundamental to

attribution theory - the concept of causality - has received so little attention in tile

social-psychological literature (Shaver, 198 1).

The classic approach is that of David Hume, (1975) his prototypical example of

causality was one billiard ball striking another - the collision is followed by movement

of the previously stationary ball, but is not seen as producing it. Many dcrinitions of

cause are to be found in Hume's work, but perhaps the clearest is the following:

A cause is said to be an object followed by another, and where all the objects similar

to the first arc followed by objects similar to the second, where, if the first object had

not been, the second had not existed, Hume (1975).

Hume's causality is typically rcfcrrcd to as 'constant conjunction! (e. g., Aycr, 1980)

and the definition above certainly conveys the meaning of covariation between cause

and cffect, which is fundamental to Kelley's (1967) theory of causal attribution. John Stuart Mill's 1973) conception of cause has significantly influenced attribution theory, via Kcllcys (1967) theory. Mill wrote that the cause is the sum total of the

conditions positive and negative taken together which being realized, the consequent invariably follows' (quoted by Davidson, 1967). As Davidson cited, is whether the

true cause must include all the antecedent conditions that were jointly sufficient for

the effect. Mill argued that what people ordinarily call the cause is one of these

conditions, arbitrarily selected, which becomes inaccurately labelled 'the cause'. To

distinguish between the cause and mere conditions Hart and Honore (1961) use two factors or contrasts, these are the contrasts between what is abnormal in relation to any

given subject-mattcr and between a free deliberate human action and all other

conditions. For example, asked what is the cause of a railway accident, one would

assume until corrected that the train was moving at normal speed, carrying a normal

88

weight, that the driver stopped and started, acccicrated and slowed down at nornial times. To mention these nornial conditions would obviously provide no explanation of the disaster, for they arc also present wlicn no disastcr occurs; wlicrcas the mention of bcnt rail does provide an explanation. Accordingly, though all the conditions mentioned arc equally necessary, the bcnt rail is the cause and the othcrs arc mcrc conditions. It is the bcnt rail we say which 'made the diffcrcncc' bctNvccn disaster and normal functioning. (Ilart and Ilonorc, 1961)

Some similar ideas have also been put forward by Mackie (1974) with rcfcrcncc to the idea of a 'causal field'. In Mackie's words, Toth cause and cffcct are seen as diffcrcnccs within a ficld; anything that is part of the assumed (but commonly instated) description of the field itself will, thcn, be automatically ruled out as a

candidate for the role of causc'(Mack-ic, 1974).

Leaders attribute to the causes of poor pcrformancc defined by the rcscarchcr in terms

of manufacturing organisations are defined as cithcr intcrnal or cxtcrnal attributions.

Internal attributions include follower's lack of intcrcst, inexpcricnccd followers,

abscntccism by followers, or any other cause due to follower's side. Extcrnal causes include, poor performance mainly due to machines break down, toot break down,

material inventory problem, material quality problem, or any other cause by external factors, which are beyond control of followers: to know about the attributions made by

tr=forinational leaders in manufacturing organisations, second research question

stated as:

Research Question No. 2: Do transformational leaders make internal attributions for the cause of poor perfonnance organisations?

In manufacturing

89

3.5 Feedback

Fccdback is an csscntial part of Icadcrship. Fccdback liclps to gain an undcrstanding

of leadcrship stylc and strcngtlis & wcak-ncss. Continual fccdback cnables to bcnchmark progrcss and rcfocus on cfforts. Tdcally, fccdback will comc from as many diffcrcnt sourccs as possibIc. Sourccs of fccdback includc

" Intcrvicws with co-workcrs

" Pcrfonnancc appmisals

" Employce attitudc survcys

" Pcrsonality tcsting

Managcmcnt stylc assessmcnt

Teambuilding scssions

Onc-on-oncs with boss

Feedback is central to leadership (London, 2002). It is the key to leadcrs'scif-insight.

Without fccdback, leaders would be in tile dark about the effects of their decisions and

actions on their organisations and their relationships. Feedback stcms from a number

of sources. Some fccdback comes from objective data: information about finances

(reports of expenses and revenues), human resources (data on employee turnover,

numbers attending various training courses, salary surveys in the labour market outside the firm), and business processes (error rates, projects completed on time, inventory). Other feedback comes from subjective data: comments or ratings from

one's supervisor, followers, peers, customers, and/or suppliers.

Feedback is vital to leadership (Hughes ct al 1993). Feedback is generally acknowledged as an essential ingredient for cffective leadership (Hicbcrt & Klatt, 2001). It is a fundamental part of the process leading people towards behaviour and performance that are appropriate to any given situation. Feedback on how one is doing is essential to grow and improve performance (Rolland & Bee, 1996). Meaningful feedback is central to performance. Fcedback is the information people receive about their performance. It conveys information about behaviours, and it conveys an evaluation about the quality of those bchaviours (London, 1997). Feedback can come from a number of sources. It can come directly from the tasks; it can come from other

90

pcoplc - supcrvisors, followers, pccrs, and customers. Feedback can be a way to

gatlicr accurate information about oneself. It can also be used to control what otlicrs

think of oneself, or to protect one's cgo (Morrison & Vancouvcr, 1993). People

usually take credit for success and attribute blame to cxtcmal causes (Levy, 1991)

Studics show that good leadcrs communicate fcclings and ideas, actively solicit new ideas from others, and cffcctivcly articulate argumcnts, and pcrsuadc others (Bcnnis &

Nauus, 1985, Kanter, 1983, Parks, 1985). Effective communications skills arc important bccausc they provide leaders and followers with grcatcr access to

information relevant to important organisational decisions (Ficchtncr & Kraycr,

1986).

Leaders and followers can enhance the clarity of their communications in several

ways, the leader may brief a new organisational policy to followers, and they may

come up with different interpretations of this policy based on different values and

expectations. By being sensitive to followers' framcs of reference and modifying

messages accordingly, leaders can minimize communication breakdowns. Another

way to clarify messages is to create a common framc of reference for followers before

communicating a message. According to Curphy (1997), leaders can enhance the

Icarning value of their experiences by (a) creating opportunities to get feedback, (b)

taking a 10 percent stretch, (c) learning from others, (d) keeping a journal of daily

leadership events, and (e) having a developmental plan.

3.5.1 Creating opportunities to get feedback

It may be difficult for leaders to get relevant feedback, particularly if they occupy

powerful positions in an Organisation. Yet leaders oflcn need feedback more than followers do. Leaders may not learn much from their leadership cxpcricnccs if they

get no feedback about how they are doing. Therefore, they may need to create

opportunities to get fccdback, especially with regard to feedback from those working for them. Leaders should not assume they have invited feedback merely by saying that

they have an "opcn-door" policy. A mistake some bosses make is presuming that

others perceive them as open to discussing things just because they say they are open

to discussing things. How truly open a door is, clearly, is in the eye of the beholder. In

91

that sense, the key to constructive dialogue (i. e., fcodback) is not just expressing a

policy but also being perceived as approachable and sincere in tile offcr. Some of tile

most hclpful information for developing own Icadcrship can come from asking for

fccdback from others about their perceptions of behaviour and its impact on the

group's overall cffcctivcncss. Unless leaders ask for fccdback, thcy may not get it.

3.5.2 Taking a 10 perccnt strc(ch

The phrase 10 percent stretch conveys the idea or voluntary but determined cfforts to

improve leadership skills. Several positive outcomes arc associated with leaders who

regularly practice the 10 percent stretch. First, their apprehension about doing

something new or different gradually decreases. Second, leaders will broaden their

rcpcrtoirc of leadership skills. Third, because of this increased repertoire, their

cffcctivcness will likely increase. Finally, leaders regularly taking a 10 pcrccnt stretch

Nvill model something very valuable to others. One final aspect of the 10 percent

stretch is worth mcntioning that the phrase is so appealing it sounds like a measurable

yet manageable change.

3.5.3 Learning from others.

Leaders learn from others, first of all, by recognizing they can learn from others and, importantly, from any others. That may seem sclf-cvidcnt, but in fact people often limit what and whom they pay attention to, and thus what they may learn from.

Similarly, leaders also can learn by asking questions and paying attention to everyday

situations. An especially important time to ask questions is when leaders are new to a

group or activity and have some responsibility for it. When possible, leaders should

talk to the person who previously had the position in order to benefit from their

insights, cxpcricncc, and assessment of the situation. Lcadcrs can learn a lot by

actively observing how others react to and handle different challenges and situations,

even very common ones.

92

3.5.4 Keeping a journal.

Another way leaders can "mine" experiences for their richness and preserve their Icarning is by keeping a journal (Csikszcntmilialyi, 1990). Journals are similar to diaries, but they arc not just accounts of a days events. A journal should include

entries that address some aspect of leaders or leadcrship.

711crc arc at least three good reasons for keeping a journal. First, the very process of writing increases the likelihood that leaders will be able to look at an event from a different perspective or fccl differently about it. Putting an experience into words can be a step toward taking a more objective look at it. Second, leaders can (and should) rc-rcad earlier entries. Earlier entries provide an interesting and valuable autobiography of a Icadces evolving thinking about leadership and about particular events in his or her life. Third, journal entries provide a repository of ideas that leaders

may later want to use more formally for papers, pcp talks, or speeches.

3.5.5 Having a developmental plan.

Leadership development almost certainly occurs in ways and on paths that arc not

completely anticipated or controlled. That is no reason, however, for leaders to avoid

actively directing some aspects of their own development. A systematic plan outlining

self-improvement goals and strategies help leaders take advantage of opportunities they otherwise might overlook. Developing a systematic plan also help leaders

prioritisc the importance of different goals, so that their cfforts can be put into areas with the greatest relative payoffs. Leaders look for opportunities on the job or in

volunteer work- for responsibilities that may further their growth. Leaders however

recognize, that they may experience conflict--both internal and cxtcmal-betNvecn doing more of what they already do well and stretching developmentally.

Feedback variables for the Icadcrs in manufacturing organisations defined by the

researcher in terms of manufacturing organisations arc, having daily/casual meetings

, %vith followers, discussing %vith followers during job execution, evaluating daily

performance of followers, revicwing production rcports, and reviewing production targets. To know about how leaders get fccdback in manufacturing organisations and

93

Behavioural AsRects of Transformational Leadership in Manufacturing Organisations

what are the differences between transformational and non- transformational leaders

concerning getting feedback, third research question stated as:

Research Question No. 3: Do transformational leaders seek more feedback from their followers than non- transformational leaders in


3.6 Organisational Culture

One of the most widely researched areas in organisational research is the organisation

culture. An organisational culture affects its leadership as much as its leadership

affects the culture, Bass (1998). If an organisational culture has in place values and guides for autonomy at lower levels, management will be unable to increase its

personal powers. Decisions about recruitment, selection, and placement within the

organisation will be affected by the organisations' values and norms. Leaders need to be attentive to the rites, beliefs, values, and assumptions embedded in the

organisational culture. They can help or hinder efforts to change the organisation,

when it must move in new directions as a consequence of changes in the internal and

external environment of the organisation.

An important source of insight into the dynamics of transformational leadership is

provided by research and theory on organisational. culture, Yukl (1989).

Organisational. culture is the "glue" that holds the organisation together as a source of

identity and distinctive competence (Bass, 1991). As posed by Bass (1998) that can

organisational. cultures be usefully described in terms of how much leaders are

transactional or transformational?

The organisational. culture is a learned pattern of behaviour, shared from one

generation to the next (Deal & Kennedy, 1982). It includes the values and

assumptions shared by members about what is right, what is good, and what is

important

94

Dchavioural AsD: cts of Trans forrmt ionaLL-cadershili in-Manufacturing, Organisations

Most organ i sational -schol ars and obscrvcrs now rccognize that organisational culture has a powcrful cffcct on the performance and long-tcrin cffcctivcness of organisations. Empirical research has produced an impressive array of findings dcmonstrating the importance of culture in enhancing organisational pcrformancc (Camcron & Ettington,

1988; Dcnison, 1990: and Trice & Beyer, 1993). Kottcr and lieskctt (1992), dcrincd

culture as a critical factor in long-tcrni financial success.

3.7 The Meaning of Organisation Culture

It was not until the bcginrting of the 1980s that organisational scholars began paying

serious attention to the concept of culture (e. g., Ouchi, 1981; Pascale &Athos. 1981;

Peters & Waterman. 1982; Deal & Kennedy, 1982). This is one of the few areas, in

fact, in which organisational scholars led practicing managers in identifying a crucial factor affecting organisational performance. Organisational culture has been an area in

which conccptual work- and scholarship have provided guidance for managers as they

have searched to ways to improve their organisations'cffectiveness.

Of course, there are many kinds or levels of culture that affect individual and

organisational behaviour. At the broadest level, a global culture, such as a world

religion's culture or the culture of the Eastern hemisphere would be the highest level.

Researchers such as Hofstede (1980), Aiken and Bacharach (1979), and Trompcraars

(1992) have reported marked differences among continents and countries based on

certain key dimensions. For example, national differences exist among countries on

the basis of universalism versus particularism, individualism versus collectivism,

neutrality versus emotionality, specificity versus diffuseness, focus on achievement

versus ascription, focus on past versus present versus future, and an internal focus

versus an external focus (Trompcmars, 1992). According to Cameron & Quinn, (1999,

2006), there arc four basic types of organisational cultures, which can be assessed by

Organisational Cultural Assessment Instrument (OCAI) as Hierarchy, Market, Clan,

and Adhocracy and described as follows:

95

3.7.1 The Illerarchy Culture

The carlicst approach to organizing in the modern cra was based on the work of a German sociologist, Max Weber, who studied government organisations in Europe during the 1900s. The major challenge faced by organisations at the beginning of the industrial revolution- the time Weber wrotc-was to produce cfficicntly goods and

services for an increasingly complex society. To accomplish this end, Weber proposed seven characteristics that have become known as the classical attributes of bureaucracy (rules, specialization, mcritocracy, hierarchy, separate owncrship, impersonality, accountability) Weber (1947). TIcse characteristics were highly

cffcctivc in accomplishing their purpose. They were adopted widely in organisations

whose major challenge was to generate efficient, reliable, smooth-flowing, predictable

output. In fact, until the 1960s, almost every book on management and organisational

studies made the assumption that Wcbces hierarchy or bureaucracy was the ideal form

of organisation, because it led to stable, efficient, highly consistent products and

services, Cameron & Quinn (1999).

inasmuch as the environment was relatively stable, tasks and functions could be

integrated and coordinated, uniformity in products and services was maintained, and

workers and jobs were under control. Clear lines of decision-making authority,

standardized rules and procedures, and control and accountability mechanisms were

valued as the keys to success.

The organisational culture compatible with this form is characterized by a formalized

and structured place to work. Procedures govern what people do. Effective leaders arc

good coordinators and organizers. Maintaining a smooth-running organisation is

important. The long-term concerns of the organisation are stability, predictability, and

cfficicncy. Formal rules and policies hold the organisation together.

Large organisations and governmcnt agencies arc generally dominated by a hierarchy G,

culture, as evidenced by large numbers of standardized procedures, multiple hierarchical levels, and an emphasis on rule-rcinforccmcnt.

96

Dchavioural Aspccts of Trans formationaLltAdcrshipin 1--fanuracturing Organisafions

Organisations ranging from a typical fast-food restaurant (e. g. McDonald's) to major

conglomerates (like Ford Motor Company) and govcmmcnt agencies provide

protypical examples of a hierarchy culture. Large organisations and govcmmcnt

agencies arc gcnerally dominated by a hierarchy cultures, as evidenced by large

numbcrs of standardiscd procedures, multiple hicrarchical levels (Ford has scvcntccn levels of managcment, and an emphasis on rule rcinrorccmcnt. Even in small

organisations such as a Me Donald's restaurant, however, a hicrarchy culture can

dominate, Camcron & Quinn (2006).

3.7.2 The Market Culture

Another form of organizing became popular during the late 1960s as organisations

were faced with new competitive challenges. Ibis form relicd on a fundamentally

different set of assumptions than the hicrarchY and was based largely on the work of

Oliver Williamson, Bill Ouchi, and their colleagues (Williamson. 197S; Ouchi, 1981).

These organisational scholars identified an alternative set of activities that they argued

served as the foundation of organisational cffcctivcness. The most important of these

was transaction costs.

The new design was rcfcnrd to as a market forni of organisation. The term market is

neither synonymous with the marketing function nor with customers in the

marketplace. Rather, it refers to a type of organisation that functions as a market itsclt

it is oriented toward the external cnviroruncnt instead of internal affairs. It is focused

on transactions with (mainly) external constituencies including suppliers, customers,

contractors, licensees, unions, regulators, and so forth. In addition, unlike a hierarchy

where internal control is maintained by rules, specialized jobs, and centralized

decisions, the market operates primarily through economic market mechanisms,

mainly monetary exchange. That is, the major focus of markets is to conduct

transactions (exchanges. sales, contracts) with other constituencies to create

competitive advantage. Profitability, bottom line results, strength in market niches,

stretch targets, and secure customer bases are primary objectives of the organisation.

Not surprisingly, the core values that dominate market type organisations are

competitiveness and productivity,

97

Compctitivcness and productivity in markct organisations are achieved through a strong cmphasis on cxtcmal positioning and control. For example as Gcncral

Electric's forincr CEO, Jack Welch, made it clear in the late 1980s that if GE

busincsscs were not numbcr one or numbcr two in thcir markcts, they would be sold. Welch bought and sold ovcr three hundrcd busincsscs during his twenty-one year tcnurc as CEO. The GE culture undcr Wclch was known as a highly competitive. It

rcflectcd a stereotypical market culture, Camcron & Quinn (2006).

The basic assumptions in a market culture arc that the external environment is not

benign but hostile, consumers arc choosy and interested in value, the organisation is in

the business of increasing its competitive position, and the major task of management

is to drive the organisation toward productivity, results, and profits. It is assumed that

a clear purpose and an aggressive strategy lead to productivity and profitability. A

market culture, as assessed in the OCAI, is a rcsults-oricnted workTiace. Leaders arc

hard-driving producers and competitors. They are tough and demanding. The glue that

holds the organisation together is an emphasis on winning. The long-term concern is

on competitive actions and achieving stretch goals and targets. Success is dcfincd in

terms of market share and penetration. Outpacing the competition and market

leadership are important.

3.7.3 The Clan culture

The clan culture is called a clan because of its similarity to a family-type organisation.

After studying Japanese firms in the late 1960s and early 1970s, a number of

researchers observed fundamental differences between the market and hierarchy forms

of design in America and clan forms of design in Japan (Ouchi. 1981; Pascale &

Athos, 1981; Lincoln, 2003). Shared values and goals, cohesion, participativeness, individuality, and a sense of we-ness permeated clan-type firms. 'Mey seemed more

like extended families than economic entities. Instead of the rules and procedures of

hierarchies or the competitive profit centers of markets, typical charactcristics of clan-

type firms were teamwork-, employee involvement programs, and corporate

commitment to employees. These characteristics were evidenced by scmiautonomous

98

Behavioural Aspects of-Transforrmtion3l ]LcadcrshiD iri Manufacturing Orguisationi

work tcams that received rewards on the basis of team (not individual)

accomplisluncrit and that hired and fired their own members, quality circles that

cncoumgcd workers to voice suggestions regarding how to improve their own work

and the performance of the company, and an empowering environment for cmployccs.

Some basic assumptions in a clan culture arc that the environment can best be

managed through teamwork and employee development, customers arc best thought

of as partners, the organisation is in the business of developing a liumanc work

environment, and the major task of management is to empower employees and

facilitate their participation, commitment, and loyalty.

An example of clan-type organisation was People Express Airlines in its first rive

years of operation-until its founder, Don Burr, encountered financial difficulties that

led him to sell the company to avoid bankruptcy. After leaving Taxas Air in 1980,

Burr dreamed of creating not just a profitable airline but a model of how ideal

organisations ought to function. Burr brought with him several other officials from

Texas Air and within two years had dcfied all experts' predictions by tuming a profit-

the most dramatic success story in the history of the airline industry.

The clan culture, as assessed in the OCAT, is typiried by a fricndly place to work

whcrc people share a lot of themselves. It is like an extended family. Leaders arc

thought of as mentors and, perhaps, even as parent figures. The organisation is held

together by loyalty and tradition. Commitment is high. The organisation emphasizes

the long-term benefit of individual development with high cohesion and morale being

important. Success is defined in terms of internal climate and concern for people. The

organisation places a premium on teamwork, participation, and consensus.

3.7.4 The Adhocracy Culture

As the developed world shifted from the industrial age to the information age, a fourth

ideal type of organizing emerged. It is an organisational form that is most responsive

to the hyper-turbulent, hyper-accclcrating conditions that increasingly typify the

organisational world of the twcnty-first century. With rapidly decreasing half-life of

product and service advantages, a set of assumptions were developed that diffcrcd

from those of the previous three forms of organisation. Tlicse assumptions were that

99

Behavioural AsMcts of Transform-lion3LLeadershin in. Nl3ntifacturinz-Organisations

innovative and pioneering initiatives arc what lead to success, that organisations arc

mainly in the business of developing new products and services and preparing for the

future, and that the major task of management is to fostcr entrepreneurship, creativity.

and activity on the cutting edge. It was assumed that adaptation and innovativencss

lead to new resources and profitability, so emphasis was placed on creating a vision of

the future, organized anarchy, and disciplined imagination

The root of the word adhocracy is ad-hoc rcfcrring to a tcmporary. specialized, dynamic unit. Most people have served on an ad hoc task force or committee, which disbands as soon as its task is complctcdL Adhocracics arc similarly temporary. They

have been characterized as "tents rather than palaces" in that they can reconfigurc

thcmsclvcs rapidly whcn ncw circumstances arise. A major goal of an adhocracy is to

foster adaptability, flexibility, and creativity whcrc uncertainty, ambiguity, and/or

infon-nation-ovcrload are typical.

The adhocracy organisation may frequently be found in industries such as aerospace,

software development, think-tank consulting, and filmmaking, Camcron & Quinn

(1999). An important challenge of these organisations is to produce innovative

products and services and to adapt quickly to new opportunities. Unlike markets or

hierarchies, adhocracies do not have centralized power or authority relationships.

instead, power flows from individual to individual or from task team to task team

depending on what problem is being addressed at the time. A high emphasis on

individuality, risk taking, and anticipating the future exists as almost everyone in an

adhocracy becomes involved with production, clients, research and development, and

so forth. For example, each different client demand in a consulting firm is treated as

an independent project, and a temporary organisational design is set up to accomplish

the task-. When the project ends, the structure disintegrates. Sometimes adhocratic

subunits exist in larger organisations that have a dominant culture of a different type.

Story of successful failure of Apollo 13 space mission illustrates clearly how

leadership changes regularly and often unpredictably, team membership is temporary,

and no clear map can be drawn to identify the communication or control system.

During the flight, astronauts in the space capsule as well as support personnel on the

ground were not organised in a stable way for very long. Different problems

100

demanded different types of task tcams to address them, leadership shif1cd often, and even the piloting of the spacecraft switched from one astronaut to another. I'his was typical of the entire Manned Space Flight Centre at NASA. Its formal structure

changed seventeen times in the first eight years of its existence. No organisational

chart was ever drawn because it would have been outdated before it could be printed. Jurisdictional lines, precedents, and policies were treated as temporary. Titles, job

responsibilities, and even departmental alignments changed, sometimes weekly. I'lic

organisation operated with an adhocratic, design and rcflccted values typical of an

adhocracy culture.

The adhocracy culture, as assessed in the OCAI, is characterized by a dynamic,

entrepreneurial, and creative workTiacc. People stick their necks out and take risks. Effective leadership is visionary, innovative, and risk-oricnted. The glue that holds tile

organisation together is commitment to experimentation and innovation. The emphasis is on being at the leading edge of new knowledge, products, and/or services. Readiness for change and meeting new challenges are important. Ile organisation! s long-term emphasis is on rapid growth and acquiring new resources. Success means

producing unique and original products and services.

To know about which organisational culture is the most favourite culture for

transformational leaders in manufacturing organisations, a fourth research question is

needed, stated as:

Research Question No. 4.: Is clan culture the most common cultural environment created or existing In parallel with transformational leadership?

3.8 Points of convergence among approaches

Studies on transformational leadership have come up with some link-age with

intervening variables like situation strength, attribution, feedback, and organisation

culture. These intervening variables have generated a number of convergent results.

101

Transformational leaders dcvclop followers to tackle problems using their own unique

and innovative perspective and followers become more cffcctivc problem solvers with

and without the leader's facilitation. The concept of situation strcngdi focused on

perceived managerial discretion and role of individual in initiating proactivc change,

so there secms some linkage between transformational leadership and situation

strength, as to how transformational leadership, transforms followers as problem

solvers and an agent of change and increasing conridcncc in them.

Transformational leaders concentrate on diagnosing the needs and capabilities of follower's. They diagnose follower's nccds and attend to them individually.

Attribution theory states that, leaders observe the performance of their followers and then try to understand how follower's behaviour met, exceed, or failed to meet leader's expectations. The leader's attribution of follower's behaviour then determines

how the leader responds. Transformational leadership should have some relationship

with the attribution made by leaders about their followers.

Feedback is one transformational leadership characteristic, i. e., leader provides feedback for use in the personal development of followers. Leadership behaviour

rMcarch indicates that a large part of managerial activity involves gathering,

analysing, and disseminating information (Yuk-1,1989). Behaviour categories that

emphasize information exchange include monitoring, informing, and clarifying.

I. Ionitoring includes gathering information about the operations of their work unit and

scarming events in the external environment to detect problems, threats, and

opportunities, to evaluate progress in implcmcnting plans and strategies, and to

evaluate the performance of the work unit and of individual followers. Informing

behaviour involves the managces role as a "linking pin" or "ncrve center" to mediate

information flows among followers and bct-%vccn followers and people outside of the

managces organisational unit. Managers are an important source of technical

information necessary to facilitate the work of followers. This gives an idea that

transformational leaders are more concerned about feedback to evaluate the progress

and to take any further action, which may be required to further improve performance.

An important source of insight into the dynamics of trans formati onal Icadcrship, is

provided by research and theory on organisational culture (Yukl, 1989). SchciWs

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Uchavioural Asmts of TransfonnAtional Lcidgr5hip in ManufActuring Orunisation

(1985) provides the most comprehensive review and integration of this literature.

Schein defines culture as the basic assumptions and beliefs shared by members of a

group or organisation. Most organisational scholars and observers now recognize that

organisational culture has a powerful cffcct on the performance and long-term

cffcctiveness of organisations (Cameron, 1999). Therefore it may be stated that

organisational culture may have an effect on transformational leadership

This research project focuses on these intervening variables such as, situational

strength, attribution, feedback and organisational culture to gather information to

attempt to answer the question of what are the psychological substructure. the internal

world of transformational leaders, namely what "makes them tick", and how they

developed this way. Even if one considers transformational leadership to be a

behavioural theory, the origins of the behaviours arc unclear.

The conceptual model of this research project may be described as shown in figure

Situation Strength

" Strong " Weak

A Intemal Extemal

Trans forniat ional Leadership in Manufacturing

Feedback Direct Indirect

anisation Culture " Clan " Adliocritcy

" Market

" Hierarchy

Fig. 3.2 Conceptual Model of the Research

103

Behavioural Aspccts of Trans forrmflonaLLeadershinin Manufacturina Oreanisations

T'his study is particularly important as it could provide us understanding of the

relationship between concepts of situation strcngth, attribution, fccdback, and

organisational culture with respect to transformational Icadcrship. Attribution theory

and the conccpt of situation strength have been researched sporadically and provide an intcrcsting insight into the leadership proccss. The findings of this study will have

potential implications to managers and consultants on the need to rind appropriate

bchaviours for maximization of production and follower's satisfaction, organisational

culture, consistcrit. with the attitude toward organisational cffcctivcncss and

undcrstanding the affcct upon the manufacturing leadership sccnario.

3.9 Gaps to be filled:

Transformational leadership paradigm is the most researched area of leadership over

the last decade (Lowe and Gardner, 2000). By researching the transformational

leadership in manufacturing organisations, an attempt is made to know the

psychological substructure, the internal world of transformational leaders, namcly

what "makes them tick", and how they developed this way.

By gathering data from manufacturing leaders, some insights into the behavioural

aspects of trans formational leadership in manufacturing organisation is to be explored

and hypotheses and a model of transformational leadership in manufacturing

organisations to be put forward.

3.10 Summary

To see inside of the transformational processes, how it increases the performance of followers, and so the overall performance of the organisation, situational variables,

and organisational culture were reviewed with reference to transformational

leadership as it may be applied in manufacturing organisations.

Apart from providing empirical data for testing theories and hypotheses that arc of

interest to organisation theorists, this study will bc beneficial for both transformational

leadership scholars as well as researchers who are looking for in-depth understanding

of trans fonnational leadership in particular and leadership concept in general.

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11chnioliral Aspccts-of Trans formal iong LLeadcrsliipj n Manufacturim Organisations

Traris formational Icadcrs cstablish cooperative relationships with followcrs,

charactcrizcd by high levels of mutual trust and loyalty. I'lic attributional research

indicatcd the importance of leadcr's bchaviour on follower's pcrfonnancc as a source

of influcrice over the efforts and commitment of followcrs. Conridcnce in followers is

dcvclopcd gradually over time as a result of dyadic information cxchange bctwccn

Icadcrs and followers processes in which the Icadcr scck fccdback of his actions and

take appropriate actions to bcttcr undcrstand the task and flexible for followcr.

In this research, the relations among the situational determinants, i. e., situation

strength, attribution, feedback and, organisational culture will be investigated with

respect to transformational leadership. Such investigations can contribute cmpirical

c-. idcncc for understanding the inside processes of transformational leadership and

necessity of transformational leadership in manufacturing organisations. This study

%ill investigate the cffccts of situation strength in manufacturing organisations and the

, %-ay transformational leaders behave in such situations, effects of attributions made by

these leaders, how do they process information, and effects of organisation culture on

transformational leadership. The next chapter will focus on the methodological

approaches and methodology to be adopted to find the answer of the research

questions.

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D chavioural Aspects of Trans fonmt ional Leadcrshin-in M anti facturinr. Orco nisal '-

C112ptcr 4 Methodological Approach

Introduction

In the design of any research process three basic methodological choices have to be

made. Firstly, what does the research aim to do? T'his choice will dctcnninc the role

theory plays in the study - is it to be tested or gcncrated? Secondly, which research

philosophy is to be adopted? This epistemology determines the nature of the new

knowledge generated by the research, and dcrincs its applicability. Finally, which

methods will be used in the research and its analyses? These spccirics of the research

%ill determine the validity and reliability of its contribution.

Tbcsc three choices arc inextricably linked and cannot easily be made in isolation.

11crc arc no right answers. There may be several appropriate research paths and at the

same time, many inappropriate ones (Eastcrby-Smith ct al, 1991). Choices must

always be made and justified with reference to the research questions being addressed.

So the methodology should not be determined by the preferences or expertise of the

researcher, rather its design should only be limited by the goal of providing valid,

credible and useful answers to the research questions selected (Robson, 1993).

Ile previous chapter justified the specific research questions this study will attempt to

address, and the research objectives were framed in terms of the expected novelty and

applicability of its contribution. This chapter describes how the research methodology

is designed to answer these questions and meet these objectives, outlining and

justifying the choices made by the researcher. Alternative methodologies arc

cvaluated and the basis of the choices made will be specified.

The benefits and limitations of the chosen research methodology are then discussed.

Tbe consequences of the methodological choices made Nvill be outlined in terms of the

reliability and validity of the research and its findings, and the methodological

consideration of these is described. The chapter also identifies the assumptions made

by constructing the concepts studied, describing the ontological stance of the

rcscarcher, and specifying the theoretical framework used for analysis.

106

The methodology of social and bchavioural research has undergone several dramatic

changes over the past 30 years. During most of the 20th century, social and bchavioural research was dominated by "quantitative rricthods" with positivism (and

variants thereof such as postpositivism) as its dominant world wide. During the last

decades of the century, qualitative mciliodology cmcrgcd with a world view

associatcd with variants of constructivism. Qualitative research was seen as a reaction

against the dominant (received) quantitative methodology of the time, and it became

immensely popular among those who were dissatisficd with the established

methodological "ordee,. Othcr shifts that were occurring around this time included a

rnovcmcnt toward more socially and culturally sensitive research and a greater

cmphasis on applied, as opposed to basic, research. The qualitative approach to

research promoted a more subjective, culturc-bound, and cmancipatory approach to

studying individual bchaviours and social phenomena, and it introduced innovative

new research methods for answering research questions, Tashakk-ori & Tcddlic

(1998).

Despite their obvious mcrits, each of the two basic approaches to research has been

criticized by proponents from the other orientation. Although much of the controversy

has focused on paradigm or worldview (i. e., the "partidigm, %vars" [Gage, 1989]), each

camp has also criticized the other's methods of study, the rigor of its procedures, and

the validity of its outcomes. The field of mixed methodology, which is known as the

-third methodological movcmen4" has evolved as a pragmatic way of using the

g=gths of both approaches.

An examination of recent social and behavioural research reveals that mixed methods

are being used extensively to solve practical research problems, Tashak-k-ori & Teddlie

(2003). Most investigators using these methods have not been interested in delving

deeply into the philosophical orientations that supposedly underlie the application or

their research studies. This is why the paradigm wars that occurred during the 1970s,

1980s and early 1990s did not affect many of the researchers working with mixed

methods; these authors simply were more interested in the research questions they

were studying than in discussions or complex philosophical issues.

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Behavioural AsMcts of Transformational Leadershipin Manufacturing Organisations

Authors working in the quantitative and qualitative traditions have seldom rcfcrrcd to

mixcd methods. Similarly, writings on the philosophical undcrpinnings for social and bchavioural research seldom include pragmatism, the paradigm most ofIcn associatcd

with mixed methods (e. g., Howe, 1988). There appears to be a bias that mixed

rncthods designs arc simply combinations of qualitative and quantitative techniques

and that it is dcbatable whether these types of designs arc truly the propcr way in

which to conduct research. As for pragmatism, many dismiss it as a "naive" or even w%-ulgar"oricntation that simplifics highly complex philosophical issues into "what

works. "

&fixed methods designs incorporate techniques from both the quantitative and

qualitative research traditions yet combine them in unique ways to answer research

questions that could not be answered in any othcr way. Mixed methods designs will be

the dominant methodological tools in the social and bchavioural sciences during the

21st century. Currently researchers in the social and bchavioural sciences can be

roughly categorized into three groups: (a) quantitatively oricntcd rescarchcrs (QUANs) working within the postpositivist tradition and primarily interested in

numerical analyses, (b) qualitatively oricnted rcscarchcrs (QUALs) working within

the constructivist tradition and primarily interested in analysis of narrative data, and

(c) mixed mcthodologists working within other paradigms (e. g., pragmatism,

trxisfonnativc-cmancipatory paradigm) and interested in both types of data.

QualitativOy oriented researchers (e. g., Eisner, Geertz, Lincoln & Guba, Stake,

%Volcott) wrote several popular books during the 1970-1985 pcfiod that were critical

of the positivist orientation and proposed a wide variety of qualitative methods. The

Ujost common name given to the paradigm that was associated with the qualitative

rcsearch position during this period was constructivisM. This qualitative research

movcrncnt gained widespread acceptance, as described by Denzin and Lincoln (1994):

Ovcr the past two decades, a quiet methodological revolution has been taking place in

the social sciences. The extent to which the "qualitative revolution" has overtaken the

social sciences and related professional fields has been nothing short of amazing. (p.

ix)

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BehavioUral Aspects of Trans fonn3tional Leadershipj0d anti factudngOrg3nisajjQjns

Recent theoretical work in the qualitative research movement (e. g., Lincoln & Guba,

2000; Schwandt, 2000) has lcd to the conclusion that multiple paradigms (and not just

constructivism and its variants) are applicable to qualitative research.

Nlixcd mcthodologists nccd more of an introduction because they have been ncithcr

the traditionalists (quantitatively oriented rcscarchcrs) nor the revolutionaries

(qualitatively oricntcd researchers) over the past 30 years. Despite this, researchers

have employed mixed methods throughout the 20th century and into the 21st ccntury,

Tashakk-ori & teddlic (2003). Before the paradigm wars, there was no need for mixed

mcthodologists to bring attention to their distinct oricntation. Before the

incompatibility thesis (i. e., stating that it was inappropriate to mix quantitative and

qualitative methods), researchers who used mixed methods to answer their research

questions were mostly unaware that they were doing anything out of the ordinary.

4.1 A Historical analysis of the emergence of mixed methods

Dcnzin and Lincoln (1994) defined five "moments" in the history of qualitative

research: the traditional (1900-1950), the modernist or Golden Age (1950-1970),

blurred genres (1970-1986), the crisis of rcprcscntation (1986-1990), and postmodcm

or present moments (1990-2003). The "traditional" 1900-1950 pcriod actually saw a

substantial degree of important mixed methods rescarch ongoing with little

Inethodological controversy. Maxwell and Loomis contend that there was less

orthodoxy in methodology during this time pcriod than later in the century. While

there had been some debate since the mid-of 19th century (especially in sociology

during the 1920s and 1930s) about the relative mcrits of quantitative and qualitative

research (e. g., Hammersley. 1992), this debate did not have the rancour that

accompanied the later paradigm wars.

ibe time period labelled "modernist" or "Goldcn Age" (1950-1970) by Dcnzin and

Lincoln was marked in the history of mixed methods research by two major events:

(a) the debunking of positivism and (b) the emergence of research designs that began

to bc called "multimcthod" or "mixcd. " While a distinct ficid of mixed mcthods had

not emerged by this time, numerous important studies using mixed methodologies

occurred, especially in the field of psychology. These studies included the Fcstingcr,

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Behavioural Aspects of Transformtional Leadcrshi2in 1--tanufacturing Organisation

Ricckcn, and Schachter (1961) research on cnd-of -the-world cults, the Robbces Cave

Experiment by Shcrif, Harvey, %Aiitc, Hood, and Shcrif (1961), and Zimbardo's

(1969) simulated "prison" studies of dcindividuation. for example, SlIcrif, ct al (1961)

made cxtcnsivc use of qualitative participant observation data to explain quantitative

results from the ficId cxpcrimcnt used in the RobbcesCavcExpcdmcnt.

The pcriods described by Dcnzin and Lincoln as "blurred genres" (1970-1986) and

, "crisis of representation" (1986-1990) coincide with (Tashak-k-ori &C Teddlic, 1998)

have been called "the asccndance of constructivism, followed by the paradigm wars. "

Several significant events for mixed methodology occurred during the 1970-1990

period such as (a) qualitative methods and constructivism grew quite rapidly in

popularity, (b) the paradigm wars were launched based largely on the incompatibility

thesis, (c) mixed methods studies were introduced in conjunction with writings on

triangulation, and (d) important mixed methods studies and syntheses appeared

The period described by Dcnzin and Lincoln (1994) as "postmodcm or present

r, nomcnts" (1990-2003) coincides with what we have called the emergence of "pragmatism and the compatibility thesis. " Two significant events for mixed

Mcthodology that occurred during this period were that (a) the pragmatist position

was posited as a countcrargument to the incompatibility thesis and (b) several scminal

Works appeared aimed at establishing mixed methods as a separate field.

On a philosophical level, mixed methodologists had to counter the incompatibility

thesis, which was predicated on the link- between epistemology and method. To

counter this paradigm-method link, Howe (1988) posited the use of a different

paradigm: pragmatism. A major tenct of Howe's concept of pragmatism was that

quantitative and qualitative methods are compatible. Thus, because the paradigm says

that these methods arc compatible, investigators could make use of both of them in

their research. This position has been questioned by several scholars writing within the mixed methods literature.

A short list of influential mixed methods works that appearcd during this time period includes Creswell (1994), Greene and Caracclli (1997), Morgan (1998), Morse (1991),

110

Newman and Benz (1998), Patton (1990), Reichardt and Rallis (1994), and Tashak-kori and Tcddlic (1998), Creswell (1999), Creswell ct al (2003), hicrtcns (2003). 71csc works

include several typologics of mixed methods designs, cnumcration of key words with both

consistent and inconsistent dcfinitions, different paradigm formulations, and so on.

4.2 The Utility of Mixed Methods Research

Ile utility of mixed methods research concerns "why" we do them. With tile plethora

or rcscarch methods associated with either the QUAL or the QUAN tradition, why

.. vould we go to bothcr of combining them, or of generating new techniques, to do

mixed methods research?

'rhc ultimate goal of any research project is to answer the questions that were set forth

at the project's beginning. Mixed methods arc useful if they provide better

opportunities for answering our research questions. In addition, mixed methods arc

useful if they help researchers to meet the criteria for evaluating the "goodness" of

their answers (e. g., Tashakkori & Teddlie, 1998) better than do single approach

designs.

Ibcre appear to be three areas in which mixed methods are superior to single approach

dcsigns:

Mixed methods research can answer research questions that the other

methodologies cannot.

Mixed methods research provides better (stronger) inferences.

* Mixed methods provide opportunity for presenting a greater diversity of divcrgcnt views.

4.2.1 Mixed methods research can answer research questions that the other

methodologies cannot

one dimension on which quantitative and qualitative rcsearch is said to vmy is the

t)-pc of question answered by each approach. Some authors have suggestcd, that

QUAL research questions arc exploratory, while QUAN research questions arc

confirmatory. Erzbcrger and Prein (1997) and Tashak-kori and Tcddlic (1998) have

III

disagreed with this dichotomization of research questions. Erzbcrgcr and Prcin (1997)

lat>clcd it "a Cinderella position view of qualitative research" in that it "restricts the

use of qualitative methods to preliminary phases of social research where quantitative

techniques could not (yet) be employed".

Punch (1998) provided another argumcnt against this dichotomization:

Quantitative research has typically bccn more directed at thcory vcrification, while

qualitative research has typically been more conccmcd with theory gcncration. While

that correlation is historically valid, it is by no means pcrfect, and tlicrc is no

neccssary connection bct%vccn purpose and approach. That is, quantitative rcscarch

can be used for theory gcncration (as well as verification), and qualitative research can

be used for theory verification (as well as generation). Most QUAN rcsc=h is

confirmatory and involves theory verification, while much QUAL research is

cxploratory and involves theory generation. What happens when wc want to do both?

A major advantage of mixed methods research is that it enables the researchcr to

simultaneously answer confirmatory and exploratory questions, and therefore vcrify

and generate theory in the same study.

4.2.2 Allied methods research provides better (stronger) Inferences

Several authors (e. g.. Brewer & Hunter, 1989; Greene &: Caraccl1i, 1997) have

postulated that using mixed methods can offset the disadvantages that certain of the

rnethods have by themselves, Johnson and Turner rcfcr to this as the fundamental

principle of mixed methods research: " Methods should be mixed in a way that has

complementary strengths and non-overlapping weaknesses. ". Further support for the

usefulness of mixed methods Caine from Greene et al (1989), who proposed five functions for such methods: triangulation, complcmcntarity, development, initiation,

and expansion. The first two functions of mixed methods (triangulation and complementarity are related to the fact that mixed methods lead to multiple inferences

Ih. at confirm or complement each Other. The other three functions (dcvc1opmcnt, initiation, and expansion) are more related to mixed methods studies in which inferences made at the end of one phase (e. g., QUAL) lead to the questions and/or design of a second phase (e. g., QUAN).

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Dchnioural AsMcts of Transformational LodershipinManufactuflng Organisations

4.23 Mixed methods provide the opportunity for presenting a greater diversity of divergent views

According to this view, divergent findings are valuable in that they lead to a rc-

cxamination of the conceptual frameworks and the assumptions undcrlying each of the

two (QUAL and QUAN) components. Johnson and Turner state that one of the major

reasons for following the fundamental principle of mixed methods research is to

aclucidatc the divergent aspects of a phenomenon. " Further analyses of the data in the

form of possible transformation of data types to each other, internal validity audits

(Tashak-kori & Tcddlic, 1998), and design of a new study or phase for further

investigations (Rossman & Wilson, 1985) are three outcomes of such rc-cxamination.

43 Methodological assumptions

in methodological terms, the postpositivist paradigm characterized as using primarily

quantitative methods that arc interventionist and decontcxtualiscd (Mertens, 1998).

The intcrprctivc-constructivist paradigm is characterized as using primarily qualitative

fnethods in a hermeneutical and dialectical manner. The transformativc paradigm

inight involve quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods but the community affected

by the research would be involved to some degree in the methodological and

programmatic decisions. Mixed methods designs that use both quantitative and

qualitative methods can be used in any paradigm; however, the underlying

assumptions determine which paradigm is operational ised.

These philosophical assumptions provide the foundation for guiding mcthodology for

Uxisformative research. The research is conducted with involvement of all relevant

communities especially the least advantaged. The research conclusions are data based,

but the data are generated from an inclusive list of pcrsons affected by the research,

with special cfforts to include those who have been traditionally undcrrcprcscnted. It

does not exclude those who have been traditionally included in the research process,

that is, the decision makers, program administrators and staff, and funding agency

rcprcscntativcs. It does explicitly recognize that certain voices have been absent,

r, aisrcprmcntcd, or marginalized and the inclusion of these voices is necessary for a

jigorous research study. Conclusions arc based on the collection, analysis, and

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Pchavioural Aspects of Trans forrmt ional Leadership in Manufactuflng Organisationj

interpretation of inclusive data and arc not forgone conclusions. Qualitative,

quantitative, or mixed methods can be used.

4.4 Strengths and weaknesses of mixed designs

The major strength of mixed methods designs is that they allow for rcsearch to

develop as comprehensively and completely as possible. NVhcn compared with a

single method, the domain or inquiry is less likely to be constraint by the method

itself Because the supplementary data arc often not completely saturated or as in-

depth as they would be if they were a study in their o%%m right, ccrtainty is attained by

verifying supplemental data with data strategies used within the core study

(Tashakk-ori, & Teddlic, 2003).

On the other hand, the strengths of comprehensiveness from using mixed mcthods

may also be perceived as weaknesses. Research may be challenged on the grounds of

being less rigorous than if a multimcthod design were used. For instance, the

supplemental data may be considered thin and therefore suspect.

To summarize, the major difference between a singIc study using multiple strategies

(nlixed methods design) and a rcscarch program using multiple methods is that in the

, Single study the less dominant strategies do not have to be a complete study in

thmscives. I'llat is, the strategy may be used to develop indicators or to "test the

Waters" to follow a lead or hunch, if something of interest or importance is found, then

this new finding may be used to complement or confimi something new or something

that is already known or suspected. Within the research design, the new finding is

created as an indicator. As such, the new finding does not have- to be completely

verified itself, it does not have to be saturated or confirined. Rather, the finding may

be verified or confirmed elsewhere in another data set.

4.5 Strategies and visual models for mixed method research

Following are the six major strategies identified below arc choices for inquirers in a

research proposal, adapted from the discussion by Creswell ct al (2003).

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Behayioural Aspects of Tr3ns formational Leadership in Manufactudng Orsnrýsations

4.5.1 Sequential Explanatory Strategy

Tbc sequential explanatory strategy is the most straightforward of the six major mixed

methods approaches. It is characterized by the collection and analysis of quantitative data followed by the collection and analysis of qualitative data. I'lic priority typically

is given to the quantitative data, and the two methods are integrated during the

interpretation phase of the study. This strategy may or may not have a specific

theoretical perspective. The purpose of the sequential explanatory design typically is

to use qualitative results to assist in explaining and interpreting the findings of a

primarily quantitative study. It can be especially useful when unexpected results arise

from a quantitative study (Morse, 1991). In this case, the qualitative data collection

that follows can be used to examine these surprising results in more dctail. The

straightforward nature of this design is one of its main strengths. It is casy to

implement because the steps fall into clear, separate stagcs. In addition, this design

feature makes it easy to describe and to report. The main weakness of this design is

the length of time involved in data collection, with the two separate phases. This is

cspccially a drawback if the two phases are given equal priority.

4.5.2 Sequential Exploratory Strategy

The sequential exploratory strategy has many features similar to the sequential

explanatory strategy. It is conducted in two phases, with the priority generally given to

the first phase, and it may or may not be implemented within a prescribed theoretical

perspective. In contrast to the sequential explanatory approach, Us model is

characterized by an initial phase of qualitative data collection and analysis, which is

followed by a phase of quantitative data collection and analysis. T'hercforc, the

priority is given to the qualitative aspect of the study. The findings of these two phases

are then integrated during the interpretation phase.

At the most basic level, the purpose of this strategy is to use quantitative data and

results to assist in the interpretation of qualitative findings. Unlike tile sequential

explanatory approach, which is better suited to explaining and interprcting

relationships, the primary focus of this model is to explore a phenomenon. hlorgan

(1998) suggested that this design is appropriate to use when testing elements of an

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Behaviour-M Aspects of Trans formation3l Lcodershinin-ý13nufacttiriral)rcanisations

cmcrgcnt thcory resulting from tile qualitative phase and that it can also be used to

generalize qualitative findings to different samples. Similarly, Morsc (1991) cited one

purpose for selecting this approach: to determine the distribution of a phenomenon

within a chosen population. Finally, the sequential cxplomtory strategy is often discussed as the model used when a researcher develops and tests an instrument

(Crcswcll, 1999).

The sequential exploratory strategy has many of the same advantages as the sequential explanatory model. Its two-phase approach makes it easy to implement and

straightforward to describe and report. It is useful to a researcher who wants to

explore a phenomenon but also wants to expand on the qualitative findings. This

model is especially advantageous when a researcher is building a new instrument. In

addition, this model could make a largely qualitative study more palatable to a

quantitative adviser, committee, or research community that may be unfamiliar with the naturalistic tradition. As with the sequential explanatory approach, the sequential

exploratory model requires a substantial length of time to complete both data

collection phases, which can be a drawback for some research situations. In addition, the researcher may find it difficult to build from the qualitative analysis to the

subsequent quantitative data collection.

4.53. Sequential Transformative Strategy

The transformative sequential strategy has two distinct data collection phases, one following the other. However, in this design either method may be used first, and the

priority can be given to either the quantitative or the qualitative phase, or even to both

if sufficient resources arc available. In addition, the results of the two phases arc integrated during the interpretation phase. Unlike the sequential exploratory and

explanatory approaches, the sequential transformativc model has a theoretical

perspective to guide the study. The aim of this theoretical perspective whether it be a

conceptual framework, a specific ideology, or advocacy, is more important in guiding the study than the use of methods alone.

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Dchavioural Aspects of Transformitional LeadcrshiD in INIgnufacturing Organisations

The purpose of a sequential transformativc strategy is to cmploy the methods that will best scrvc: the thcorctical pcrspcctivc of the rcscarclicr. By using two phascs, a

sequential transformativc researcher may be able to give voice to diverse pcrspcctivcs,

to bcttcr advocate for participants, or to better understand a phenomenon or process

that is changing as a result of being studied.

The sequential transformativc model shares the methodological strengths and

weaknesses of the other two sequential mixed methods approaches. Its use of distinct

phases facilitates its implementation, description, and sharing of results, although it

also requires the time to complete two data collection phases. More important, this

design places mixed methods research within a transfonnative framework. Therefore,

this strategy may be more appealing and acceptable to those researchers already using

a transformativc framework within one distinct methodology, such as qualitative

research. Unfortunately, because little has been written to date on this approach, one

weakness is that there is little guidance on how to use the transformativc vision to

guide the methods. Likewise, it may be =clear how to move between the analyses of

the first phase into the data collection of the second phase.

4.5.4. Concurrent Triangulation Strategy

The concurrent triangulation approach is probably the most familiar of the six major

mixed methods models. It is selected as the model when a researcher uses two

different methods in an attempt to confirm, cross-validate, or corroborate findings

within a single study (Greene et al., 1989; Morgan, 1998; Stecklen McLcroy,

Goodman, Bird, & McCormick, 1992). This model generally uses separate

quantitative and qualitative methods as a means to offset the weaknesses inherent

within one method with the strengths of the other method. In this case, the quantitative

and qualitative data collection is concurrent, happening in one phase of the research

study. Ideally, the priority would be equal bet%vccn the two methods, but in practical

application the priority may be given to either the quantitative or the qualitative

approach. This strategy usually integrates the results of the two methods during the

interpretation phase. This interpretation can either note the convergence of the

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Behavioural Aspects of Transformational Leadershi2 in Manufactur $ ng. Organisations

findings as a way to strcngthcn the knowledge claims of the study or explain any lack

of convcrgcncc that may rcsult.

This traditional mixed methods model is advantageous because it is familiar to most

researchers and can result in wcll-validatcd and substantiated findings. In addition, the

concurrent data collection results in a shorter data collection time period as compared to one of the sequential approaches.

11is model also has a number of limitations. It requires great cffort and expertise to

adequately study a phenomenon with two separate methods. It also can be difficult to

compare the results of two analyses; using data of different forms. In addition, a

researcher may be unclear about how to resolve discrepancies that arises in the results.

4.5.5 Concurrent Nested Strategy

Like the concurrent triangulation approach, the concurrent nested model can be

identified by its use of one data collection phase, during which both quantitative and

qualitative data are collected simultaneously. Unlike the traditional triangulation

model, a nested approach has a predominant method that guides the project. Given

less priority, the method (quantitative or qualitative) is embedded, or nested, within

the predominant method (qualitative or quantitative). This nesting may mean that the

embedded method addresses a different question than the dominant method or seeks information from different levels. The data collected from the two methods are mixed during the analysis phase of the project. This strategy may or may not have a guiding theoretical perspective.

Tle concurrent nested model may be used to serve a variety of purposes. Often, this

model is used so that a researcher can gain broader perspectives as a result of using the different methods as opposed to using the predominant method alone. For example Morse (1991 (noted that a primarily qualitative design could embed some quantitative data to enrich the description of the sample participants. Likewise, she described how

qualitative data could be used to describe an aspect of a quantitative study that cannot be quantified. In addition, a concurrent nested model may be employed when a

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13chavioural Asrects of Trans fomint ionaLLeadershipin Mmufacturing Organisatiom

researcher chooses to utilize different methods to study different groups or levels. For

cxample, if an organisation is being studied, then employees could be studied

quantitatively, managers could be interviewed qualitatively, entire divisions could be

analysed with quantitative data and so forth. Tashakkori and Tcddlic (1998) described

this approach as a multilevel design. Finally, one method could be used within a framework of the other method, such as if a researcher designed and conducted an

experiment but used case study methodology to study each of the treatment

conditions.

Ibis mixed methods model has many strengths. A researcher is able to collect the two

types of data simultaneously, during a single data collection phase. It provides a study

with the advantages of both quantitative and qualitative data. In addition, by using the

two different mcthods in this fashion, a researcher can gain perspectives from the

differcnt types of data or from different levcIs within the study.

71cre are also limitations to consider when choosing this approach. The data need to

be transformed in some way so that they can be integrated within the analysis phase of the research. Because the two methods arc unequal in their priority, this approach also

results in unequal evidence within a study, which may be a disadvantage when interpreting the final results.

4.5.6. Concurrent Transformative Strategy

As with the sequential transformativc model, the concurrent transforinativc approach is guided by the rcsearchees use of a specific theoretical perspective. This perspective

can be based or ideologies such as critical theory, advocacy, participatory research, or a conceptual or theoretical frarnework. This perspective is rcflected & purpose or

research questions of the study. It is the driving force that all methodological choices,

such as defining the problem, identifying design and data sources, analysing, intcrprcting, and reporting result throughout the research process. The choice of a

concurrent mode (whether it is triangulation or nestcd design) is made to facilitate this

perspective. For example, the design may be nestcd so that diverse participants arc

given a voice in the change proccss of an organisation that is studied primarily

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13chavioural Aspccts of Trans founat ionat Leadcrship in Manufactuflng Organisatiom

quantitativcly. It may involvc a triangulation of quantitativc and qualitativc data to

best converge infonnation to provide evidence for an inequality of policies in an

organisation.

Thus, the concuffcnt transformativc model may take on the design features of either a

triangulation or a ncsted approach. That is, the two types of data arc collcctcd at the

same time during one data collection phase and may have equal or unequal priority. The integration of these different data would most oflcn occur during the analysis

phase, although integration during the interpretation phase is a possible variation. Because the concuffcnt transformativc model shares features with the triangulation

and nested approaches, it also shares their specific strengths and weaknesses. However, this model has the added advantage of positioning mixed methods research

within a transformative framework, which may make it especially appealing to those

qualitative or quantitative researchers already using a transformativc framework- to

guide their inquiry.

4.6 Design Issues in Mixed Methods Research:

Determining a typology of mixed methods designs (i. e., identifying the basic

procedures for using both QUAL and QUAN strands in a single study is among the

most complex and controversial issues in mixed methodology. There are nunlcrous

types of mixed methods designs in the literature. For cxamplc, triangulation

transformative, integrated, component, sequential, parallel, concurrcn% simultaneous, b=ching, nested, explanatory, exploratory, confirmatory, developmental,

decomposed, embedded, mixed method, mixed model, hierarchical, monomethod,

multimcthod, multimethods (plural), equivalent-status, dominant-less dominant,

multilevel, two-phase, methodological triangulated design, sequential triangulation,

simultaneous triangulation, and Design Types 11 through VIII of Tashak-k-ori and Teddlie.

Although this list is not exhaustive, it clearly demonstrates tile need for creating a

consistent system or typology that would incorporate many of the diverse designs

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Behavioural Asrscts of-Transformtionat Leadcrshipintýlanufactitt'ngOrgonisations

described in the literature. Someone needs to create an integrated typology of mixed

mctliods research design.

4.7 A conceptual model for mixed methods research

hlixcd methods designs arc charactcrizcd by one of the following two conditions: 1. They have multiple positions along each attribute (e. g., they have both

confirmatory and exploratory questions).

2. They are near one end of the continuum on one attribute (e. g., inductive question)

and near the other end on another attribute (e. g., statistical analysis). The switching

cnds of the continuum across attributes may be present within spheres or bct, %vccn them.

Following arc the two major designs named multimcthods and mixed methods as below.

Multiple Method Designs (more than one method or more than one worldvicw) & Multimcthod designs (more than one method but restricted to within worldvicw (e. g., QUAN/QUAN, QUA IJQUA L)

1. Multimethod QUAN studies-Multimethod QUAN designs

Multimcthod QUAL studies- multimcthod QUAL designs

B. Mixed Methods designs (use of QUAL and QUAN research methods or data

collection/analysis procedures) Mixed method research (occurs in the methods stage of a study)- Concurrent mixed methods designs,

Sequential mixed method design,

Conversion mixed method designs.

1. ? ýlixed model research (can occur in all stages of a study)- Monostrand mixed model designs,

Concurrent mixed model designs,

Sequential mixed model designs,

Conversion mixed model designs,

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Behaviourat As2ccts of Transfonnational Leadershila in Mangficturing Organisations

Fully integratcd mixcd modd dcsigns

Monostrand mixed methods designs (also known as single phase designs) have not bccn well articulated in mixed methods research. Iliese designs use a single research

method or data collection technique (QUAL or QUAN) and corresponding data

analysis procedures to answer research questions. By contrast, multistrand designs use

more than one research method or data collection procedure- nearly all typologics of

mixed methods in the literature are multistrand in nature. Below is a detailed typology

of both groups of designs (monostrand and multi-strand). There are two basic types of mono-strand designs:

4.7.1 Afonostrand (Afonomethod) QUAL or QUAN Design. This is the traditional

qualitative or quantitative design, depicted in figure 4.1 in which the investigator has either exploratory or confirmatory questions, uses a qualitative

or quantitative research method to answer them, and accordingly makes inferences that are either QUAL, (e. g.. subjective, constructivist) or QUAN

(e. g., objective, value-neutral) in nature.

Purposd Questlon

Data Collection

D2ts An2lysls

Inference

Fig. 4.1 Graphic Dcpiction of Traditional QUAL or QUAN Dcsigns

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Behavioural Aspects of Transformational Lc3dershilR in hfinufactufira Organisations

4.7.2 Atonostrand Afixcd Dmigns. In tllcsc designs, only one research mcthod (QUAL or QUAN is used to answer rcscarch questions that arc

cxploratory/QUAL. and/or conrirmatory/QUAN. Mixing occurs across

stages of the research process.

Purpose

Ques6on Dau Collocfion

I Infercnce I

Data Analysis

Fig. 4.2 Graphic presentation of Conceptually Mixed Monostrand Design.

4.8 Alultistrand designs

multistrand designs use more than one research mcthod or data collection procedure.

Multistrand designs arc distinguished on three dimensions: (a) having single or

miltiple approaches (i. e. having two QUAL or two QUAN strands vs. having both

QUAL and QUAN strands), (b) stage of integration (i. e., across all stages vs., within

method only), and (c) procedures for linldng the strands (e. g., sequential vs.

concurrcnt).

123

Behavioural Aspects of-Transfonmtional Leadershin in Manubituring Organisations

Purpose/ ut D : Ouestion

T

ton

Data Collcction II

, ta c D Colic ats Colicctio: nj

Data Analysis::, - Data Analysis

tnfcrcnce Infcrcnce

hicta- --j Analvrix

Fig. 4.3 Graphic presentation of Traditional Multimcthod Qualitative or Multimcthod Quantitative Designs.

4.8.1 Concurrent Mixed Designs

in the concurrent mixed design, there are multiple questions (QUAL and QUAN), and

each is answered by collecting and analysing corresponding data (QUAL or QUAN).

The inferences are pulled together to reach a mcta-infcrcncc. Concurrent mixed designs are often identified as parallel designs because two prc-planned and relatively independent procedures are employed to answer the research questions either

simultaneously or with a time lag (i. e. the data for the two strands might be collected in different time pcriods). In either case, the inferences from one phase do not determine the questions and/or procedures of the other phase. There are two types of

this design:

a. Concurrent Afired Method Design. In this type of study, one kind of question is

simultaneously addressed by collecting and analysing both QUAN and QUAL

data, and then one type of inference is made on the basis of both data sources. This

design incorporates Creswell's (2002) triangulation mixed method design.

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Behavioural Asrscts of Trans fo=tionaLLcadcrship in Nignufacturing Orranisations

b. Concurrent Afixed Model Design. In this type of design, there arc two strands

of research with both types of questions, both types of data and analysis, and

both types of inferences that are pulled together to reach a meta-infcrcnce

Purposd "ose/Question Question

Data Collection Dau Collection

I

Data Analysis r Data Analysis

I

Infemce Inference

Nicta-

Fig. 4.5 Concurrcnt Mind Model Dcsign.

125

Fig. 4.4 Current Mixed Method Design

Behavioural Aspects of Tt-Ansfom-olional Leadershil! in Monufacturing Organisations

4.8.2 Sequential Mixed Designs

The distinguishing attribute of the sequential mixed design is that the second phase

(strarid) of the study (e. g., the qualitative phase) cmcrges as a result of or in rcsponsc

to, the findings of the first phase. There are two varictics of these designs bascd on the

stagc of intcgration.

4.8.2.1 Sequential Mixed Method Design.

This design involves one type of question (exploratory or conrimiatory, QUAL or

QUAN), two types of data (QUAL and QUAN) that are collected in sequence (with

one being dependent on the other, e. g., sclecting extreme cases) and analyscd

accordingly, and one type of inference at the end. The second strand of the study

cmcrges as a response to or during the data analysis of the first strand. In other

words, this design is mixed in its data collection and analysis phase only. This

design incorpomtes Mc-Millan and Schurnachces (2001) sequential fonns.

126

Fig. 4.6 Sequential Mixed Method Design.

Behavioural Aspects ofTransfommtional LeadcrshininManufactudng OrganisatiOns

4.8.2.2 Sequential Alixed Model Design.

In this type of study, questions for the second strand of the study cmergc from the infcrcnccs of the first strand. In othcr words, the research questions of the sccond

strand (e. g., QUAN) are based on the inferences that were made in the first strand (e. g., QUAL).

Ile first strand of the study is often an exploratory study, while the second strand is

ofIcn a confirmatory study. The first strand of the study includes data collection, data

analysis, and inference in one approach (e. g., QUAN). I'lic second strand of the study

involves new data, their analysis, and inferences in the other approach (e. g., QUAL).

Ttc final mcta-infcrences arc made on the basis of the confin-natory or

disconfirmatory nature of the inferences in the two strands of the study. This design

incorporates Creswell's (2002) explanatory mixed method design and exploratory

mixed method design. It also incorporates Creswell and colleagues sequential

exploratory, sequential explanatory, and sequential transfonnativc designs.

Question PUTPO$d

hffposd Question

ir Data Collection Data Collection

Data Analysis Data Analysis

I

Inference Inference

Meta, Inference

Fig. 4.7 Sequential Mixed Modcl Design.

127

Behavioural Aspects of TransformatiOn3i LeadershiD in ManufacturinpOrganisations

4.8.3 Nfultistrand Conversion Mixed Designs

In multistrand conversion mixed designs, there is only one mcthod of study and one

t)pc of data (QUAL or QUAN). Nevertheless multistrand conversion mixcd designs

emulate two strands by converting the data from QUAL to QUAN or from QUAN to

QUAL and rc-analysing them accordingly. Infcrcnces are made on the basis of both

sets of analyses. There are two cases of such designs:

4.8.3.1 Alultistrand Convasion Alixed Method Dcsign.

One type of question (exploratory or confirmatory, QUAL or QUAN) is asked, one

type of data is collected and also transformed (qualitised/quantitised) and analysed

again accordingly, and one type of inference is made on the basis of all results. 71iis

design represents a predominantly QUAL, or QUAN study in which the data arc

transformed and rcanalysed in another approach to aid in final inferences.

128

Fig 4.8 Alultistmnd Convasion Mixed Nicthod Design

Behavioural Aspects of Trans forrmlional Leadershin in NI anti factAiring Organisations

4.8.3.2 Alultistrand Conversion Alixed Model Design:

In this type of design, multiple approach questions arc asked. One type of data is

collected and analysed and is then transformed to anothcr data (qualitizcd/quantitizcd)

and analysed accordingly. Two types or infcrcnccs arc made on the basis of cach sct

of results and arc pulled togcthcr at the cnd to gcncrate mcta-infcrcnccs. 71iis design is

different from the previous one in that it is also mixed in the conccptualisation stage (e. g., questions) as well as in the inference stage.

Purposd Pwposc/Qucstion Question

Data Collection Dau Analysis

Data Analvsis I

Inference

Meta ; Aýnalvsis

Fig. 4.9 Multistrand Conversion Mixed Model Design.

4.8.4 Fully Integrated Mixed Model Designs

Fully integrated mixed model designs are the most advanced, and most dynamic, of all

mixed model designs, and they incorporate two or more of the previous types. In this

t)pc of study multiple approach questions are asked and ans, %vcrcd through the

collection and analysis of both QUAL and QUAN data. The two types of data might

also be converted (qualitized/quantitized) and analysed accordingly. Inferences are

made on the basis of the QUAL and QUAN results of data analyses and arc combined

togcthcr at the end to fomi a mcta-infcrcnce. 13ccause it incorporates concurrcnt and

scquential possibilities, this type is an "interactive design" (Maxwell &: Loomis). In

other words, at cvcry stage, thcrc is a possibility of modifying one of the approaches

129

Behavioural Aspects of Transfonmtional LeadcrshiR in 14 anti facturing Organisatims

based on the other (e. g. changing the type of QUAL data based on the QUAN

analysis).

Fig. 4.10 Fully Integrated Mixed Model Design.

4.9 The research objectives

i. The main objective of this reseuch is to explore tmnsformational leadership in manufacturing organisations in Pakistan and to contribute to the knowledge and understanding of the psychological substructure, the internal world of transformational leaders, namely what "makes

them tick, " and how they developed this way.

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Behavioural AsRccts of Transformational Leadcrshin in b4anufActitring OMonisatiom

ii. To study transforniational Icadcrs bchaviour with rcspcct to situational detcrminants, i. c., situational strcngth, attribution thcory, fccdback, and

organisational culture.

iii. To dcvclop hypothescs conccming the rclationship bctwccn

transfonnational Icadership and situational dctcrminants.

iv. To develop a model of the relationship between trans formational

leadership, and situational determinants.

V. To suggest further research guidelines for transformational leadership

phenomenon and, leadership in Pakistani manufacturing organisations.

4.10 The Selection of the Research Methodology

Having identified the most appropriate epistemology for the achievement of the

research objectives the research methodology must be designed to answer the specific

research questions. The following sections outline how the research methodology has

been designed to answer the following research questions as idcntified and justified, in

Chapter 3:

R- Q. No. I Do transformational leadcrs creatc a wcak- situation for thcir followcrs in manufacturing organisations?

Q. No. 2 Do transformational leaders make internal attributions for the cause of poor performance in manufacturing organisations?

R. Q. No. 3 Do transformational leadcrs scck morc kedback from flicir followcrs than non-transformational leadcrs in manufacturing organisations?

Rý Q. No. 4. Is clan culture the most common cultural environment created or existing in paralld with transformational leadership?

From the literature of mixed methods mcthodology, appropriate methodology for this

research was found to be Concurrent Nested strategy.

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Behavioural Aspects of Transformational Leadershin in hianufacturing. Organisations

To distinguish leaders from having trans form ational lcadcrship characteristics, a

quantitative questionnaire was employed and analyscd quantitatively. Latcr, they were intcrvicwcd qualitatively and data was transformed into codes to enable the researcher

to analyse the data quantitatively and to clarify the inference of the research questions.

Data collcctcd was analysed using mixed methods integration Concurrent Nested

Strategy by Creswell (2003). According to Creswell, integration of the two types of data might occur at several stages in the process of research, the data collection, the data analysis, interpretation, or some combination of places. Integration means that the

rcsearchcr "mixes" the data. Mixing at the stage of data analysis, and interpretation

might involve transforming qualitative themes or codes into quantitative numbers and

comparing the information with quantitative results.

The concurrent nested model may be used to serve a variety of purposes. Often, this

model is used so that a researcher can gain broader perspectives as a result of using

the different methods as opposed to using the predominant method alone. For example

Nforse (1991) noted that a primarily qualitative design could embed some quantitative

data to enrich the description of the sample participants. Likewise, she described how

qualitative data could be used to describe an aspect of a quantitative study that cannot

be quantified. In addition, a concurrent nested model may be employed when a

researcher chooses to utilize different methods to study different groups or levels. For

example, if an organisation is being studied, then employees could be studied

quantitatively, managers could be interviewed qualitatively, entire divisions could be

analyscd, with quantitative data, and so forth. Tashakkori and Teddlie (1998) described

this approach as a multilevel design. Finally, one method could be used within a framework of the other method, such as if a researcher designed and conducted an

experiment but used case study methodology to study each of the treatment

conditions.

Trans formational leadership charactcristics were measured by the using quantitative

method described as the 23-itern measure of transformational leadership inventory

questionnaire (transformational leadership inventory) as developed by Podsakoff ct al

(1990). Farh & Cheng (1999) stated 'We use Podsakoff, ct al (1990) conceptualisation

of the trans formational leadership inventory because it is bchaviourally oriented, well

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1-3chavioural Aspects of Trans fornmt ional Leadership-in Mmufacturing Organisations

validatcd, and has been used in both North American and Chinese cultures. According to Bass & Riggio (2006) 'the most widely used instrument to measure

transformational leadership characteristics is the transformational Icadcrship inventory

instrument devclopcd Podsakofr ct al (1990)'. This instrument has been uscd rcccntly by several researchers to measure transformational leadership characteristics, for

example, Pillai and Wilams, 1998, and Pillai, William, Lowe, and Jung, 2003, Parry,

2002, Sprcitzcr ct al (2005).

The measure includes six transformational leadcrship bchaviours: articulating a

vision; providing an appropriate model; fostering the acccptancc of group goals; high

performance expectations; individualized support and intellectual stimulation. A

sevcn-point Likert scale ranging from (1) strongly disagree to (7) strongly agrce was

utilized to assess trans formational leadership charactcristics as it was used in tile

original questionnaire of Podsakoff (1990) and others. According to Mc Ivcr and

Cannines (198 1), no scale model has more intuitive appeal than the Likcrt scale. Any

scale obtained by adding together the responses scores of its constituent items is

referred to as a Likcrt scale. Aficr choosing items to comprise the final scale, one

might assume the rest of the process would be straightforward. Simply add up an

individual's response to each of the item. The total is assigned to the respondent as a

scale score. Interpretation of scale may be made relative to the mean as suggested by

Edwards:

if we use the mean of the group as our mid point of origin, thcri each of the individual

attitudes can be expressed as a deviation from this origin. We assume that the mean

rcprcscnts the typical or average attitude of the group. Then scores that are higher than

the mean can be interprcted as scores that are more favourable than the average for the

group and scores that are lower than the mean can be intcrprcted as score that are less

favourable than the average.

71c reliability (Cronbach! s alpha) to determine the internal consistency of the scale has been deemed appropriate for further analysis.

Data was analysed using the quantitative method known as the Statistical Package for

Social Sciences (SPSS) vcrsion 11.0 for Windows software.

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13chavioural Aspccts of-TmnsformationatLeadership in Manufactudne Organisations

Leaders were classiried as transformational if the nican of the score was more than 4.0. Leaders with means between 3.0 and 4.0 were classificd as neutral and leaders

with means less than 3.0 were classified as non-transfonnational leaders (4 is the

mean of the scale used). By adding up all the responses of the items and dividing by 23 (23 items) to obtain an individual follower score for his/her leader. Then all the followers' scores for a particular leader were added up and divided by the number of followers who reported about their leader to get the overall score of that particular leader.

Ten leaders were selected having the average of the highest scores on trans formational

leadership characteristics as being transformational leaders, and, 10 leaders were

selected having the lowest score on transformational leadership characteristics as non-

transformational leaders and 13 leaders with a mean score of more than 4.0 as normal

transformational leaders, and they were interviewed in phasc-I of data collection. Interviews were categorised and coded and analysed following the steps of interview

analysis procedure described by Fink (2003).

Organisational culture was measured by quantitative method using Camcron and Quinn's (1999) Organisational Cultural Assessment Instrument (OCAI) typology. The

instrument on organisational culture was comprised of 6 items, while each item had 4

alternatives assigned to each of the dimensions of organisational culture. All 50

leaders in phasc-I and 26 leaders in phasc-II were asked to rate their organisation. as

per OCAI instructions. After receiving the completed OCAI from the leaders, all A, B,

C and D (alternatives) responses of each item were added up respectively in a new

column and divided by 6 (the number of questions), and plotted as per OCAI

instruction to see the overall culture of the organisation.

4.11 Limitations of the Methodological Approach

Bencfits and limitations of the mcthodological approach arc dcscribed as follows:

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Behavioural Aspects of Transfonnational Leadershi2 in Mmuractufing Organilations

4.11.1 What Is the research designed to achieve

Whilst Positivist rcscarch is typically uscd to establish objective facts and establish

causal relationships, this phcnomcnological cnquiry seeks to arrive at a grounded

understanding of a subjective phenomenon - cfFacts of trans formational leadership on

situational determinants and organisational culture. Ilia research aims to provide

insights that can be tested in further research and offer a basis for comparison with

existing theory. The research focuses on the perspective of the situation strength on

transformational leadership. Correspondingly this research does not aim to establish a

complete theory of situation strcngth and intervening variables for trans formational

leadership in organisations but rather seeks to deliver descriptive conccpts of this

plicnomenon in manufacturing contexts. The emphasis is on uncovering the

transformational Icadcrship in manufacturing organisations and the cffccts of

situational strength and organisational culture on transformational leadership. I'lic

research strives to uncover new insights and generate hypotheses and a model for

transformational leadership Nvith respect to situational strcngth and organisational.

culture.

4.11.2 Questions of reliability and validity

The two qualities most central to successful assessment of the "goodness" of a

measurement are its reliability and its validity. Briefly, validity rcfcrs to the question

of whether or not one's measurement of a phenomenon is true; that is, does it measure

what it purports to measure? Reliability. on the other hand, refers to the degree to

which a measurement can be replicated; that is, do rcpeated measurements of the same

phenomenon produce consistent results from one time to the next?

Case Study research, and other phenomenological approaches, arc oflcn criticized by

positivists on grounds of the non-rcpeatability of methods, the subjectivity of findings,

and the inability to generalise from resulting theory. Although many new paradigm

researchers argue that phenomenological social enquiry should not be judged by the

restrictive criteria of the scientific method adhered to in the physical sciences, (e. g.

Silverman, 1993, Reason and Rowan, 1981, Yin, 1994) the majority arc aware that

135

ccrtain standards must be mct. The emphasis, particularly in qualitative

methodologies; is on the achievcmcnt of crcdibility and reliability whilst adopting a

realist approach to validity (Silverman, 1993 and Hammcrsley, 1992). In fact,

qualitative research methods have been labelled as more valid than quantitative

methods since they allow the researcher to stay groundcd in the real world and

cncourage a closer fit between resulting theory and the collcction of unriltcrcd data

(Taylor and Bogdan, 1983). Yin identifies three forms of validity relevant to

cxploratory and descriptive research - Construct validity, External validity and Reliability - and the tactics available for their achievement (Yin, 1994). Construct

validity concerns the degree of conridcncc we have that the phenomenon of interest

has been appropriately measured or studied. Construct validity can be enhanced by

using multiple sources of evidence, the establishment of a chain of evidence, and the

use of multiple informants for the review of data collected. Extcmal validity concerns

the dcgrcc of confidence we have that findings can be gcncraliscd beyond the

immediate case. Exterrial validity can be enhanced by using replication in the

deployment of methods, adopting an analytical rather than statistical basis of

gencrulisation (Yin, 1994), and the search for disconfirmatory evidence to bound the

resultant knowledge (Glaser and Strauss, 1967 and Strauss and Corbin, 1998).

Reliability conccms our confidence that the research and its findings are repeatable. The reliability of Case Study research can be enhanced by crisuring the transparency

of methods and analysis so that they can be opcrationaliscd and repeated, (Yin, 1994),

rcplication of data collection from the same case, and the use of multiple rcscarchers in the study. The following section outlines the strategies adopted by the author to

cnhance the validity and reliability of his research and its findings.

4.11.3 Methodological consideration of validity

Research described in this thesis has adopted the following strategies to increase its

validity. Firstly, and most fundamentally, the methods used in this research were

designed to study transformational leadership in manufacturing organisations, and not

to study the phenomenon leadership in general. Data was collected from

manufacturing organisations, rather than by general companics/organisations. Furthermore. the methods were designed to uncover the trans formational leaders in

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13chivioliml Aspccts of Transfo=tional Le3dership_in ManufacturinzOrganisations

manufacturing organisations rather than the transactional or othcr typcs of leadcrship.

As such, the data collected was not restrained by transformational leadcrs but to distinguish transformational leaders from non-transformational and cffccts of both

leaders. The research has also uscd mullipic organisations to collect data to cstablish the research question more elaborative and generalized. .

Unlike the traditional triangulation model, a ncstcd approach of distinguishing the

transformational leaders from the general population was cmploycd as a predominant

method that guidcs the project from the start. This nesting means that cmbeddcd

method address a diffcrcnt question than the dominant method. Concurrent nesting

strategy was acMevcd by asking quantitative questionnaire from followers about their

leaders, and their leaders were interviewed qualitatively. Interviews were coded in

numbers and analysed quantitatively to get the inference of the study.

4.12 Summary

This chapter has described the methodological approach that the researcher has

adopted to address the research questions framed in Chapter 2. The chapter explains bow philosophies translate into the methodological approach tak-cn. An overview of

the mixed method approach has been provided with its strengths and weak-ncsscs. Major strategies and designs of mixed methods have been described. The selection of

research methodology for this research has been explained and justified by

comparison with alternative methodologies. Limitations of the methodological

approach and questions of reliability and validity have been discussed.

137

Behavioural Aspccts of Trans formai ionalleaduship in ManufactuflngDrganisations

Chapter 5 Research Strategy

5.1 The purpose of the Experimentation Phase

'Ibc aim of this research was to explore transformational lcadcrship in Pakistani

manufacturing organisation with its main objective to cxplore the bchavioural aspect

the psychological substructure, the internal world of transformational Icadcrs, namcly

what "makes thcm ticV, and how they developed this way. Even if one considers

transformational leadership to be a bchavioural theory, the origins of the bchaviours

arc unclear.

To evaluate transformational leadership in Pakistani manufacturing organisations, and

to ]carn about the behavioural aspects of transformational leadership in manufacturing

organisations, an experiment was designed to study five manufacturing organisations in Pakistan ranging from large to small size organisations. To know the answers of

each research question and complement the literature it was proposed to carry out

experiments by obtaining data from existing managcrs/Icadcrs and their followers from

manufacturing organisations in Pakistan. In this chapter the design of these

experiments togcthcr, %vith the measuring tools used have been described.

As discussed in the literature survey in section 3.2 to 3.8, there arc comments and

papers that provide some insight into answering the research questions although the

precise questions in that research are not answered. It is important to obtain an answer

to each question, as this will influence the training and selection of personnel with leadership qualities in general and manufacturing industry in particular. To answer

each question and complement the literature it was proposed to carry out experiments by obtaining data from existing managcrs/leadcrs from the manufacturing industry. In

this chapter the design of these experiments together with the measuring tools used are described.

5.2 The Instruments Used During Experimentation

The following instruments were used during the data collection phase:

138

13chaviourat Aspccls of TransfonmtionaLUadcrshipjaýlantifacixifiraOrganisations

a) Podsakofr ct al (1990) 23-itcm mcasure of Tmnsfomiational

Lcadcrship Invcntory Qucstionnairc, shown in Appcndix-A. b) Organisational Cultural Assessmcnt Instrumcnt, OCAI dcvclopcd by

Cameron & Quinn (1999) shown in Appcndix-L

C) A questionnaire developed after initial assessment of qualitative data

collcctcd in phasc-I to further clarify and validate the responses of

phase-1, shown Appcndix-F.

Before starting the data gathering exercise it was important to precisely dcrinc

the terms used in the research questions.

5.3 The working definitions of the terms used In the Research Questions

Ibc following arc dcfinitions of the terms used in the rcsc=h questions:

Situation Strength:

Rules and regulations in manufacturing organisations, i. e., proper documentation, presence of rules & regulations, process specification

sheets, product detailed manufacturing drawings, detailed quality

assurance requirements. A list of definitions in terms of strong and

weak situation is shown in table 3.1

b) Attribufion: Manufacturing leaders attributc to the causes of poor pcrfonnancc or failure in meetings production targcts.

C) Intcmal Attribution:

Manufacturing leaders attribute to the causes of poor pcrforinance towards followers behaviour.

d) Extcmal Attribution:

Manufacturing leaders attribute to the causes of poor performance towards external factors like machines break down problems, inventory

problems, material problems ctc. Lcadcr.

Individual in a manufacturing organisation wbo has two or more than

two followas, hcnce looking at the organisational structurc as shown in

139

Appcndix-E, the leaders for any organisation, included individuals from

the position of the Project Director to the shop floor Supervisor.

1) Lcadcrship:

Lcadcrship is about hicrarchical rclationships bct%vccn the Icadcr and the followcr.

SA Summary of What the Lfterature Says About the Research Questions

For Research Question 1: Do transformational leaders create a weak situation for thcir followcrs in manufacturing

organisations?

Although there is as yet no literature available for the measurement of situation

strcngth and transformational leadership specifically in manufacturing organisations,

there is literature on the meaning of situation strength and literature and measurement

techniques for transformational leadership in general. Transformational leaders use the

leadership style that best suits the situation they face. They build on the strength of

others, strengths that arc sometimes dormant. Trans formational leaders arc visionaries

who enable people to transcend their own self-interest for the sake of others. They arc

leaders who change reality by building on the human need for meaning.

Trarisfonnational leaders do not necessarily apply the effective method that worked

yesterday to today's problems. They do not approach every situation in the same way. NVhcn something does not work the first time, they do not get a bigger hammcr and hit

it again. Transformational leaders restudy the situation and look for a better approach. They realize that style is not as important as results (Lcwis, 1996)

The latest thinking on leadership is that it should be transforniationaL This means that leaders should be able to provide vision and direction for the organisation, and that

they should be able to cncrgise and inspire other members of the organisation in the

pursuit of organisational objectives. Vision is concerned with the long-term goals of an

Organisation, which are the basis for its strategy about how it should carry out its work In devclopmcntal settings, transformational leaders with vision and a sense of strategy

%ill be those who

140

13chavioural Aspects of Transfonnitionat Leadership in Manufacturing Orranisations

* Arc sccn to be able to find clear and workable ways to overcome obstacles,

* Arc conccmcd about the qualities of the services their organisation provides to

the mass of tile people and,

* Can inspire other members to do likewise

Utcraturc about situation strength says that, situation may be the most ambiguous

aspect of leadership, the nature of task-, the work setting, presence of formal rules and

regulations arc a few of the situational variables that can affect the leadership process. The situation can constrain or facilitate a leader's action and leaders can change diffmnt aspects of the situation in order to be more cffcctivc (Hughes, Ginnctt, &

Curphy, 1993). It is also likely that the type of cmploycc in a strong situation will have

adaptcd to that strong situation and will not challcngc the system. This is not true of

the weak situation where the individual is probably more used to, and accepting of,

ambiguity and a lack of a strong company policy, and is likely to deliver an individual

rcsNnse akin to their own ways of behaving in any particular situation.

For Research Question No. 2: Do transfonnational leaders make internal

attributions for the cause of poor pcrfonnancc in


7bcrc does not appear to be any literature available, which directly discusses the

attributions made by leaders and Particularly transformational leadership in

manufacturing organisations. However, literature on attributions made by leaders and

transformational leadership is available in general settings.

Offerman et al. (1998) anticipated that the behaNiours of the leaders would depend

upon the type of attribution that they had made for the groups' performance. For

instance, while poor performance that was attributcd to effort (an internal and unstable

cause) might motivate leaders to actively intervene, similarly poor performance that

, was attributed to luck (an cxtcmal and unstable cause) might not motivate any

response. Indeed, results demonstrated that the attributions made regarding group

141

Behavioural Aspects of Transfomution3l LcadcrshiI2 'n Manufacturing Organisations

pcrformancc significantly affected a leader's subsequent interactions and behaviour

towards a group. The attributions formed by leaders arc important antecedents to tlicir

subsequent behaviour.

in one line of research, Dobbins and Russell (1986b) examined supervisory liking,

prcdicting that leaders would attribute poor performance to internal factors and

rmWnd more punitively towards a disliked, versus a liked, follower. Coinciding with

this cxpcctation, a laboratory and a field study largely confirmed these hypotheses. In a

sccond cxtcnsion, Dobbins and Russell (1986a) found that leaders were morc inclined

to draw internal attributions for follower behaviour due, in part, to self-serving biases

(I. c., because this deflects blame from the leader). Interestingly, other data indicate that

one way to mitigate this bias is to provide supervisors with direct experience in a task

domain (e. g., Mitchell & Kalb, 1982). That is, the more cxpcricncc a supervisor has,

the more likely he/she is to consider situational/cnviromncntal factors when

formulating an attribution and the less likely helshe is to recommend changes to the

task (i. c., simpler materials).

For Rcsc=h Question No. 3: Do transformational leaders seck more feedback

from thcir followcrs than non-tmnsformational

managcrs or leadcrs?

Feedback is central to leadership. It is the key to leaders' sclf-insight. Without

fecdback leaders would be in the dark about the cffects of their decisions and actions

on their organisations and their relationships. Feedback stems from a numbcr of

sources. Some feedback comes from objective data: information about finances

(rcports of expenses and revenues), human resources (data on cmploycc turnover,

numbers attending various training courses, salary surveys in the labour market outside

the fm), and business processes (error rates, projects completed on time, invcntory).

other feedback comes from subjective data: comments or ratings from one's

. supcrvisor, followers, peers, customers, and/or suppliers. Feedback is valuable for

many reasons. It directs, motivates, and rewards behaviour. It is the basis for

devclopmcnt and career planning, and it contributes to building cffectivc intcrpcrsonal

rclationships. it is an important element in learning. We know fliat pcople learn by

142

Behaviount Aslscts of Transformational Lcadershil2 in ManufactuHng Organisationi

modclling others, trying new behaviour, and receiving fccdback on how well thcy arc

doing.

A review of the literature resulted in the following discussion about fccdback, bascd on

literature reviews by Ilgcn, Fisher, & Taylor, (1979); Larson, (1984); London, (1988);

and Nadlcr, (1979), Atwater ct at (1995), Gutluic & KcIly-Radford (1998), Zaccaro &

Klimoski (2001).

Feedback directs behaviour, that is, it keeps goal-dircctcd behaviour on coursc. It

influences futurc performance goals, essentially creating objectives for achieving highcr levels of performance in the future. Actually, positive fccdback is a

rcinforccment in and of itself.

Fccdback cnhanccs learning. It increases cmployccs' abilities to dctect crrors on their

own. It helps leaders realize what they need to know and what they need to do to

improve. Feedback incrcascs motivation by demonstrating what behaviours contribute

to successful performance. It helps people clarify their beliefs about the cffccts of their

b. chaviour. Fcedback increases the salience of the information and die importance of

the fccdback process.

Feedback increases in the amount of power and control leaders fccl. This applies to

both the source of feedback and the rccipicnt. Fccdback increases a leaders' fccling of involvcmcnt in the task. Feedback about individual performance coupled with

information about cnvironmcntal conditions and opportunities helps leaders form a

carcer identity that is challenging and potentially rewarding.

In negotiations, feedback is a mechanism for evaluating offers. In decision-making,

fccdback about the results of the decision helps groups and individuals rccognizc

cognitive biases (e. g., the tendency to overly weight information that is worded

negatively) and to avoid these biases in the future.

Feedback is generally acknowledged as an essential ingredient for cffcctivc leadership

Olicbcrt & Klatt, 2001). Studies show that good leaders communicate fcclings and

ideas, actively solicit new ideas from others, and cffectivcly articulate arguments, and

143

persuade others (Bcnnis & Nauus, 1985, Kanter, 1983, Parks, 1985, Atwater ct al, 1995). Effective communications skills arc important because they provide leaders and followers with greater access to information relevant to important organisational decisions (Ficchtncr & Kraycr, 1986, Marsick & Watkins, 1990). Organisations have a

variety of devices for obtaining feedback. Management reports, concerning profits,

productivity, quality, sales, employee turnover, and other aspects of organisational life

provide valuable information on the extent to which leader actions are effective. In

addition, performance evaluations and attitude surveys may provide fccdback on the basis of which a leader may adapt rather than continue an undesirable course of action. Njany of the problems a leader faces have been faced before and these arc minor

variations. More serious and recurring issues may well be dealt with by %%Tittcn

policies and procedures. This leads to consistency of action and eliminates the

frustration and time pressures which result from handling cach problem as if it were an isolated event. Tbc development of policies and procedures is a dccision-mak-ing

prmcss, which establishes the limits within which future decisions are made.

For Research Question No. 4.: Is clan culture tile most common cultural

cnviromncnt crcatcd or misting in parallcl with transfonnational leadcrship?

About organisational culture, the most accWmcd study was conducted by Schein using

a qualitative approach. Schein stated that leadership and culture are two sides of the

, Same coin and neither can be understood on its own. He went on further to elaborate

that "the only important thing that leaders do is to create and manage culture, and the

unique talent of leaders is their ability to work with culture, Schein (1985). Schein's

study rekindled a new interest in examining the relationship between leadership and

organisational culture using quantitative analysis, Avolio & Bass (1998). The

interaction between leadership and organisational culture has been rccogniscd by Bass

who stated that "organisational culture affects leadership as much as leadership affects

organisational culture"', Bass (1998). The importance of leadership in relation to

organisational culture is paramount, as leaders can become sources of values within an

organisational culture and thus have an impact on followers, Bennis & Nanus; (1985).

Several studies suggested that leadership is the driving force in organisational culture,

144

Behavioural Aspects of Transformational Leadership in Manufacturing Orgmisafions

Avolio & Bass (1998); Badaracco & Ellsworth (1989); Bass & Avolio (1993,1994);

Bums (1978); Dcn Hartog, Van Muijcn & Koopman (1996); Faitholm (1991);

Kuczmarski & Kuczmarski (1995); Schein (1985), Daft (2002).

According to Bass, transactional leaders work within their organisational cultures

following existing rules, procedures and norms-, transformational leaders change their

culture by first understanding it and then realigning the organisation's culture with a

new vision and a revision of its shared assumptions, values and norms, Bass (1985).

Ibus, there is constant interplay between culture and Icadcrship, as leaders can be both

trxisactional and transformational in organisations.

Camcron & Quinn dcfincd four types of organisational culture as Hierarchy, Marka,

Clan and Adhocracy. Characteristics of hicrarchy culture are that it is characterized by

a formalized and structurcd place of work. Procedures govcm what people do,

cffcctivc leaders arc good coordinators and organiscrs, and maintaining a smooth-

running organisation is important. The long-term concerns of the organisation arc

stability, predictability, and efficiency. Formal rules and policies hold the organisation

together.

Competifiveriess and productivity in market organisations arc achieved through a

. Strong crnphasis on external posifioning and control. Ile basic assumptions in a

market culture are that the external environment is not benign but hostile, consumers

arc choosy and interested in value, the organisaflon is in the business of increasing its

compc6tivc position, and the major task of management is to drive the organisation

toward productivity, results, and profits. It is assumed that a clear purpose and an

aggressive strategy lead to productivity and profitability. Leaders arc hard-driving

producers and competitors. Tbcy are tough and demanding. The glue that holds the

organisation together is an emphasis on winning. Ile long-term conccrn is on

cornpc6tivc actions and achieving stretch goals and targets. Success is dcrined in terms

of markct share and penetration. Outpacing the compctition and market leadership arc

important.

Some basic assumptions of clan culture are: that the cn,, ironment can best be managcd

tIlrough tc=work- and cmployce devclopmcnt; customcrs arc best thought of as

145

Behavioural Asl! ccts of Tronsfonnation3l Lcadcrshipin 1--tanufacturing Qrganisaiioni

partners; the organisation is in the business of developing a humane work

cnvironmcnt, and the major task of managcmcnt is to cmpowcr cmployccs and facilitatc their participation, commitment, and loyalty.

The clan culture, (using Camcron and Quinn's definition) is typiried by a fricndly

place to work where people share a lot of thcmsclvcs. It is like an extended family,

Lcadcrs arc thought of as mentors and, pcrhaps, cvcn as parcnt figurcs. I'lie

organisation is held together by loyalty and tradition. Commitmcnt is high. I'lle

organisation cmphasizcs the long-tcnn bcncrit of individual dcvclopmcnt with high

cohesion and morale being important. Success is defined in terms of intcrnal climate

and concern for people. The organisation places a premium on teamwork,

participation, and consensus. However, clan cultures also use pccr pressure to cnsurc

conformity to a value system that supports the economic rcquircmcnts of the business

and such systems tend not to be tolerant of deviancy which in an industrial sctfing may

well have been a prompt for new business methods or products. Clan culture also

coexists with Ican manufacturing systems which can be demanding environments to

work in where there is a high degree of trust but at the same time also mcasurcmcnt

and regulation.

Tbc adhocracy culture is characterized by a dynamic, entrcprcncurial, and creative

workplace. People stick their necks out and take risks. Effective leadcrship is

visionary, innovative, and risk-oriented. The glue that holds the organisation together

is commitment to experimentation and innovation. I'lie emphasis is on being at the

leading edge of new knowledge, products, and/or services. Readiness for change and

mecting new challenges are important. The organisation! s long-term emphasis is on

rapid growth and acquiring new resources. Success means producing unique and

original products and services.

146

Behavioural Aspects of Transfo=tion3l Leadership-ia-Manufacturing Organisationi

5.5 Implications of the Research Questions, How Important Is It To Know

The Answer, What Does It Effect:

it hu now been established that we know that transformational leadership is associated

%ith high levels of individual and organisational. pcrfon-nance (e. g. Howell & Avolio,

1993. Barling, Wcbcr & Kclloway, 1996, Geyer & Stcyrcr, 1995, Howell & Shea,

1998, Bass, 1998, Antanakis and House, 2002, Jung & Sosik, 2002, Avolio ct al, 2003,

U%ittington ct al, 2004, Zhu ct al, 2005). However, we know very little about the

psychological substructure, the internal world of transformational leaders, namely

what -makes them tick", and how they developed this way. This point has been

indicated by some prominent scholars of leadership (e. g., Bass, 1998; House &

Ilowc1l, 1992; Judge & Bono, 2000, Popper & Mayscicss, 2002). Judge & Bono

(2000) claiming that: "Even if one considcrs transformational leadership to be a

bchavioural theory, the origins of the behaviours arc unclear. "

As YukI (1998) concluded after reviewing research on this topic, "a variety of different

influence processes may be involved in transformational leadership, and differcnt

transformational bchaviours may involve different influence processes. Research on

t, hesc processes is needed to gain better understanding of transformational leadership. "

jEly answering the research questions mentioned in this thesis, some of the concepts in

understanding the psychological substructure, the internal world of transformational

leaden, namely what "makes them tick", and how they developed this way may be

Cxplicabic. The findings of the research questions may well be come obligatory when

trallung leaders in manufacturing organisations collectively and may provide

guidelines to manufacturing leaders individually. The results of the research questions

nay also in return be supportive to improving manufacturing performance and

followcrs confidcnce. Exploring transformational leadership in Pakistani

manufacturing organisations during the process of finding answers to the rcscarch

questions, will also provide the statistics of existence of such transformational leaders

in Pakistani manufacturing organisations. Further, as a result of the answers to these

questions the need to further train leaders in manufacturing organisations for

transformational leadership characteristics may be highlighted.

147

Behavioural Asrects of Transfonnational Leadcrsliip_in Nianufactufing Qrganisations

5.6 The Organisations Used for Testing

The organisations used in the testing included three large heavy wcight. vchiclcs

manufacturing organisations, one mcdium weight vehicles manufacturing organisation

and one discrete parts manufacturing industry. Out of the five, three of the

organisations owned by the Govcmmcnt, one was a public organisation, and one was a

private industry. Tbrec organisations of the sample were located on the Western parts

of Pakistan and two organisations wcre locatcd on Eastern parts of Pakistan. I'lic, large

hcavy weight vehicle manufacturing organisations cmploycd from 300-500 people

, with 15-25 leaders, mcdium weight vehicle manufacturing organisations cmploycd from 100-150 people using 10-15 leaders and discrctc parts manufacturing industry

Crnploycd between 30-60 pcopic with 5-8 leaders.

5.7 Selection of Sample Size

Since sample size of the target population was large cnough, i. e., around 2000

registered engineering industries (Journal of Institution of Engineers Pakistan, 2001).

These include such major ones as, automobile industry, discrete parts manufacturing industries, light to heavy weight vehicles manufacturing organisations, textile

industries, chemical and petrochemical industries, and so on. Due to time and

cconomic constraints, it was not possible to study all the organisations or all types of

organisations. Literature was surveyed to get an estimate of a suitable sample size. In a

rc., icw of 126 articles in the field of organisation studies, which wcrc bascd on

corrclational research, Mitchell (1985) found that only twenty-one were based on

probability samples. The rest used convenience samples, that is, samples which arc

either 'chosen' by the investigator or which choose themselves (e. g., voluntccrs), Alan

13ryman and Duncan Cramer (200S). To manage the study within the givcn time frame

for research work-, it was decided to study five manufacturing organisations including

small to large manufacturing scale organisations based on a convcnicncc sampling

strategy.

148

5.8 The Sample Size Implication

it was decided to obtain sufficient in-depth answers and decided that a small number of in-depth case studies would be selected. Only by carrying out in depth work it is

possible to obtain a rich enough picture of the situation and leadership. According to

Bass and Yammarino, leadership is a process that can occur throughout organisations fl3ass, 1990; Yarnmarino, 1994). As such, it should be researched from this

organisation-wide perspective. However, the vast majority of "leadership" research investigates "managers, " "leaders, " or manager-follower relationships. Consequently,

while much of this research claims to be based on the process of leadership, the focus

is invariably from the perspective of formal authority in an organisational hierarchy.

11crice, a vast body of critical leadership data is neglected. Thus, leadership should be

rcscarched as a process that can occur throughout organisations, and not just from

peopic at the senior end of the hierarchy. Therefore to rcscarch leadership as a process

demands that processual research methods should be used. This leads into the final

issue, that of research method.

ir%-as accepted that from using a small detailed sample, (although a rich picture of the

effect of situational strength on transformational leadership would be obtained) it may

bc difficult to gencralise the results for a larger population of different companies and

that would perhaps be work for a further research study at a latcr date. A limited in-

depth survey was carried out of nearly 300-500 followers with 70-100 leaders in 5

manufacturing organisations. Interviews were the primary means of collecting data.

Ilowevcr, other types of data was also collected: curriculum vitac of leaders, and

demographic information; information about leaders' operational contexts through

mission statements, cmploycc handbooks, organisational policies, procedures,

manufacturing process sheets, drawings of manufacturing parts, and daily production

rcports. It is important to understand the difference between a qualitative and

quantitative study. Qualitative studies draw on smaller samples that provide the

opportunity for in-depth inquiry, while quantitative studies usually provide information

from large random samples (Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Patton, 1990). T"hercfore this

rcscarch focussed on the cases with in-depth information and opportunistic sampling

149

(Patton, 1990). It took nearly six months to study leadership in these fivc

manufacturing organisations. 'I'lie results obtained when compared to predictions from

the literature would suggest that the results are gcncmlisable. However, to thoroughly

test the gcncralisable question, a larger in-depth survey will be required.

5.9 The Administration of the Tests

Before collecting data from the five manufacturing organisations, permission was

sought from the top management by introducing the rescarchcr and by providing an

introductory letter from the researcher's supervisor sccking help for rescarchcr to

collect data. AlIcr the permission had been granted, the first task was to obtain die

organisation's structure, so that the researchcr could become familiar with flic

organisation's units to be studied. The same process was repeated for all the rive

manufacturing organisations of the sample.

Data collection was started from the bottom level of the organisation structure, i. e.,

from shop floor worker by using Podsakofrs transformational leadership questionnaire

for rating their leaders about trans formational leadership characteristics. The

questionnaire was translated into Urdu language (as shown in appcndix-K). This is the

pakistan national language understandable by lowcr-lcvcl hierarchy followers. The

rcscarchcr for obtaining the responses on the questionnaire approached all the

followers. Although all respondees were heavily committed to their jobs, they were

instructed by their leaders to cooperate with the researcher and complete the

questionnaire as soon as possible. Most of the followers responded quickl)r, others

took their time.

Once all the questionnaires were returned to the researcher by the followers, they were

analysed and the leaders were categorised, on the basis of transformational leadership

characteristics as rated by their followers (shown in appcndix-D). Leaders were

interviewed regarding the research questions indicated in chapter 3. Leaders were

intcrvicwcd in their officeswith prc-arrangcd time according to their convenience.

ISO

Behavioural A=cts of Transformion3l Leadershin in 1,13nuf3cturing Organisations

5.10 Types of People to be Contacted or In(ervicived

In all the fivc organisations, all pcople conccmcd with manufacturing from shop floor

workcr to top managcment wcrc contactcd or intcrvicwcd. In the first instancc,

followcrs of all the Icadcrs wcrc contactcd for rating dicir lcadcrs on the

trans formati onal Icadcrship scalc, establishing a distinction bctNvccn low, non-nal, or

high transformational leadcrship charactcristics for leadcrs.

Latcr, Icadcrs were intcrvicwcd irrespective of t=sforinational Ic-adcrship

charactcristics regarding the research questions mcntioned in chaptcr 3 as primary

data. Leaders who were interviewed for the purpose of collecting data about research

questions included Supervisors, Foremen, Managcrs, Deputy General hlanagcrs,

General Managm, and Project Dircctors/Managing Directors.

For furthcr confirmation/in-dcpth clarification of the data collected in the primary

phase, a questionnaire was designed regarding research questions as mentioned in

chapter 3. The same leaders were approached again for a secondary data collection as

phasc-11, and to respond on the questionnaire rating their choice on a Likcrt scale

ranging from I to 5, i. e., where I =strongly disagree to 5=strongly agree. To escape the

problems of practice cffcct, i. e., to confirm the original response of phasc-1, the

duration between phasc-1, primary data, and phase-11, secondary data was eight

months.

5.11 Type of Data Collected

To find the answer to the research questions, both Vpcs of data (qualitative and

quantitative) were collected. Qualitative data included flie interviews of the

manufacturing leaders of the sample population. Quantitative data consisted of data

from questionnaires and the data collected using Camcron & Quinn (1999)

Organisation culture assessment instrument tool.

151

Behavioural Asp2cls of Timnsforitotional Lcadcnhip-in Manufacturing Organisationt

5.12 The Research methodology to be adopted In the Experimentation

For finding the answers of the research questions, the first thing was to identify

tran. srormational leaders in the manufacturing organisations. 11c litcmturc was

rcvicwcd for a valid questionnaire, which was well rcfcrcnccd and reliable for

measuring the criteria for trans formational leadership. Ile selected measuring

instrumcnt was the Podsakoff ct al (1990), 23-itcms questionnaire for evaluation or

U=rortnational leadership characteristics.

For research question 1: Do transformational leaders create a wcak- situation for

their followers in manufacturing organisations?

To answer this question it was important to measure the situation strength of the

n=ufacturing organisations; and at the same time to dctcr7ninc the leaders' behaviour

in that situation and what form of situation they created for the people they managed.

Ilowcvcr, as discussed in section 5.4 there isn't a commercially available questionnaire for measuring situation strength. So there was difficulty in doing this because situation

strength is not clearly defined in the literature for manufacturing organisations. I used

the dcfinition of Curphy ct al (1993) that the Trait approach assumes that how people b, chavc in novel, ambiguous, or what we call "weak" situations. Situations that arc

SovCrned by clearly specified rules, demands or organisational policies - arc "strong"

situations-oftcn minimize the cffects traits have on behaviour. I measured situation

g=gth of the manufacturing organisations; using the Curphy ct al (1993) definition. If

the organisation has clearly specified rules, organisational policies, manufacturing

process sheets and quality control sheets, detailed parts drawings arc available - hcncc

it is termed a strong situation (shown in table 3.1), whilst non existence of these

documents arc termed: weak situation. Ibis measure is reasonably Casy to determine

but it does have its limitations. Take for example, a strong situation defined in terms of

ruics and procedures but the person may not interpret rules and procedures as a strong

situation. It does depend upon their personality. Howcvcr I needed a working

assessment of the situation strength and we can generally say that if the company does

provide strong guidance and controls on behaviour it is trying to control that behaviour

and produce a strong situation. NVlicreas if there arc no formal rules, the mechanisms

152

13-chaviouni Asrsct"f Tr-ansfonn3tion3l-Lcadcr5hin-intianufacturinr. Org3nisation

of control arc more open and thus we assume that individual discretion in decision.

nuking has more latitude. When the leader is in a weak or strong situation I will ask

them to dcrinc the level of discretion that they create or wish for followers. I'llis is then

a perception that they have about the discretion that they would like and may have

implemented for followers. My assumption was that if they use words like setting

strong standards and controls then they tend to be trying to create a strong situation,

whilst if they stress flexibility opcn-ncss and discretion then they are giving latitude to

followers even though they are in a strong situation or perhaps weak situation

themselves. It was my belief that depending upon their personality they will favour

wcak or strong situational strength for followers and this aspect of latitude can be

captured by the measurement of trans formational leadership. In this instance the

measure was being used rather like a trait measure to identify their personality

disposition. I measured the leaders belief and attitude to their followers by asking how

much discretion they favoured for followers in performing their jobs. I also tried to

identify the leaders actual behaviour (actions) towards followers. I did this by

measuring the follower reactions to the leader to see if the beliefs had actually been

carried through into actions.

-rbe way I framed these questions was as follows: 'define your organisation in terms of

procedures and policies and what arc your opinions about favouring discretion to

followers in doing their jobs? I recorded the statements from leaders on the contact

summary sheet as dcfined by Miles and Hubcrman (1984) for example "Process sheets

and drawings of the manufacturing parts arc available in the organisation, I favour

dis=tion to followers. " Overall I thought that if I got a greater response of "favours

disaction to followers" in strong situation from leaders with transformational

leadership characteristics (on the average more than 50%) then this answered the

question in a positive direction. However if I got a response of " favours limited or no

discretion to followers or favours limited discretion to followers in performing their

joW in strong situation by leaders with transformational leadership characteristics

then this . vill give a negative answer.

To verify the data obtained in phase-I (qualitative data); a questionnaire was designed

(sho%%m in appendix F) for phase-Il (quantitative); on situational aspects. 711c sanic

153

Icadcrs as thosc uscd for phasc-1, wcrc askcd to ratc tlicir choicc on Likcrt scalc 1-5,

where, I- doesn't cmphasise the choice at all time, 2=Oncc in a while, 3-Somctimcs,

4-Fairly oflcn and S= cmphasisc that choicc at all times.

There were limitations to the experiment. For example, I used the scif-designcd

questionnaire in phasc-11 to validate the rcsults of phasc-1, bccausc no valid tool was

available to measure the discretion giving by Icadcrs to followcrs. Ilowcvcr ovcrall I

fclt that this was a reasonable measure because all the questions asked in the

questionnaire were framcd targeting the concept of situational strength and I was rather disappointed that some leaders tended to answer in the middle of the range of Likcrt's

sc-alc in phasc-11. Howcvcr, I did not think that this invalidated the results, because

while concluding the results, the overall mcan response of all the Icadcrs was

considered and not the individual responses.

The precise steps used in this expcrimcnt were:

step 1. Collection of qualitative data by interviewing manufacturing leaders in

phase-I about situation strength in their organisations and how they

perform in that situation (on the average 5-8 leaders from each

manufacturing organisation).

Step 2. Record the interview data on a separate contact summary sheet for each leader.

Step I Analyse the interviews by qualitative methods. This %vill be done by

following the steps of interview analysis procedure described by Arlene

Fink (2003) by catcgorising and coding all the responses to create

categories based on the review of responses.

Step 4 Matching these codes with leaders responses for each leader.

Step 5 Counting the number of responses for each code.

Step 6 Counting the number of each type of leader i. e., high, normal or low

transformational leadership charactcristics, and responses assigned to

each code.

StcP 7 Calculating the percentage of leaders assigned to each code

step 8 Counting the number of responses assigned to each code.

154

13-chavioUrat Aspccts of-Transfonw-lionaLLcodushin ill M anti factudoc Qrganisatiom

Stcp 9 Surnmarising and calculating flic pcrccntagc of responses for cach type

of Icadcr i. c., high, nonnal, or low trans fonnati onal. leadership

characteristics assigned to cach code.

Step 10 Derive hypotheses from the results of qualitative data as obtained in

stcp-8 above. step II Collection of quantitative data in phasc-2 from the same leaders in

manufacturing organisations in the form of a questionnaire, using Likcrt

scale 1-5, from I=strongly disagree to 5=strongly agree to accept or

reject the hypothesis.

Stcp 12 Analyse quantitative data by calculating the mean of the responses for

all leadcrs for each question of the questionnaire. Scgrcgating the

responses for each type of Icadcrship style i. e., high scorcr

transformational Icadcrship characteristics leadcrs, nonnal scorcr

tmnsforinational leadership characteristics leadcrs, and low scorcr transformational leadership charactcristics leaders.

Step 13 Analysc the segregated responses for ovcrall avcragc of each

organisation.

Stcp 14 Analyse the ovcrall average response of each organisation for all the five organisations to conclude each leadcrship style response.

Step 15 Conclude the results.

flow chart for the steps mentioned above is shown in figure 5.1 as follows:

155

Figure 5.1 Flow Chart of the steps to answer research question 1:

R. Q. No. I Do transfortnational Icadcrs crcatc a wcak situation for dicir followcrs in manufacturing

Collection of data from followers on Podsakoff questionnaire about their leaders in manufacturing organisations for distinguishing leaders in terms of transformational leadership characteristics

I

Collection of qualitative data by face-to-facc interviews of manufacturing leaders in phasc-1. a.. "knig (lucstions 0 Define your organisation in terms of situational strength. 40 What is your opinion about favouring discretion to followers in terms of doing their Jobs and

decision-making?

Analyse the data following qualitative data analysis For (Jetalls go 10

procedure as dcscribed by Fink, (2003)

1 figurc No. 5.1.1

Segregating the leaders responses on the basis of

Rcsponscs from Icadcrs " ith high trAnsfoirmational Icadcrship

Responses from leaders A ith nonnal transfonnotional

perccnLagc of Pcrcciitagc Percentage of

responses for responses for responses for

%Ncak situation strong situatio Nkcak situation

-1 11

or Plla, c I

Conclude Results of phase-I to draw, Hypoth

PC Ic ell tagc responses for

swong wumion

sponscs ftom leaders with low tmnsfomutional leadership

tcsivnse " "'t responses for

%k eak situ. non strong II

situatioll

I, ýf Vfljýc -I I

Concludc Rcsults of phasc-11 to cunfinu I

mults of ph"c-I

I

I Qucstionnaire dcsign from data analysis of phase-I I

Analyse the data following quantitative For details go to figure No. 5.1.2

156

Figurc 5.1.1 Flow chart for analysing qualitativc data (Intervicw data) as dcscribed by Fink (2003).

Make the Categories of responses and assigning code to each category

Assigning code to each responsc

Calculate the number of responses for each code

Counting the number of responses for each code for High, Low or normal transformational leadership

ch,, iracterisucs

Summaries the number of codes hý calculating percentage of cach calegorý

I Conclude result I

157

Figurc 5.1.2 Flow chart for analysing quantitative data (questionnaire data).

Questionnaire Analysis

Segregating the data on the basis of transformational leadership characteristics,

I

i. e., High, low, and normal

I

Calculate the mean responses of each question for all the leaders for each organisation

Comparing each question response on the basis of transformational leadership characteristics for each organisation

, the inean tor each question oil the basis 01 transt leadership characteristics for all the organisations

Conclude the results

158

For research Question No. 2 : Do transfonnational leaders make internal

attributions for the cause of poor pcrformancc in


To answer this research question, I needed to determine how leaders measured as having transformational leadership qualities; attributed the causes of poor

performance. To do this I used the attributional concept by Mitchell and Wood (1979),

which attempts to link leader's actions to followers poor performance, in which

supcrvisors respond to poorly performing followers. In the first step, the leader

diagnoses the cause of the followers poor performance using Kelley's (1967) co-

variation principle, as discussed in section 3.3. Leaders analyse the follower's

behaviour with regard to consistency over time, distinctiveness across settings and

consensus across followers. Then they attribute the poor performance to factors that

arc either internal or external to follower. In the second step of the model, leaders

implement a con-cctivc response to improve the performance. I measured attribution of

the manufacturing leaders towards followers by asking questions in phase-I of data

collection, what are the causes of poor performance at any time in their organisations? This measure towards the cause of poor performance was reasonable to know the

attribution made by leaders. However, limitations to this measure arc that, leaders

liking or disliking of their followers may bias and hence affect the attribution made by

leaders. For example, if a leader likes his followers for any reason, and the cause of

poor performance may be for the followers reduced cfforts or due to internal factors,

but the leader may attribute the causes of poor performance towards external factors

such as, material invcntorylquality problems, machines breakdowns ctc. To overcome this problem, I decided to validate the statements made by the leaders by inquiring

about the causes of poor performance from other sources, i. e., inquiring from other leaders of the same section, documents showing the records of followers performance

or documents showing the causes of production dclay or poor quality. If the leaders

replies for the causes of poor performance were "machines or tool break down

problems, material or tool inventory problems, technical problcms i. e., power failure,

malfunctioning of machines", these arc termed as external attribution. However, if

leaders replies arc, for example, " poor performing followers, lack of interest by

followers in doing their jobs, inexperienced followers or lack of ability of followers"

159

lichaviour3l AsUcts of Trans fomiational-Lcadcrship-inýionufacturing Organisations

these were tcrmcd internal attributions. I recorded the statements from leaders on a

contact summary shcct like "the causes of poor performance arc some times due to

machine or tool breakdown problems, causes of poor pcrformancc arc due to

followers reduced cffort and intcrcsf. I thought that if I got more rcsponsc of "causes

of poor performance due to external factors" from leaders with transformational

leadership characteristics then this would answcr the question as, negative. Whilst if I

got more response of " causes of poor performance due to internal factors" by leaders

with transformational Icadcrship charactcristics (on the average more than 50%) then

this would answcr the rcscarch qucstion as, positive.

To verify the answers of qualitative data collection (phasc-1), a questionnaire was designed (shown in appcndix-F) to gather data on the attributional aspects and ask

same leaders to rate their choice about the attributions they made towards the cause of

poor performance. Likcrt scale 1-5 was used, where, l=strongly disagree, 2=disagrcc,

3=no strong view on either side, 4=agrcc and 5- strongly agree. There were limitations

to the experiment. For example, only the leaders whose answers were recorded in

phasc-I of data collection were again approached so that if there was any bias in the

response of phasc-I it would have reconfirmed the response of phase-1. However

overall I fclt that this was a reasonable measure although I was rather disappointed that

leaders tended to answer in the middle of the range of the Likcrt scale. However I did

not think that this invalidated the results, because while concluding the results the

overall average response for all the responses was considered not the individual

rcsponses.

The precise steps used in this experiment was: Step I. Collection of qualitative data by personal interviews of manufacturing

leaders in phase-I of data collection about attributions they make about the causes of poor performance in their organisations, (on the average 5-8 leaders from each manufacturing organisation).

Step 2. Record the interview data on a separate contact summary sheet for each leader.

Step 3. Analyse the interviews by qualitative methods. This will. be done by

following the steps of interview analysis procedure describcd by Arlene

160

Fink (2003) by catcgorising and coding all the responses to create

catcgorics based on review of responses. Stcp 4 Matching these codes with Icadcrs responses for each leader.

Stcp 5 Counting tile number of responses for each code. Stcp 6 Counting the number of each type of leader i. e., high, normal or low

transformational Icadcrship characteristics, and responses assigned to

each code. Step 7 Calculating the percentage of leadcrs assigned to cach code Step 8 Counting the number of responses assigned to each code. step 9 Summarising and calculating the pcrccntagc of responses for cach type

of leader i. e., high, normal, or low transformational leadership

characteristics assigned to each code.

Step 10 Derive hypotheses from the results of qualitative data as obtained in

stcp-8 above. step II Collection of quantitative data in phase-2 from the same leaders in

manufacturing organisations in the form of a questionnaire, using Liked

scale 1-5, from I=strongly disagree to 5=strongly agree to accept or

reject the hypothesis.

Step 12 Analyse quantitative data by calculating the average of responses for all leaders for each question of the questionnaire. Segregating the

responses for each type of leadership style i. e., high score transformational leadership characteristics leaders, normal score transformational leadership characteristics leaders and low score transformational leadership characteristics leaders.

Step 13 Analyse the segregated responses for overall average of each

organisation. Step 14 Analyse the overall average response of each organisation for all the

five organisations; to conclude each leadership style response. Step 15 Conclude the results of analysis. Graphically these steps can be summariscd as in figure 5.2

161

Figure 5.2 Flow Chart for the steps to answer research qucstion 2:

R. Q. No. 2 Do u-ansfonnational leaders make internal attributions for the cause of poor pcrformance in manufacturing organisations?

I

Collection of data from followcrs on Podsakoff questionnaire about their leaders in nutnufacturing organisations for distinguishing leaders in terms of transformational leadership chmacristics

I

n of qualitative data by face-to-face interviev. -s of mmiufacturing leaders in phasc-1, askir * What arc the causes of poor performance at any time in your organisations?

Analyse the data following qualitative data analysis procedure as described by Fink (2003)

Segregating the leadm responses on the basis of

, p,, nscs from Icadcrs %4 ith high tmsforTnational

Pc, -cnlagc_,, l Pcrcentagc

rc".., rcsponses tor

%Cak situill": 1 stmng situation

Rcsponses from Icadcrs %% ith normal tmnsfornutional

PmClItage of rcsjK)IIWS for 'A cak Situation

I,! Pha, e -I

Conclude Results of phase-I to

msponsa for stronS situation

For details go to figure No. 5.1 1

Rcsponscs fwni IcaJcrs %% A lo%% transfornutional charactenstics

responscs for rewnses ,A cak situation

II strong

It I'h, i, c -I I

Conclude Resull. -s of"phase-11 to confinn I

results

I

of

Analý se the data following quantttjtiý c I technioues bv A. Fink

I For details go to figure No. 5.1 2

BehaviouratAsrsch of Tons forrmlion3l tcadashig in Manufactuflng Organisation

For rcsc=h Qucstion No. 3 Do transformational lcadcrs scck more fccdback from thcir followas than non-transfomiational Icadcrs or managcrs?

To answer this question I needed to dctcnnine how trans formational leaders get feedback about their actions in manufacturing organisations. I used the definition of

London, (1997), that the fccdback can come from a number of sources. It can come directly from the tasks; it can come from other people- supervisors, followers, peers,

and customers. I measured fccdback by asking manufacturing leaders, how they get fccdback about their actions. If the leaders' replies arc "ask followers about the

progress of the job done, or have daily short meetings with followers" they arc termed

direct feedback, and if the leaders replies were "check daily production reports, check daily production targets, when followers inquire or seek guidance from thca' arc

termed as indirect feedback. I recorded the statements from leaders on the contact

summary sheet as defined by Miles and Hubcrman (1984) for cxample "I review daily

production reports or daily production targets to get fccdback, I have daily short

review meetings with followers. " Overall I thought that if I got more response of "ask

followers about the progress of the job done or have daily or weekly short review

mcctings with followers" from leaders with transformational leadership characteristics (on the average more than 50%) then this will answer the question as, positive. Whilst

if I got a greater response from leaders like, " check daily production reports, check

production targets to get feedback, or, whenever production is held up or quality

problems arise, then I ask from the followers about the causes"with transformational

leadership characteristics, then this will answer the research question as, negative.

The task design fiterature points to autonomy, task significance, feedback, task

identity, and skill variety as attributes of the task-. The significance of a task, and one's

contribution to the success of the task-, would determine how important the feedback is

to traits, competencies and values that comprise a role-speciric identity that may be

crucial to an individual's self concept. Task feedback is a necessary ingredient in

reinforcement or affirmation of self-perccption, and one's ability to identify with a task

would affect how important that feedback is to an individual's self-concept. Skill

163

13chavioural Asrscts of-Transfonnationat Leadcrship in Manufachifing OrganisationS

varicty would providc infonnation rcgarding a numbcr of traits, compctcncics and

values that comprise diffcrcnt role specific idcntitics.

There were limitations to the experiment. For cxampIc I examined only a limited

number of characteristics for fccdback. I selected only those feedback characteristics

that have been related to manufacturing organisations. Face to face interviews arc

particularly useful, as the research question under investigation cannot be answered by

direct observation. We can generally say leaders in the manufacturing cnvironmcnt

either get fccdback about their actions directly from followers or indirectly from daily

rcports, i. e., production reports, production targets, quality rcports. However to know

about transformational leaders behaviour in manufacturing organisations about gctting feedback? I thought that it was a reasonable measure, as there arc normally two

possible ways for manufacturing leaders to get feedback about their actions in their

organisation is either do it directly i. e., from followers, peers, supervisors,

management people or indirectly i. e., from production reports, targets achieved, and

quality complaints or quality reports.

The prccise stcps used in this expaiment wcre:

step 1. Collection of qualitative data by face-to-face intcrvicws of

manufacturing leaders in phase-1, how they get feedback about their

actions or progress of the job done?

Step 2. Record the intcrview data on a separate contact summary sheet for each leader.

Stcp I Analyse the interviews by qualitative methods. This will be done by

following the steps of interview analysis by Arlene Fink (2003) by

categorising and coding all the responses to create categories based on

review of responses.

Step 4 Matching these codes with leaders responses for each leader.

Step 5 Counting the number of responses for each code.

Step 6 Counting the number for each type of leader i. e., high, normal or low

transformational leadership characteristics, and responses arc assigned to each code.

164

lichavioural AsMcts offransfonmlionkLeadership in Wnufacturing Orgnisafi ,

Stcp 7 Calculating the pcrccntage of leaders assigned to cach code

Stcp 8 Counting the number of responses assigned to cach code.

Stcp 9 Surnmarising and calculating the percentage of responses for each type

of leadcr i. e., high, nonnal, or low transformational leadcrship

characteristics assigned to cach code.

Stcp 10 Conclude the results of analysis.

Graphically thcse stcps can bc summarised as in figurc 5.3

165

Figurc 5.3 Flow Chart for the steps to answer research question 3:

IL Q No. 3 Do trans formational leaders seek more feedback from their followers than

non - trans fon-nat ional leaders or managers'!

C'ollcction of data froin followcrs on Podsak-off questionnaire about their leaders in manufacturing organisations for distinguishing leaders in temis of transforniational leadership charactem

I

('ollection of qualitative data by personal interviews of manufacturing leaders in phasc-1, asking questions Ijo%% they get feedback about their actions and the progress of the job done?

I

Record responses on contact summary shect

Analyse the data following qualitative I or detalk Fo to techniques by A. Fink

I figurc No. 511

on the

RCW,, r. 5, c, from leaders with low Responses from leaders % ith Responses from leaders v% ith UwaforTn&Uonal leadership normal transforrnational high transforniational

chamtenstics leadership characteristics leadership characteristics

Counting ting Counting Counting Counting Counting e respoms, cs rcsponses

I

rcsponses responses

II I

responses responses

III

.. of

ýirec for indirect for duck t ! -

for direct for indimc --. I I. .t

for indirect for diroct I ...

Conclude Results to draw

166

Behavioural Aspccts of Transformational Leadershin in Manufacturing Organisations

For research Question No. 4.: Is clan culture the most common cultural cnviroruncnt created or cxisting in parallel with trans formational leadership?

To answer this research question I needed to collect organisation culture data from

leaders in manufacturing organisations. I used the Organisational Cultural Assessment

Instrument (OCAI) tool developed by Camcron & Quinn (1999) to measure

organisation culture. Their model assumes that there are four different "models" of

Organisational culture, six essential dimensions of culture, and that each model has

differcnt preferred approaches for each of the six dimensions.

The Hicrarchy Culture is based on Wcbces thcory of bureaucracy and values tradition,

consistency, cooperation, and conformity. The Hierarchy model focuses more on

internal than cxtcmal issues and values stability and control ovcr flexibility and

discretion. This is the traditional "command and control" modd of organisations,

which works well if the goal is efficiency and the organisational environment is stable

and simpic-if there are very few changes in customers, customer prcfercnccs,

competition, technology, ctc.

The hlarkct Culture also valued stability and control but focused more on external (n=k-ct) rather than internal issues. This culture tends to view the external

cnvironmcnt as threatening, and seeks to identify threats and opportunities as it seeks

competitive advantage and profits.

The Clan Culture focuses on internal issues and values flexibility and discretion rather

tl= sccking stability and control. Its goal is to manage the environment through

teamwork, participation, and consensus.

The Adhocracy Culture focuses on external issues and values flexibility and discretion

rather than seeking stability and control; its key values arc creativity and risk taking.

Orgartisational charts arc temporary or non-cxistcncc; roles and physical space arc also

tcmpomry.

167

Behayioural Asrscts of Transfonnational Ltadcrshi2 in Manufactuflng Organisations

71c six key dimensions of organisational culture, according to Camcron and Quinn,

= Dominant Characteristics, Organisational Leadership, Management of Employees,

Organisational Gluc, Strategic Emphasis, and Criteria for Oudging) Success.

Tcrminology of the questionnaire is very clear and it is well validated tool for

organisation culture assessment, Bcrrio (2003), Pierce (2004). Quinn (1996),

suggested that upper quadrant of OCAI, describes trans formational leadership roles as

the leader is portrayed as a motivator, attending to commitmcn4 cmphasising company

rules, and challenging people with new goals. In addition, the leader is a vision setter,

focussing on the purpose, direction, and communicating a sense of where the

organisation will be over the long term. However, he further suggested that the lower

quadrants of OCAT, describe transactional leadership roles as is portrayed as

taslanakcr; attending to performance and focus on results and as an analyscr,

concentrating on the efficiency of operations.

In order to conduct this experiment I decided to collect data from all the leaders from

the five manufacturing organisations, and segregate the data with respect to

transformational leadership characteristics to identify the difference. I distributed the

Organisational Cultural Assessment Instnuncnt (OCAI) to leaders in the

manufacturing organisations'with detailed instructions, i. e., how to fill the instrument.

NVhcn I got back all the responses from the leaders, I compiled the responses with

respect to transformational leadership characteristics for each individual organisation.

After the compilation of the data it was plotted as per OCAI instructions. There were

four quadrants on the plot. I thought if I got the highest score in quadrant 11 that is

identified as clan culture quadrant, by leaders with a high score on the trans formational

leadership characteristics, this would give positive answer to the research question.

However if I got the highest score on any other quadrant i. e., quadrant 1, as Adhocracy

culture, quadrant 111, as Hierarchy culture and quadrant IV, as Market culture, then this

would give a negative answer to the research question. There were limitations to the

c. xpcdmcnt. For example leaders have to rate their choice on OCAI questionnaire by

assigning numbers to each alternative of each question, i. e., A, B, C, and D the sum Of

which all the alternative (A, B, C, and D) should be 100, as it is a prerequisite for

filling in the OCAT questionnaire. Overall I fcIt that this is a reasonable measure

because OCAT is a wcIl-validated tool to measure organisational culture. It is to be

168

13thavioural AsMts of-TransfomiationaLLeadership in Manufactuflng Organisations

noted that while constructing organisation profiles; mean response of all the leaders

was calculated -with respect to trans formational leadership characteristics and not the

individual responses to know the overall culture of the organisation.

The prccisc: stcps uscd in this expcrimcnt wcre: StCp 1. Collcction of quantitativc data from Icadcrs in manufacturing

organisation about organisation culturc in phasc-I using Camcron &

Quinn "'Organisational Culturc Asscssmcnt Instrumcnt" OCAT

questionnaire Step 2. Classify the data on the basis of transformational leadership

characteristics of leaders.

Step 3. Analysc the data following the OCAI instructions, this is done by first

adding up all the responses of the A part of each question of the OCAI

of each leader and then calculating average response for all leaders for

A part of the question..

Step 4. Similar steps are performed for part D, C and D for each part of the

question of OCAL

step S. Plot these average A, B, C, and D on the graph diagonally as per

procedure of OCAI, to obtained organisational culture profile of the

organisation on the basis of transformational leadership characteristics.

Step 6. Conclude the results from the graph obtained in step 4.

Graphically these steps can be shown as shown in figure 5.4.

169

Bchavioural Asncts of Transfonnational Lcadmhip in Manufacturing Ormisafion

Figure 5.4 Flow Chart for the steps to answer research question 4:

R. Q. No. 4 Is a clan culture the most common cultural environment creatcd or existing In parallel with transformational leadership'?

I

Ask followers to responses on Podsakoff questionnaire about their leaders in

manufacturing organisations for distinguishing leadership characteristics

Collection of quantitative data from manufacturing leaders usi Ck, ganisational Cultural Assessment Instrument Questionnaire

the leaders responses on the basis of onal leadership characteristic

Analyse the data foliowing OCAI procedure

Rrsro": s from leaders with b4b transfonnational

cbsracteristics

plot the responses follo, Aing OCAI

from graph obtained.

170

F or details go

figure 5.4.1 )

Responses from leaders with low uumfonnational characteristics

Plot the responses following OCAl procedure

Behavioural Aspgcts of Transformational Lcadershilp in Manufulurinit OrmAnosAtion

Fig= 5.4.1 Flow chart for OCAl prodecure to analysis data

Add together all A responses in column and divide by 6 for each organisation on the basis of

Add together all B responses in the new column and divide by 6 for each organisation on the basis of

Add together all C responses in the new column and divide by 6 for each organisation on the basis of Transformational leadershiv characteristics

Add together all D responses in the ne,. N- column and divide by 6 for each organisation on the basis of Trans formational leadership characteristics

Plot the points A, B, C, and D obtained above to draw the picture of organisation culture

I

Conclude the results

171

Dchavioural Aspects of Transfonmtional LcadcrshiD in Manufacturinj Omanisations

5.13 The Conduct of the Actual Tests

on the organisation structure, each lcadcr/position in the organisation structure was

allocated a number to identify him to keep the conridcntiality of personnel information

as sho%%m in appendix- E. The study was started from bottom level of management

hicr=hy. Ile followers were approached by the researcher to rate their leader on the

tr=fonnational leadership scale questionnaire as shown in appcndix-A, and they were

als, o allocated a number to recognisc them with respect to their leader as sho%ým in

. 7ppcndix- C. All responses were entered in the computer file in Excel by followcr

n=bcr and their leader number. The data entered was twice checked to ensure

c, offcctncss for any typing mistake as shown in appcndix-B.

teadcrs; responses were noted on contact summary sheet and recorded on computer in

a word document file by leadcr number as shown in appcndix-J.

1, atcr the data obtained from followers on transformational leadership questionnaire

was entered into the Statistical Package for Social Scientist (SPSS) software for

reliability analysis to find the reliability of data. Cronbach's Alpha of the data from

followers was found to be 0.87 for phasc-I as shown bclow. Tbc reliability of the data

for the transformational leadership scale was found good which allow going for further

prc)ccss.

CronbacWs alpha measures how well a set of items (or variables) measures a single

unidimensional latcnt construct.

Cronbach's alpha can be written as a function of the numbcr of test items and the

, avcrage inter-correlation among the items. Below, for conccptual purposes, the

formula for the standardized Cronbach's alpha is:

N-T

11crc N is cqual to the number of items and r-bar is the average intcr-itcm correlation

=ong, the itcms.

172

Behavioural Asrscts of Transformational Leadership- hiM anu facturing Orcanisations

It c-an be seen from this formula that if we increase the number of itcms, we increase

Cronbach's alpha. Additionally, if the average intcr-itcm, correlation is low, alpha will be low. As the average intcr-itcm correlation increases, Cronbach's alpha increases as

WC11.

This makes sense intuitively - if the intcr-itcm correlations arc high, then there is

c%idcncc that the items arc measuring the same underlying construct. This is really

what is meant when someone says they have "high" or "good" reliability. They arc

rcfcffing to how well their items measure a single unidimensional latcnt construct.

Alpha cocfficicnt ranges in value from 0 to I and may be uscd to describe the

rcliability of factors extracted from dichotomous (that is, questions with two possible

answcrs) and/or multi-point fonnatted questionnaires or scales (i. e., rating scale: I-

poor, 5= excellent). The higher the score, the more reliable the generated scale is.

Nunnaly (1978) has indicated 0.7 to be an acccptable reliability cocfficicnt but lowcr

tjxe: ýholds are sometimes used in the literature.

Out put from SPSS package for phase-I of data collection from 254 followers on

trxuformational leadership scale, Cronbach's alpha was as follows:

Case Processing Summary

N % Valid Cas" 254 99.6 Excluded I A (a) Total 255 100.0

a W*ise deletion based on all variables In the procedure. 8'ý

Reliability Statistics

CronbaCK5 Alpha

IN

of Items

. 8671 23

173

Behavioural Aspects of Transfomtional Leadershin on Mmufacturing Oreanintions

For phasc-11 of data colicction, data from 85 followcrs on transformational lcadcrship,

scalc, Cronbach's alpha was as follows:

Case Processing Summary

N % cases Valid 83 96.5

Excluded 2 3.5 (a) Total 85 , 100.0,

a List*ise deletion based on all variables In the procedure.

Ft&UaNlltY Statistics

Cionbactfs AJpha N of Items

. 899 23

5.14 Limitations and Good Features of the Experiments

-[be cxpcrimcnts were applied to people who are concerned %vith manufacturing citlicr

dircctly or indirectly in the manufacturing organisations from shop floor worker to top

M=gcmenL Any body concerned in the manufacturing organisation who has at least

two or more than two followers was considered to be a leader. The cxpcrimcnt was

c: Lrricd out only in Pakistani manufacturing organisations, therefore the results can

only be applied to that culture and would need to be verified and further tested in other

cultures

The experiments used valid tools for assessing transformational leadership

characteristics and organisation culture. The leaders responses were recorded on

contact summary sheets in phasc-I of data collection. In the light of responses of

leaders in phasc-1, a questionnaire was designed to reconfirm the validity of data of

phasc-L TIc duration between phase-I and phasc-11, was kept nearly cight months to

c=pc the problems of practice effect. The reliability of the data collected from leaders

and followcrs was found morc than 0.70, showing a good rcliability of data.

174

Behavioural Aspects of Trans fomiationil Leadcnhip in hinufacturing OrinniSationt

5.15 Conclusion front the Results of Research Questions:

Results of the data collected to answer rcscamh questions will be put forwardcd in the

form of hypotheses, and a proposed model of transformational leadership with respect

to situational strength and organisational culture in a manufacturing cnvironmcnt will

bc put fonvard.

5.16 ChaptcrSummary

in this chapter the research strategy to find the answers of the rcscarch questions was

dcsc-ribed in dctail. This includes the purpose of the cxpcrimcntation phase, and a

description of instruments used in the cxpcrimcntation. It also includes the working

definitions of the terms used in this research, and a brief summary of the literature

about the research questions was defined. Details of the organisations used in the

sample, sample size, types of people contacted, were also described. Limitations of the

experiment, administration and conduct of the actual test with a detailed stcp-wisc

procedure of data analysis were also mentioned. 11c next chaptcr is aimed at the

analysis of the data collected from the five manufacturing organisations used in the

sample.

175

13ebavioutn, l Aspccts of Transfonnational Leadership in King factud ng_Qm., tni sit ions

Cb2ptcr 6 Data Analysis

6.1 Introduction

Tb, c aim of this research is to explore transformational leadership in manufacturing organisations

in Pak-listan and to contribute to the knowledge of understanding the psychological substructure,

us)c internal world of transformational Icadcrs, namely what "makes them tick: ' and how they

drvCloped this way (Popper & Maysclcss (2002). Kark & Shamir (2002) have also stated,

-=sc=h on transformational leadership has not fully cxplorcd the question of what are the

und. erlying processes and mechanisms by which transformational leaders exert influctice on

follawcrs and ultimately on performance. Judge and Bono (2000) highlighted IEvcn if one

considers transformational leadership to be a bchavioural theory. the origins of die bchaviours

= unclear. ' To explore transformational leadership in Pakistani manufacturing organisations; the

pod=koff ct al (1990) transformational leadership invcntory questionnaire was used to establish

,2 distinct. ion between transformational and non-transformational leaders in Pakistani

==Ufacturing organisations. For undcrstanding the bchaviours of transformational leaders in

==ufacturing organisations; research questions were formulated as posited in chaptcr 3. To find

ot gg the answers to the research questions, data was collected from five manufacturing

OMWIisations; in Pakistan and analysed in this chapter. Out of these five manufacturing

M=ji=tions, three of them were state owned cntcrprises and one of thcrn was a private and one

j. 5'a public limited organisation.

. Stjlc o-Amed manufacturing organisations; were in the business Of manufacturing heavy weight

vd, iclcs in collaboration with foreign companies for defence forces of Pakistan employing 3DO-

,, W people in one manufacturing unit, with 20-30 leaderstmanagcrs. Senior management in these , rc

C)r; =isaflons was from military forces of Pakistan. However, managcrs/supcrvisors and junior

5UIT were all civilians. One private manufacturing Organisation was in tile business of

. 2nuf=turing discrete parts for automobile industry of Pakistan employing 5D-70 people with

five to seven leaderstmanagers. One public limited Organisation was in the business of

==uf=turing and assembling automobile cars and employing 80-100 people with lo. 15

j, t2dcWnj=gcrs.

176

13chavioural Aspccts of Trans fonnat ional Leadcrship in NianufacluHng. QManisitions

Li the Government sector organisations, rcward and punishment system is controlled by laid

ez-. %m rules and procedures. Management hierarchy level in Government organisations were up

to cight, level of management whereas in private or public sector, it is up to rive levels of

=. %-. =gcmcnt hierarchy. Staff turnover in Govcnuncnt and public organisations was not very high

=d an average of 5% of total staff annually whereas in private organisation it is nearly 30%

z=Wly. Sununary of nature of manufacturing organisations is shown in table 6.1

177

13cbavioural Aspects of Transfonnitional Lcadcrship in Manu factudn z-Omani sit ions

Tablc 6.1 Naturc of Manufacturing Organisations

Organisation Organisation Organisation Organisation Organisation No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4 No. S

Government Yes Yes Yes No No Private No No No No Yes Public No No No Yes No

No. of Employees 460 390 165 85 57 - No. of

k2dcrs/Man2gers 20 21 18 10 8 (TechnIC21)

anagement mn 111crarchical 8 8 8 5 5

Levels

Ileavy defence Heavy defence Heavy defence Large scale Large scale vehicles rebuilding equipment manufacturing manufacturing

Type of Business manufacturing vehicles manufacturing automobiles auto parts organisation organisation organisation organisation organisation

Organisation Organisation Organisation Organisation was was 301/o Organisation was 'was 10% %-as 10'0/0

. stonthly Targets 40% behind the behind the 2(YV9 behind the behind the behind the Achieved monthly targets monthly monthly targets monthly monthly

targets tarrets targets There %-as no

'Merc was no reward system

There was no Employces rc%-ard system for doing an rc%-ard system Employees were rewarded for doing an extra

for doing an were rewarded on extra Reward system on extra performance, extra on extra performance

performance performance, but but promotion performance, but performance in by a promotion criteria on promotion terms of pay appreciation of

criteria on basis basis of criteria on basis rise their work by of seniority seniority of seniority management

Employees get Employees get Employees get Employea get Employccs explanations or explanations explanations or explanations nuy be fired

Punishment warnings by their or warnings by u-arnings by their or v6wnings by on the basis of leader on bad or their leader on leader on bad or their leader on bad systein an

twitakcs; poor bad or poor poor bad or poor performance performance or performance performance or performance

doing usual or doing usual doing usual or doing usual or nujor mistakes mistakes mistakes n-dstakcs misukes

Ye Employees Employees Employees with with more than Employees %Nith urith more than Employees more than one one year of more than one three months have got no

Job Security year of their service got job

their service got job

year of their service got job

of their service gotjob security

security with security with security %ith security but and nuy be

pension benefits pension pension benefits uith no fired

benefits pension Organisation Organisation Organisation Organisation No detailed

yow on laid focuses on laid focuses on laid focuses on laid focuses on laid processes and down

ruit-vprocedures down processes and procedures

down processes and

down processes and procedures

down processes and

procedures %%'ere laid

procedures . procedures down

178

f3chavioural Aspects of Transformational Leadeship in Manufactuflng ft-inisations

Organisation Organisation Organisation Organisation Organisation focuses on focuses on

focuses on focuses on focuses on Focus on

production targets with rebuilding of production

targets with production targets with production

lanovallon existing vehicles which existing existing targets %ith

manufacturing of they, %-cre offered manufacturing of manufacture of

customer focus

vehicles to rebuilt equipment vehicles requirements

ortants2tion2l Bureaucratic Bureaucratic Bureaucratic Non-

Bureaucratic Non-

Bureaucratic Structure Type or Process Batch Production Process Batch Mass

Irroduction Production Production Production _Production

Employees Detailed

employees code Detailed employees

Detailed employees code

Detailed employees code

Detailed employees

Code of of conduct was code of conduct of conduct was of conduct %%-as

code of Conduct existed

was existed existed existed conduct was not existed

Detailed Detailed Detailed Detailed Detailed recruitment &

p. ccrultmcnt recruitment & recruitment recruitment & recruitment &

selection and Sclection selection selection procedure selection selection procedure Jrroctdures procedure were were existed procedure %%-ere procedure were %%-ere not

existed existed not existed existed Qu2uty ISO-9000 ISO-9000 Certified ISO-9000

Certific2tion Certified Certified

Type of Commercial Non-Commcrcial Non-Conuncrcial Commercial Commcrcial Business

- I lealth and

I lealth and

safety Health and safety Healthandsailay 11calthandsafay safety

1101jth &, safety precautions were precautions were precautions %%-ere precautions %-ere precautions

Poucy displayed in the displayed in the displayed in the displayed in the were not

organisations organisations organisations organisations displayed in

where required where required where required %-here required the

I I I organisations Researcher's verbal information from Managcmcnt People from conccmed scyurcc-, organisation.

-Tb,. average age of respondents was 34 years and average experience was 5 ycars. All of the

r=pondents were male. The sample consisted of 256 followers and their immediate 56 leaders

fmm middle and lower level management hierarchy of these five manufacturing organisations in

ps, usc-l for primary data collection. Later for phase-11, for secondary data collection, the sample

sizc was cxpanded to 339 followers and 76 leaders and also included the top-level managcmcnt.

111is enabled the researcher to study all the hierarchical levels of the company. Leaders contacted

r=j; cd from high-level executives to shop floor Supervisors, including Project Directors,

Gc: =rA hianagcrs, Dcputy General Managers, Officer in-charge of manufacturing units,

g2n3gers, and Foremen. Details for cach organisation arc, 96 followers Nvith 18 leaders from

orpnisation number 1,98 followers with 19 leaders from organisation number 2,109 followers

179

Behaviounil Aspects of Transform at ion, 11 Lenduship in Ninnufncludng OrganisatioM

, mith 20 Icadcrs from organisation numbcr 3,62 followas wit], II lcadcrs from organisation

==bcr 4 and 31 followas with 8 Icadcrs from organisation numbcr S. Ilic organisation

=Icturc for cach of thcsc organisations is shown in Appcndix-. E.

In all amongst the 339 respondents, 35 respondents had primary school cducation (shop floor

v6-orkas), 135 sccondary school cducation (shop floor workcrs), 70 highcr school cducation

(shop floor workers), 39 Diploma holders (Foremen), 52 Graduates (Managers, dcputy general

01=1agm, officcrs), and 8 Post Graduates dcgccs (General Managers, Project Directors, and

rýcputy General Manager).

%v-lth rcspect to the position of the respondents in the organisations, 44 were Production

C)pcrwors, 6 wcrc scmi-skilled workers, 142 skilled workers, 9 Chargc-mcn, 46 Supcrvisors, 33

]Forancn, 9 Managers, 15 Officers in-charge of their sections, 30 Dcputy Gcncral Managcrs, and

:5 G=cral Managers. Output from SPSS package, for descriptive statistics of these variables is

lbown in tabic 6.2,6.3, and 6.4

able 62 Summary of dcmographic charactcristics of rcspondcnts.

N Minimum Ma)dmurn Mean Std. Deviation

AV's 339 21.00 56.00 33.6814 6.47745' rl*jca5on 339 1.00 6.00 2.9410 1.44814 tgck qnxx-A e)penence 339 . 00 23.00 5.0531 4.31354 ycars O(secAw In ft

Ow7pany 339 1.00 23.00 5.8407 2.87892

paszon in vw com; )any 339 1.00 10.00 4.1534 2.66914 V&W fI (W-Ww) 1 3391 1 1

TatAe 6.3 Summary of educaUonal qualificaUon of mspondents

Numbers Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent 7z primary School 35 10.3 10.3 10.3

Secondary School 135 39.8 39.8 50.1 Higher Secondary S hool

70 20.6 20.6 70.8 c

Graduate 52 15.3 15.3 86.1 Post Graduate 8 2A 2.4 88.5 Diploma 39 11.5 11.5 100.0 Total 1 3391 100.01

-100.01

ISO

lichavioural Aspects of Trans fonn ational Lead ership-in-NI anu factufln z Organi sal ions

Tabic 6.4 Summary of details about position of the respondents in the organisation

Numbers Percent Valid Percent Cumulativo

Percent Semi-Skilled 6 1.8 1.8 1.8 Worker Skilled Worker 142 41.9 41.9 43.7 Supervisor 46 13.6 13.6 57.2 Foreman 33 9.7 9.7 67.0 officer In-charge 15 4.4 4.4 71.4 Deputy General 30 8.8 8.8 80.2 Manager General 5 1.5 1.5 81.7 Manager Charge-man 9 2.7 2.7 84A ProducUon 44 13.0 13.0 97.3 Operator Manager 9 2.7 2.7 1 DO. 0 Total 339

,1 DO. 0 100.0

6.2 Data Analysis of Phase-I (Qualitative Data):

In phasc-I of data collection, followers in each organisation were asked to rate their inunediatc

Ic2der on the transformational leadership survey inventory questionnaire as developed by

pods. akoff ct al. (1990) on a 7-point scale ranging from I=strongly disagree to 7-strongly agree

Z. 5 Sbo-A-n in appendix-A. For better understanding of the Podsak-off ct al. (1990) questionnaire by

10, W level followers who can't understand English properly, the questionnairewas translated into

palcistan national language i. e., Urdu as shown in appcndix-K. Followers and leaders were

. ==d of the confidentiality of their personnel or organisation idcntirication and they were

assiped numbers by the researcher to recognize them. The summary of responses from

jr, ollowca on Podsakoff ct al (1990) is shown in Appcndix-B.

, TbC followers' responses were analysed to establish a distinction between transformational

1,: 36ership characteristics as high, normal, or low transformational leadership, using the t-test of

I. s= Statistical package for data analysis version 12. The West method is an appropriate method

for calculating the mean, standard deviation, and standard error mean of the data. Uter,

followers of each leader were grouped together and the average score of the leader was

C; Ikulated to find out that person's overall average. Leaders were classificd as having high

U=forrnational leadership characteristics if the mean Of the score was more than 4.0 (since

181

Dchavioural Aspects of Transform itional I. cadcrsliill in Mang facturin&Organi sm ions

==n of scale used is 4.0. Leaders with means between 3.0 and 4.0 were classificd as having

txr. rrL21 transformational leadership characteristics and leaders with means less than 3.0 were

CLusificd as having low transformational leadership characteristics. Ten transfortnational leaders

, wc= selected having the highest scores and, 10 non-transformational leaders were selected

ba-, ing the lowest scores and 13 leaders were selected having mcdian scorc. All the leaders were

ir,: cr%ic%vcd subsequently in their officcs, each interview lasting between 10-20 minutes. I'lie

i..! gcr-. icw started by the researcher introducing himself and explaining the purpose of the

inicr%icws in phase-1.

Data Analysis (Phase-I) for Research Question No. 1:

jFcr looking into the research question 1,

Do transformational leaders create a weak situation for their followers in manufacturing organisations?

All the leaders were pre-classified for transformational leadership charactcristics using the

podsakofrs transformational leadership questionnaire completed by their followers, and results

=C sbo%%m in Appendix D. Therefore Stcp-I of the flow chart to answer research question

, U=bcr I (flow chart shown in figure 5.1) did not need to be rcpeated. Ile second step of the r fWW chart was to collect qualitative data. The selected leaders were asked to dcrine their

crrg=isation in terms of situation strength and if they favoured discretion in decision-making to

t!,,. if f um ary ollowcrs in performing their jobs. Leaders replies were noted on the contact sm

ShCCt (shown in Appendix-J) and analysed by following the steps of interview analysis procedure

dcfixwd by Fink (2003). The first step of the interview analysis by Fink (2003) as shown in figure

is to catcgorise the responses and assign codes to each category, as shown in table-6.5 and

tlx Mlies from the leaders and their respective codes are shown in table-6.6. Only the selected

I=jc: rs were interviewed on the basis of transformational leadership characteristics using the

podsakoff ct al (1990) questionnaire as discussed in section 6.1, therefore leaders numbcr of

t2ble 6.6 are not in order, only those leaders numbers are shown who wcre intcrviewed in phase-I

of data analysis.

182

13chavioural Aspccts of Transform nt ional Lcadmilia-in Ninnufncturin n*a *ont

ANblc-6.5 Catcgorics of rcsponscs for situational strcngth (top box of figure S. 1. I

C-2tccory Code

ii Proccu shcets and drawings of the parts arc available., standard code of conduct is

in241able. Quality assurance requirements arc available.

I

yin-aw hrnitcd discretion to experienced followers. 2

yzv=z d&sctction to followers. 3

Q=Lty of the job done matters not quantity. 4

w discTrfion to followers. 5

rgoccu shccts and drawings of the parts, quality assurance requirements, and , -_Am, Urd code of conduct are not available.

6

A; Vcvcutc suggestions by followers to improve process or quality. 7

nd BOX of f-gUrC Tabic-6.6 Leaders responses for situational strength (2 1

L, cader Response Code

No. ---I- riacm sheets and drav%ings of the parts am available, I

standard code of conduct is available. I

Quabty asunince requirements am available. I

Favow discretion to followers. 3 C? Lzality of the job done matters not quantity. 4

Fmcm shceu and drawings of the parts am wwrin lable. I

Fa~ discretion to followers. 3

Apprecute suggestions by followers to impwve process or quality. 7

pro"ss shects; and drawings of die parts am available I

lFavouir dwretion to followers. 3

Quaity of the job done matters not quantity. 4

cave no discri: tion to followers. 5

process shects and drawings of the parts arc available I

code of conduct is available. 1

process thecti; and drawings of the puts am available. I

S discretion to followem 3

saaridard code of conduct is available. 1

proccis shects and drawings of the parts am available. I

standard code of conduct is available. T

Quality is=-ance ttquirtments am available. I

FavourdiscretiontofollowcrL 3 ýno disartion to followcm

ýshecu and drawings of ft parts am available. -; ý'cýcodi of conduct is available.

QuaLty amwarici: requirtments art available.

-bive no dLsmtion to followem S ýshccu and drawings of the parts are Available. I

standard c of conduct is available.

183

13chavioural Aspects ofTransfonnationaLLcadcrsliil! -in Manuf. lctudn&_Qjg. an Ilion is,

_I Quality assurance requirenicnLs are available. I

- to Cmve no discmtion to followers. 5 hocess thects and drawings of the parts are available. I

sundard code of conduct is available. I

P

Quality assurance requirements are available. I rmcss shccu and drawings of the parts are available. I Clive hrmted discretion to followers. 2 Favow discretion to followem 3 Process theets and drawings of the parts an available. I

sundard code of conduct is available. I Us-wrour dtscmtion to followers. 3 Proms shects and drawings of tk parts are available. I

stindat-A code of conduct is available. I (NW, ty assurance requirements am available. I Quality of the job done matter not quantity. 4 Favouir dtscrtton to followem 3 procm shcets and drawings of the parts are available. I Standard code of conduct is available. I Quality assistance requirctricrits am available. I

QuMity of thejob dom inatter not quantity. 4

Fsvvx discretion to followers. 3

process sheets and drawings of die parts am available. I

code of conduct is available. I Quality assurance requirernents am available.

Quahty of thejob done matter not quantity.

I

4 Appreciate suggestions by followers to improve process or quality. 7

is Give no discrtuon to folloacm. 5 process sheets and drawings of the parts am available. I Quahty assuirance requirements am available. I

jFsv=dLscrct3ontofollo%%vm -process sheets and drawings of the parts are available.

3

I

agandard code of conduct is available. I

Quahty aLawance requirements are available. I

Quabty of the job done matter not quantity. 4 ------ Appreciate suggestions by followers to inyrove process or quality. 7

Colve no ducirction to followers. 3

process thecu and drawings of the parts am available. I

standard code of conduct is awdlable. I

quality auumnct requircnicnts are available. I

lFavourdiscretion to followem 3

process shects and drawings of the pans art availabl-c.

code of conduct is available. I

I

Quahtyassur; iuice requirements am available. I

Quality of the job done niatter not quantity.

j avour discretion to followers.

and drawings of the parts are available.

4

3

I

e of conduct is available.

Quality of the job done rnatter not quantity. I

4--]

184

13chaviour, il Asl2ccts of Transformntional Lcadcrship inli -anti factudng Organisalions

23 Process sheets and drawings of the parts, quality assurance requiremet is. and standard code of conduct are rim available.

6

Give no discretion to followers. 5

26 Proccss sheets and dra%ings of the parts, quality assurance mquirciricrita, and standard code of conduct are not available.

6

Favour limited discretion to fofl; -*vrs. 2

27 Process sheets and drawings of the parts. quality assurance requirements, and standard code of conduct are not available.

6

Favour limited discretion to followers. 2

23 -I

Favour discretion to followers.

--

3

Process sheets and drawings of the parts am available. 1

30 Process sheets and drawings of the parts are av ailable. I

Favour limited discretion to followers. 2

32 Favour limited discretion to followers. 2

Quality assurance requirements am availablý-- 1

33 Favour discretion to followers. 3

Process sheets and drawings of the parts am avai table. I

standard code of conduct is available- I

Quality of the job doric matter not quantity. 1


Process sheets and drawings of the parts am available. I


Appreciate suggestions by followers to hnpiove process or quality. 7


Proccss sheets and drawings of the parts are available. I

standard code of conduct is available. 1





process sheets and drawings of the parts we available. I V


Quality of the job done matter not quantity. 4

AI Favour discretion to followers. 3

Process sheets and drawings of the puts am available. I


4S Favour discretion to followers. 3



Quality of the job done matter not quantity. 4

The second step of the interview analysis as shown in figure 5.1.1, was to calculate the number

ofrcsponses for each code as shown in table-6.7

185

13chaviourni Aspccts of Transfon-national Lcadcrship in Manufactuflng Org. -inisations

Tabic-6.7 Number of Responses for Each Code of cach leader (3", Box of figure 5.1.1): wilm, L-Low score leaders, N=Nonnal score Icadcrs, 11=11igh score leadcrs on trans fomiational leadcrshin characteristics questionnaire Lcadcr

No.

Leader

Týpe

Codes

1234567 Total

I L 3 5

3 N 1 1 3

4 N 1 3

5 L 2 3

6 L 2 3

7 N 3 4

a L 3 4

9 L 3 4

to L 3 4

11 N 1 2

12 H 2 1 3

14 If 3 1

is It 3 1

16 11 3

Is L 2 3

21 H 3 1 1 5

22 L 3 4

23 N 3 2 6

24 11 2 1 4

23 L 2

26 It 2

27 N 2

2S 11 1 1 2

30 L 1 2

32 N 1 2

33 If 3 1 4

33 ti 2 1 1 4

37 N 2 1 3

39 N 2 1 3

40 N 2 1 4

43 N 2 1 3

49 N 2 1 1 4

*Ibe third step of the interview analysis as shown in figure 5.1.1 was to calculate the number of

responses for each code for leaders with high transformational leadership characteristics. This is

sho%%m in table-6.8 to 6.10:

186

Behavioural Aspects of Trans fomi ational Lcadcr. -Olip in Alinno factudn g-Organ i sat ions

Tablc-6.8 Participants' Response Pattcm for High Trans fonnational Leadership

Charactcristics. (4'h Box of figure 5.1.1)

Codc Numbcr of Lcadcrs Listing a Rcsponsc

Assigncd to This Codc Which Lcadcrs?

9 All but kadcr No. 26

2 1 Only kadcr No. 26

j 8 All but Lvadcr No. 16 and 26

4 5 Only 14.15.16.21 W 24

3 0 None


7 3 Lesdas No. 16.21 and 33

Calculating the numbcr of rcsponscs for cach codc for Icadcrs with low transfonnational

Icadcrship charactcristics is shown in table-6.9

Tabic-6.9 Participants' Responsc Pattcm for U)w Transformational Lcadcrship Charactcristics;

T. P-ndcrs. . (4"' Box of figure 5.1.1)

Code Number of Leaders Listing a Response

Assigned to This Code

Which Leadcrs?

9 All but kada No. 23


3 2 Only leader No. I and 6

4 1 Only kadcr No. I

5 7 All but kada No. IA and 30

6 1 Only kadcr N(L 25

7 0 Nwg

Calculating the number of responses for each ccAe for leadcrs with normal trans formational

leadcrship charactcristics as shown in tabic-6.1 0

187

Behavioural Aspects of Transformational Leadcrship in-Minufactudng. Organisitions

Tablc-6.10 Participants' Rcsponsc Pattcm for Normal Trans fonnational Lcadership

Charactcristics Lcadcrs. (4h Box of figurc 5.1.1)

Codc Numbcr of Lcadcrs Listing a Rcsponsc

Assigncd to 11iis Codc Which Lcadcrs?

I II All but leader No. 27

2 3 Only kadcr No. 11,27, and 32

3 9 All but kadcrs No. 11.27. and 32.

4 4 Only Uaders No. 4.23.40 and 48

5 0 None

6 1 ly leadcr No. 27

7_1 1 Only ksdcr No. 3

Fourth step of interview analysis as shown in figure 5.1.1 is to calculate ovcrall responses for each code for each type of leaders as shown in tabic-6.1 I

Tablc-6.11 Summary of Rcsponses. (5h Box of figurc 5.1.1)

Response

Categories

(Codes of

each category)

% or IISTLS*

participants

assigned to

Each Code

% of LSTLS**

participants

assigned to Each

Code

% of NSTLS***

participants

assigned to Each Code

1 90 90 91

2 10 10 25

3 80 20 75

4 50 10 33

5 0 70 0

6 10 10 8

7 30 0 8

*High score on transformational leadcrship scale

0 ** Low score on transformational Icadcrship scale

0 *** Nonnal. score on transformational leadership scale

188

13chnviotirnl Aspects of Trinsforrnntional Leaduship in-Ninnubictudna Organisni ions

6.4 Results of Data Analysis of Phase-I for Research Question No. I

Looking at the summary of responses shown in tabic-6.1 1; it was observed that all types of leaders dcrinc the situation strength in their organisations as strong, i. c., code "1". 90% of the leaders said that the proper proccdurcs and rules were existing in their organisations and only 100,0 leaders said that the existing rules and procedures were not being properly held or implemented in their organisations as shown by code "6" of tabic-6.1 1. Most of the leaders

favour limited discretion to experienced followers in performing thcirjobs, about 10% as shown by codc'2" but leaders with normal score on transformational leadership scale favour somewhat higher limited discretion i. e., 25% for experienced followers in performing their jobs. However

80% leaders with a high score on the transformational leadership scale favour discretion to their

followers in pcrforming their jobs and 30% appreciate suggestions by followers to improve

quality or the processes as shown by response code "T' of tabic-6.1 1. Whereas only 20% of

leaders favour discretion to their followers with a low score on transformational leadership scale,

and 75% leaders favour providing discretion to their followers with normal score on

tr=fonnational leadership scale as shown in code 'T' of tablc-6.1 1. However as shown in code

-4- of tabic-6.1 1,80% of leaders with a low score on trans formational leadership scale give no

discretion to their followers in performing thcirjobs.

Graphically these results are shown in figure 6.1

189

Figure 6.1 Graphical representation of results ol'phase-I I*Or research question No. I

100

go

80

70

60

so

40

30

20

10

0 --I

If

Rules & favourý limited favokirs procedures i1mcnAw to discrebw to

e3dst folowers folowers

MHSTLS

MLSTLS

FU

C3NSTLA

fw. tj% (xi end fw4om no filk-, & vo* (Wne resuks discrebon to procedures do followers

"Mms not prpoarly suggestions Goat

Whcre

HsTLS=High score on transformational lcudmhip scale

LSTLS=Low scorc on transfonnational leademhip". e

NS-I-LSýNorrnal score on transtormational lcadcrship". c

In short. it can be concluded that. results of data analysis indicate that leaders with high or

normal transformational leadership characteristics favours discretion to their followers in the

performance of their jobs. however leaders with low transformational leadership characteristics

enforce strict implementations of rules and procedures and don't allow followers to deviate from

the standards.

6.5 Data Analvsis (Phase-1) for Research Question No. 2:

Examining the results for research question number 2.

Do transformational leaders make internal attributions for the cause of poor performance

in manufacturing organisations?

190

Bchavioural Aspects of Trnns formational Leadcrshin in-hinnufactudng Orgnnisations

'nic sccond stcp (Box 3) of the flow chart of figurc: 5.2 was to collcct qualitativc data. Lcadcrs

were asked open-ended questions about the causes of poor performance at any time in their

section. Lcadcrs rcplics wcrc notcd on the contact surnmary shcct, (rcfcr Box 4 of figurc 5.2,

sho%%m in Appcndix-J) and wcre catcgoriscd and codcd as shown in tabic 6.12 and Icadcrs rcplics

and thcir rcspcctivc codc arc shown in tablc-6.13.

Tablc6.12 Catcgories of Rcsponscs for Attributional Aspect. (Box I of rigurc5.1.1)

C2tegory Code

poor performance by followers, lack of interest of followers in performing their jobs,

of inexperienced followers and absenteeism

I

Njachines or tool problems, either broken or %%var out 2

p, latcrial or tool inventory problems, quality problem 3

Followers are hard working, efficient and hard working 4

Technical problems, power failure, malfunctioning of machines 5

Delays in procurement process 6

Table-6.13 Leaders Responses for Attributional Aspects (Box 2 of figurc 5.1.1)

Leader No.

Response Code

I Poor pafamunce by followers or Lack of iritcrest by followers I

3 Machines break down or unavailability of nuterials 2

4 followers am hard working 4

Machines or tool break down 2

5 Material supply problems 3

6 Followers less cfforu 1

7 Machines or tool break down problems 2

I Poor performance of followers I

Machines or tool break down problems 2

Followers lack of interest I

to Followers poor effort and interest I

II 71-a-chincs break downs 2

I. Anavinlability of materials 3

12 Followers am hard working 4

Material inventory problems 3

14 Followers am hard working. but sometime due to inexperienced followers 4

Material inventory problems or machine break downs 3

Is 71-&-terialquality problems 3

16 Followers absenteeism and low efforts 2

is Followers less efforts or less interest I

21 -161aterial quality problems 3

191

f3chaviouralAsl2ccts of Trans formation nI Lcndcrshin inli"Inuractildnp, Org , in i igns

Uccssive toot wear problcms

22 Low commitment by followers

23 Material supply problems 3 Machines or toot break down problems 2

24 Machincs or tool break down problems 2 is Followers poor cfforl 1

26 Machines break down problems 2

27 Technical fault% power failure 6 Machines or toot break down problems 2

Material quality problems 3

28 161 atcrial supply problems 3

Excessive tool break down 2

30 Machines and tool break down problems 2

32 Material supply probicn-d or material quality problems 3

33 Followers am well trained and hard working 4

35 Delays in procurement of parts 7

Followers Icss cff(xu 1

37 Followcrs am well trained and efficient 4

39 Mataial supply problems 3

40 Follo%ws are hard working and efficient 4

43 Followers am well trained and efficient 4

4S 16tatcnal inventory problems 3 Delays in procurement process 7

Machines break down problems 2

The third stcp shown on the flow-chart on figure No. 5.1.1 is to calculate the Numbcr of Responses for Each Code as shown in table-6.14

Tablc-6.14 Number of Responses for Each Code (Box 3 of fieure 5.1.11 Leader

No.

Leader

Type

Codes

12345 Total I I. I I

N I - I 4 N 2

5 L

6 L I

7 N

a L 1 2

9

10

11 N 2

12 It 2 14 It 2

15

16

192

13chavioural Aspects of Tninsformational Lcidershin in-MangfictudnS Organismions

Is L 1

21 If 2

22 L 1

23 N 2

24 If 1

25 L 1

. 16 If 1

27 N 3

28 If

30 L

32 N

33 If I

35 11

37 N

39 N

40 N

43 N

49 N

The fourth step an the flow chart of figure 5.1.1 of the interview analysis to calculate the numbcr

of responses for each code for leaders with high, low, and normal tmnsfomational leadership

charactcristics as shown in table-6.1 5 to 6.17:

Tabic-6.15 Participants' Responsc Pattern for

Cha=tcristics. (Box 4 of figurc 5.1.1)

High TmnsforTnational Lcadcrsllip

Code Numbcr of Leaders Listing a Response


Which Lcadcrs?

1 3 Only Icadcri Noý's 14.16 and 33

2 5 All but kadm No. 12.14,15.33. and 35

3 5 All but kaden N(L 16.24.26.33 mid 33.

4 3 Only k&Jcn No. 12,14, and 33.

5 0 None

6 1 Only kadcr NaX

Calculations of the number of responses for each code for leaders with low transformational leadership characteristics is shown in table-6.16

193

13chaviour-al Aspects of Transfonnational Leadership-in Ninnu bctudng.. Qrgin i st ions

Tabic-6.16 Participants' Rcsponsc Pattcm for Low Transfonnational Lcadcrship

Charactcristics Lcadcrs. (Box 4 of figurc 5.1.1)



Which Leaders?

8 All but 5 and 30

2 2 Only leader No. 's a and 30

3 1 Only kWcr No. 5

4 0 None

5 0 None

6 0 Nwe 71

The calculations of the number of responses for each code for leaders with normal

trails formational leadcrship charactcristics is shown in tabic-6.17

Tabic-6.17 Participants' Response Pattern for Normal Trans formational Lcadcrship

Characteristics Leaders. (Box 4 of figure 5.1.1)



Which Lcadcrs7

0 No"

2 7 All but kadas No. 's 32.37.39.40.43.

and 48

3 6 Only leaders No. *s 111.23,27.32,39,

and 4&

4 4 Only kadcrt No. 's 4.37.40. &M 43.

5 1 Only kmda No. 27

6 1 Only Icadcr No. 48

The fi fth step in the flow chart of figure 5.1.1 was to calculate overall responses for each code for each t), pe of leader as shown in table-6.18

194

Dchavioural Aspects of Irms formational Tc. 1duship-in-Alanti fict tidniz -Organisal ions

Tablc-6.18 Summary of Rcsponscs. (Box 5 of f igurc 5.1.1)

Response

Categories

% of IISTLS*

participants

assigned to

Each Code

% of LSTLS**

participants

assigned to Each

Code

% of NSTLS***

participants

assigned to

Each Code

1 30 80 0

2 50 20 58

3 60 10 50

4 30 0 33

5 0 0 8

6 10 0 8

0 *11igh score on transformational leadcrship scale

Low score on transfonnational leadership scale

0 *** Normal scorc on transformational Icadership scalc

6.6 Results of Data Analysis of Phase-I for Research Question No. 2

Looking at the summary of responses at table-6.18, it was observed that leaders with high

transformational leadership charactcristics, 30% of leaders attributed the causes of poor

performance either to followers lack of interest in pcrforming their jobs, or inexperienced

followm as shown for code "'I". NVhcreas 80% of leaders with low transformational leadership

characteristics attributed the causes of poor performance either due to followers, lack of interest

of followers in performing thcirjobs, or inexperienced followers. However 50% of Icadcrs with

high transformational leadership characteristics and 58% with normal leadership characteristics

attributed causes of poor performance either to machines break down or tool breakdown as

shown in code "2" whilst only 10% of leaders with low transformational leadership do this.

I caders who atUibutcd causcs of low performancc to cithcr matcrial or tool invcntory problcms

arc shown by their response for code 'T'. 60% of leaders with high trans formational leadership

characteristics and 50% wifli normal leadership characteristics attributed causes to poor

195

Bchavioural Aspccts of Transformational Lcadcrshin in M inu filclit n- ng-Organisal ions

performance cithcr to material or tool inventory problems and none or ti, c leaders with low

trans fonnational leadcrship charactcristics attributc low pcrfomiancc to tlicsc causcs.

Lcadcrs attribution towards followers as being hard working and cfricicnt shows that 30% of leadcrs with high transformational Icadcrship charactcristics and 33% with normal leadership

characteristics attributed their followers as hard working and cfricicnt but none of the leaders

with low transformational leadcrship charactcristics attributcd their followcrs as hard working or

cfricicnt as shown by code numbcr 'W".

it was observed that none of the leaders with high or low transrormational leadership

characteristics attributed the causes of poor performance as due to technical problems as shown by code 'T', whereas only 8% of leaders with normal transrormational leadership characteristics

attributed the causes of poor performance as technical problems. However 10% of leaders with

high transformational leadership characteristics and 8% of leaders with normal transformational

leadership characteristics attributed the causes of poor performance as delays in procurement

proccss as shown by code "6".

From the above results, it was concluded that most of the leaders with high or normal

transformational leadership characteristics, attributed causes of poor performance to external factors, i. e., material or tool problems, technical problems or delays on procurement process.

NVhercas leaders with low transformational leadership characteristics attributed causes of poor

performance more towards internal factors, i. e., follower's incfficicncy, follower's lack of interest or inexperience followers.

Graphically these results arc shown in figure 6.2

196

Bch, IN loklrýll ol, I rallJOrm. olonAl I c, idcrhip in Mallil I'l"I ( )III,

Figure 6.2 Graphical representation ot'results of'phase-I t'()r research question No. 2

90

80

TO

50

40

30

20

10

0

I

. -i -. I-

-- -0 Pn

Poor Machines or tool Malenai or tool folkxvers. am TechnirA DeAeys in perfurrnmv, -e due break downs inventory hard wodting problimm procurement

to folowers protAffm probierns process

13 ý Ib TL)

M LSTLS

ONSTLA

6.7 Data Analysis (Phase-1) for Research Question No. 3:

For looking into the research question number 3.

Do transformational leaders seek more feedback from their

followers than non-transformational leader-, in manufacturing

organisations?

Selected leaders were asked how they get feedback about their actions and the progress of' the

job done'? Leaders replies were noted on the contact summarý- sheet (Shown in Appendix-J. refer

Box 4 of figure 5-3) and catcgorised and coded as shown in table 6.19 and replies ofthe leadm, -

and their respective code are shown in table-6.20:

197

13chavioural Aspects of Transformationni Lcadership-in Manufacturnng Orpanisntign I

Tabic 6.19 Catcgorics of Responscs for fccdback. (Box I of figure 5.1.1)

Category Code Ask followers about the progress ofjob done I

Daily mectings with followers, short meetings with followers, 2

Check daily production reports, production targets 3

Whenever production held up or production quality problems arise 4

Followers seek guidance in case of any problem 5

Tablc-6.20 Leaders Responses for Feedback: (Box 2 of figure 5.1.1)

Leader

No.

Response Code

I Review production reports daily and targets achieved 3

3 Short daily review meetings with followers 2

4 Review daily the targets required vW targets achieved 3

5 Whenever them is production or quality problems I inquire with followers about the causes 4

6 Daily short review meetings with followers 2

7 Discuss with followers about the progress I

9 Review production targets and production reports 3

9 Discuss with followers whenever production is slow or quality probicim I

10 Review production reports 3

11 Discuss with followers about any problem arise I

Daily short review meetings 2

14 Daily short review meetings with followers 2

Is Review daily production reports 3

16 Discuss with followers to get feedback I

Review production reports 3

Weekly review meetings with followers I

21 Discuss with followers I

22 Followers contact me if there is any problem 5

23 Discuss with followers. daily review meetings 1

24 Review production reports 3

Daily short review mcetings 2

25 Check target; achieved and delays in targets 3

26 Keep in touch with followers to get feedback 1

27 Check daily production reports 3

Casual review meetings with followers 2

2S Discuss with followers about any problems I

30 Check production targets 3

32 Check followers performance by looking at wrts achieved 3

33 Chock followers peribrmaricc by looking at the amount of job done 3

JIS Daily short review meetings with followers 2

37 Review meetings with followers 2

39 Get feedback from followers by asking job related questions I

198

Behaviotiml Aspects of Transformational Lcadership-in Manufactudng Org-mi-s-it ions

40 Short review meetings with followers 2 43 RA-view daily production rcporu 3 4S Daily short review meetings with followers 2

*rbc third step of interview analysis as shown in figure 5.1.1 is to calculate the Number of Rcsponscs for Each Codc and it is shown in table-6.21

Tabic-6.21 Numbcr of Rcsponscs for Each Codc. (Box 3 of figurc S. 1.1)

IA2der Leader

7ype

Codes

12345 Total

L 3 N I

4 N

5- L

6 L I

ý7- N

9 L I

9 L

L I

N

if

if

it

L 2

11 1

L

23 N

2 ý4 11 2

L 1

--26- it 1

'2-7 N 2

ý3-0 L -ý3-2 -N

-13-3 11

ý735-

-'3-7

If

N

----3-9 N

--740- N

- 43 N

- - t-77ý ýNý I -- 1 F1 1 1

199

13chavioural Aspccts of Transformational Leadcrsllip iOlantificttidng-Org. inisations

The fourth stcp shown on the flow chart of intcrvicw analysis in f igurc 5.1.1 was to calculate tile

number of rcsponscs for each code for leaders with high, low, or nonnal trans formati onal Icadcrship characteristics and it is shown in tabic-6.22 to 6.24 rcspcctivcly:

Tablc-6.22 Participants' Response Pattern for High Transfonnational Lcadcrsliip

Characteristics. (Box 4 of figure 5.1.1)



Which Leaders?

4 Only kadas No. 's 16.21.26, and 29 4 Only kadcrs No. 's 12.14.24. and 33. 2 Only kaders No. 's 15 and 24

0 None

---5 0 None

The calculation of the number of responses for each code for leaders with low transformational

leadership characteristics is shown in table-6.23

Tabic-6.23 Participants' Response Pattern, for Low Transformational Leadership

Characteristics Leaders. . (Box 4 of figure 5.1.1)

Number of Leaders Listing a Response Which Leaders?

Assigned to This Code Only lesdas No. 23

Only kada No. 6

---3- 6 Ludcn No. 's 1.8.10,18.25. anJ 30

2 Only kadcrs No. 's No. 5 wJ 9

Only k&dcr No. 22

-rbe calculation of the number of responses for each code for leadcrs with normal

trXisformational. leadership charactcristics is shown in table-6.24

200

f3chavioural Aspects of Transformational Lcaduship in Mang factufln g. Qrglnisat ions

Tablc-6.24 Participants' Rcsponse Pattcm for Nonnal Trans forrnational Lcadcrship

Characteristics Leaders. (Box 4 of figure 5.1.1)



Which Lmdcrs?

1 4 Only leaders N(L's 7,11.23 atul 39

2 5 Leadas No. 's 3.27,37.4owW 48

4 Only leaders NO. 'S 4.279 32 and 43

0 None

5 0 None

111c fifth step of the interview analysis as shown in figure 5.1.1 is to calculate ovcrall rcsponscs for cach code for each type of leaders and it is shown in tabic-6.25

Table-6.25 Summary of Responses. (Box 5 of figure 5.1.1)

Rcsponsc % of % of LSTLS % of NSTLS

Categories IISTLS participants participants

participants assigned to Each assigned to

assigned to Code Each Code

Each Code

40 10 33

40 10 40

20 60 33

0 10 0

5 0 10 0

6.8 Results of Data Analysis of Phase-I for Research Question No. 3

From the summary of responses, it was noted that, leaders with high tmnsformational leadership

Characteristics, 80% (total of response category I and 2) of the leaders prefer either to directly

discuss with followers the progress of the job done or had close contact with their followers.

2W/0 of the leaders with a high score on the transformational leadership scale prefer to get

fccdback through daily production reports, i. e., code 'T' "'review daily production rcporte'.

Ilowcver, 60% of leaders with a low score on the transformational leadership scale prefer to get

201

Behavioural Aspqcts of Transformational l. eadcr%hip in Manufacturing Organ il,,,, -atiions

feedback through daily production reports instead of direct contact with I'6lIO%%cr%. For leaders

with normal score on transformational leadership scale. it is a mix ol'both directly or indircctlv

getting fccdback from followers, 33% of' them asked follower-, about the progress of' ffic joh done. 40% had daily review meetings with l'ollower%. and 33% review production reports. Tlwsc values are shown on pie charts, For better understanding of the obtained results note the

diffcrencc among ditTerent types of leadership styles as t'ollows:

DIRECTLY DISCUSS WITH FOLLOWERS

NSTRS 13HSTLS HSTLS MLSTRS

0 NSTRS

LSTRS

HSTLS=High Score on Transformational Leadership Scale

I-STLS=Low Score on Transformational 1, eadership Scale

NSTLS=Norrnal Score on Transformational Leadership Scale

REVIEW DAILY PRODUCTION REPORTS OR PRODUCTION TARGETS

NSTI HSTLS

M HSTLS 0 LSTRS ONSTRS

LSTRS

202

13chavioural Aspccts of Trans fonn A onal Leadership in Mang factudng-Organisal ions

6.9 Further Experimental Work for Confirmat ion/Vcri ficat Ion of

Qualitative Data (Phase-1):

in phasc-II of this research, tcrmcd as the secondary data collection phase, the sample size was

cniargcd to study all leaders in each organisation; a questionnaire (shown in appcndix-F) was

dcsignCd taking account of the responses made earlier in phasc-1, to obtain a more clear picture

of the situational strength and attributional aspects. Lcadcrs were again approached aftcr a

duration of eight months from the phase-I measurements, to respond to the questionnairc, using a

Ukcrt scale ranging I to 5, where 1= don't emphasize or don't agree and 5-Cmphasize that

choice all the time or strongly agree. Leaders responses arc shown in table No. 6.26 to Table No.

6-39. Ile questionnaire was composed of three sections. Section I of the questionnaire consists

of general qucstions about the respondents, i. e., thcir position in the organisation, cxpcricncc,

age, number of people working in the organisation, and how many people each leader directly

MmIagcd. Section 2 of the questionnaire was to rate their choices, considering themselves as a

1c; adcr, and section 3 of the questionnaire was to rate their choices, considering themselves as a

followcr. Howcvcr, the top position leader of management hierarchy only necds to respond to

scction I and section 2, as a leader and needs not respond to section 3, as a follower.

6.10 Data analysis of Phase-II:

Data obtained from the questionnaire was analysed following the steps sllo%,. m in figurc 5.1.2.

Leaders with a high score on the transformational leadership characteristics scale were grouped

together to see the overall response of the leaders with high transformational leadership

characteristics. Leaders with a low score on the transformational leadership characteristics scalc

, were grouped together to see the overall response of the leaders with low transformational

leadership characteristics for each question of the questionnairc. Similarly leaders with a normal

=ore on transformational leadership characteristics Scale were grouped together to see the

overall response of the leaders with normal transformational leadership characteristics for each

question of the questionnaire as follows:

Leaders responses for organisation No. I (Large heavy weight vehicles manufacturing factory)

with low, high, and normal score on transformational leadership scale (TLS) arc as shovm in

t. abic-6.26,6.27, and 6.28 rcspectivcly-

203

lichavioural Aspccts of Transfon-national Leadershin in Mang factudng-Qrgani sat ions

Table-6.26 Organisation No. I Lcadcrs rcsponscs with Low scorc on TLS. (Box 2 of figurc

5.11)

OLwsuonnalre See No.

Question. No.

Leader No-I

Choice No.

Leader NoS

Choic; No.

Leader No. 55

Choice No.

Leader No 56

Choice Nm Mean Score

2A 5 5 41 5 4.75 02 5 4 4 5 4.5 03 5 5 5 5 5 04 5 5 2 5 4.25

_ 05 5 4 2 5 4 06 4 4 2

_4 3.5

213 al 3 2 3 3 2.75 02 4 4 2 4 3.5 03 2 3 3 3 2.75

3A 01 3 4 3 4 3.5 02 4 3 4 4 3.75 03 5 3 51 5 4.5 04 3 2 3 3 2.75 05 2 2 3 4 2.75 06 3 2 3 3 2.75 01 1 3 3 2 2.25

2 2 3 3 3 3 3 r ý= 03 3 3 4 3 3.25 ý 0 04 4 3 3 3 2

Table-6.27 Organisation No. I Leaders responses with Iligh score on TLS. (Box 2 of figure

5.1.2)

Ou"tion, n6lf*S*c

No.

Ques. tlonNo.

Leader No. 3

Choice No.

Leader Nol

Choice No.

Leader No. 23 Choice

No.

Leader No. 4

Choice No.


No.


No.


No.


No.


No.

Mean Score

2A 01 2 3 2 3 3 4 4 3 4 3.11

02 3 4 5 4 4 4 5 5 5 4.33 03 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 5 4.67 G4 4 3 2 3 2 3 4 5 5 3.44 05 4 4 3 1 2 3 4 A 5 3.33 0-6 3 5 2 2 2 3 5 5 4 3.44

213 01 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 5 2 3.22 02 3 5 3 2 2 4 2 1 4 2.89 03 2 4 4 4 4 3 2 3 3 3.22

3 A 3 3 3 3 4 5 0 4 5 3.75 ý ---- 02 4 3 4 3 4 4 0 5 5 4.00

03 3 5 5 5 4 5 0 4 5 4.50 04 5 4 3 4 2 4 0 5 5 4.00 05 4 4 2 3 3 5 0 4 5 3.75 06 3 5 3 3 2 3 0 5 4 3.50

4 4 3 3 3 0 5 1 3.38 02 2 4 2 4 2 3 0 5 3 3.13 03 2 5 5 3 3 2 0 3 3 325 04 3 4 3 3 3 2 0

204

13chavioural Aspects of Transformational LeadcrshiP in-Mang ficturning-Organis. it ions

Tablc-6.28 Organisation No. I Leadcrs with Normal scorc on TLS. (Box 2 of figurc 5.1.2)

Chiesuonnalre See No.

Question No.

Leader No. 2

Choice No.

Leader MAT

Choice No.

Leader No. 17

Choice No.

Leader No. 46

Choice No.

Leader No. 13

Choice No.

Leader No. 45

Choice No. Moan Score

2A ()1 5 3 5 3 3 5 4 02 5 4 4 4 2 5 4.00 03 5 4 5 4 4 5 4.50 04 4 3 5 3 3 3 3.50 05 4 3 4 3 2 3 3.17 06 5 4 4 2 3 2 3.33

213 01 4 3 3 3 3 3 3.17 02 4 3 3 3 3 2 3.00 03 3 4 3 4 2 3 3.17

3A al 3 2 4 3 4 3 3.17 02 2 3 2 4 4 4 3.17 03 4 4 2 3 5 5 3.83 04 2 3 4 2 2 3 2.67 05 3 2 5 2 2 4 3.00 06 2 3 4 1 2 4 2.67

313 _ al 3 2 3 2 3 3 2.67 02 3 4 4 2 2 3 3.00 03 4 3 4 T3 3 3 333 CA

-- L3 3 3 3 3 3 i 6 3:. ý; ýO

Lcaders responses for organisation No. 2, organisation No. 3, organisation No. 4, and

Organisation No. 5 with low, high, and normal score on transformational leadership scale (TLS)

are as shown in table 6.29 to table 6.40 of appendix -H for furtlicr rcfcrcnccs.

A, flcr analysing the responses from the leaders for each organisation, a comparison was made

between each question of the questionnaire for each type of leadership style for every

organisation in the sample as shown in table 6.41 to table 6.45

205

Behavioural Aspects of Tr-ansfon-national Lcadcrship in -Manp

fict tidng-Qrgini sal ions

Table-6.41 Organisation No. I Comparison of Rcsponscs from Lcadcrs with Low, High, and

NorTnal Trans formational Lcadcrship Charactcristics: (Box 4 of figurc 5.1.2)

Organisation No. 1 Comparison of Leadership Style Low Normal High

Ckasbonriaire Sec. No. Ouestion No.

Transformational Leadership

TransformaUcinal Leadership TransformaUonal Remarks

characteristics CharacterIsUcs CharactedsUcs

2A(As leader) al 4.75 4 3.11 Strict discipline among subordinates

02 4.5 4 4.33

Clear standard on praise punishment

03 5 4.5 4.67 Operating highly structured

system

04 4 25 3.5 3.44 Setting clear goals for . employees

C15 4 3.16 3.33 Making decision myself

06 3 5 3 33 3.44 Closely monitor . . subordinates

Concerned about opinion 2B 01 2.75 3.16 3.22

of subordinates

02 3 5 3 2.89 Subordinates are cause for . failure

External environment plays 03 2.75 3.16 3.22 role In success or failure of

planned processes --------- -

3A (As follower) 01 3.5 3.17 3.75 Strict discipline among subordinates

02 3.75 3.17 4 Clear standard on praise punishment

03 4.5 3.83 4.5 Operating highly structured system

- 04 2.75 2.67 4 Setting clear goals for

employees

05 1 2.75 3 3.75 Making decision myself

Q6 2.75 2.67 3.5 Closely monitor subordinates

3B 01 2.25 2.67 3.37 Concerned about the opinion of the leader

Q2 3 3 3.13 Leader Is the cause of failure

External environment plays Q3 3.25 3.33 3.25 role In success or failure of

planned processes I am responsible for

04 2 3 3.13 success or failure of the processes In the

organisation

jIjkcrt scale I to 5 is used, where Iýstrongiy disagree, n1=SIrongiy agree

206

Behavioural Aspects of Transformational Lcadcrship in ManufactudgS inis. itions _QrR. Comparison of Responses from Leaders with Low, High, and Normal Trans fort-national

Leadership Characteristics for organisation No. 2, organisation No. 3, organisation No. 4, and

iorganisation No. 5, are shown in table 6.42 to 6.45 of Appcndix-11 for further reference.

AlIcr comparing the responses from leaders with Low, High, and Normal transformational

Icadcrship characteristics for each organisation, comparison was made among cach question for

cach organisation as shown in table 6.46

Table-6.46 Comparison of responses for each question for organisation No. I to 5

(Box 5 of figure 5.1.2)

CXmsWn- n;, iro Sec.

fjo.

Ques- Uon No.

Organi- sation No.

Low Transformational

Leadership characteristics

Normal Transformational

Leadership Characteristics

High TransforTnational Characteristics

Remarks

C), 1 4.75 4.00 3.11 Strict discipline arnong followers

all 2 4.5 4.25 4.45 01 3 4.2 3.80 4.30 01 4 4.5 3.00 4.29 01 5 3.5 4.00 4.2

4.29 3.81 4.07 Avmg* for all organisations

02 1 4.5 4.00 4.33 Clear standard on praise & punistvinent

02 2 3.75 4.00 4.09 02 3 3.6 3.40 4.10 02 4 4 2.00 4.29 02 5 3 4.00 3.8

3.77 3.48 4.122 Average for all organlzaUons

03 1 5 4.50 4.67 Operating hVVy struchired system

03 2 4.25 5.00 4.55 03 3 3.2 3.20 3.30

103 4 4 3.00 4.29

03 5 2 2.00 2.4

3.69 3.54 3.84 Average for all organisations

04 1 4.25 3.50 3.44 Setting clear goals for ernploý-

04 2 3.75 2.75 2.45 04 3 3.2 3.40 2.50 04 4 3 3.00 2.71

04 5 3 2.00 2.6

3.44 2.93 2.74 Avorago for all organisatlons

1 4 3.17 3.33 Making decision myself 05 2 3.25 3.25 2.09

05 3 3.8 3.40 2.40

05 4 2.5 2.00 2.29 - 05 5 3 2.00 2

3.31 2.78 2.422 Averag* for all organls3tions

06 06

1 2

3.5 3.25

3.33 2.75

3.44 2.27

Closely monitor followen

- 06

W 3 3.6 3.40 1.90

- O6 4 3 1.00 2-nn

207

Bchavioural Aspects of Transformational L-cadcrshin in-Manufactuflng Organisitions

06 5 3 2.00 2.2

3.27 2.50 2.362 Average for all organisallons

20 at 1 2.75 3.17 3.22 Concerned about opInlon of followors

at 21 3.5 3.50 3.27 at 3 3.2 3.20 3.33 01 4 3.5 3.00 3.71 at 5 3 3.00 3.2

3.19 3.17 3.346 Average for all

--organisallons 02 1 3.5 3.00 2.89 Followom are cause for

failure

02 2 2.5 2.50 2.36 02 3 2.8 3.00 2.50 02 4 3 2.00 2.71 02 5 2 1.00 2.6


03 1 2.75 3.17 3.22 Exterrial envirorwrient plays role in success or fallure of

planned processe 03 2 3 2.50 2.55

03 3 3 3.60 2.90 03 4 2.5 1.00 2.43 03 5 1.5 2.00 1.8

2.55 2.45 2.58 Average for all organisallms

FVC (As ukoff"Ri

011

01

1

2

3.5

3.5

3.17

4.25

3.75

3.50

Strid discip4ne wnong followers

-

01 - 3 3.6 3.00 3.11 01 4 4 3.00 3.83 QI 5 4 4.00 3.25

3.72 3.48 3.493 Avenge for all corgarilsations

02 1 3.75 3.17 4.00 Clem standard on praise & shirnent

---- -02 2 3.75 3.75 3.90 02 3 2.0 3.40 3.33 02 4 3.5 2.00 3.83 02 5 3.5 3.00 2.75

3.46 3.06 3.562 Avenge for all ciroarilsatIons

03 1 4.5 3.83 4.50 Operating N" stimMired system

03 2 4.25 4.00 4.50

03 3 3.2 3.40 2.78 03 4 3.5 4.00 3.83 03 5 2 3.00 2.5

3A9 3.65 3.622 Average f(w all organlsatlons

04 1 2.75 2.67 4.00 Setting clear goals for wv4o)"s

04 2 2.75 2.50 3.00 04 3 3.2 3.60 2.33 04 4 2.5 3.00 2.63 04 5 3 2.00 2.5

2.84 2.75 2.93 Average for all organlsjktlons

05 1 2.75 3.00 3.75 Making decision Myself 05 2 2.75 2.75 3.00 05 3 3.4 2.80 2. " 05 4 2 4.00 2.83 05 5 1.5 1.00 2

2.48 2.71 2.80 Average for all 3nlsations

06 1 2.75 2.67 3.50 Closely monitor foil

208

Behavioural Aspects of Transformationallcadcubip-in M ang fact tin' n OrEnn i s. it ions

06 2 2.25 2.25 2.40 06 3 3.2 3.00 2.89 06 4 2 3.00 2.17 06 5 1.5 1.00 1.5

2.34 2.38 2.49 Average for all organlastions

38 01 1 2.25 2.67 3.38 Concomod about Me

-opinion of tho leader

011 2 4.25 3.00 3.50 01 3 3 3.80 3.78 01 4 4 4.00 4.17 01 5 3 3.00 3


02 1 3 3.00 3.13 Leader Is Me cause of failure

02 2 2.75 2.50 2.70 02 3 3 3.00 2.89 02 4 2.5 3.00 2.83 02 5 2 2.00 2

2.65 2-7 2.71 Average for all organizations

03 1 3.25 3.33 3.25 External environment plays role In success or failure of

planned processes 03 2 3.25 2.75 2.60 031 3 3.4 2.80 3.00 03 4 3 4.00 2.67 03 5 3 1.00 1.75


04 1 2 3.00 3.13 I am responsible for

sucoess or failure of Dw prooesses In Vw

organisation 04 2 3 2.75 2.50 04 3 2.4 3.00 2.44 04 4 1.5 3.00 2.33 04 5 1.5 2.00 1.5_

2-08 2.75 2.38 Average for all organlsations-

6.11 Results of Data Analysis of Phase-11 (Quantitative data)

From the comparison of responses for all the organisations, it was observed that, all types of

leaders (leaders with low, Wgh or normal transformational leadership charactcristics) prefer to

have strict worldng discipline among the followers. 11cy had clear standards on praise and

punishment as shown in data analysis of question I and question 2 of questionnaire section 2A

and 3A. Tile response range was from 3.50 to 4.29, which is a more positive response of the

question, since a score more than 3 shows a positive response to a question whcrcas a score less

th, an 3 shows a negative response to the question by the respondents.

209

13chavioural Asnects of Transformational Lcadcrsliip in Manti factudn g.. Qrpan i sat ions

Most of the leaders dcfined the situation in their organisation as strong as shown by tile

msponscs to question No. 3 (opcrating a highly structured and disciplincd systcm) of

questionnaire section 2A and 3A; the response mnge was from 3.49 to 3.84.

In ordcr to determine the amount of discretion leaders favour for thcir followcrs, it was obscrvcd

that leaders with a low score on the transformational leadership scale, sct c1carcr goals for thcir

followcrs i. c., 3.44 on the scale ranging from I to 5, while, leaders with a high score on the

t=nsformational leadership scale, sct Icss clear goals for thcir fallowcrs, i. e., 2.74 as shown in

the data analysis results of question number 3 of questionnaire scction 2A. However, while

rcsponding to section 3 of the questionnaire by Icadcrs (whcn they considcr thcrnsclvcs as followers of a higher level leader) defined their leaders as setting clear goals for thcra and the

rcsp, onsc range was from 2.75 to 2.93 as shown in question 4 of qucstionnairc scction 3A of table

6.46. Leaders with a low score on the transformational lcadcrship scale, prefer to make decision

thcrnsclves as shown in question 5 of questionnaire section 2A as appcar 3.31 on the scale,

whcrCas, leadcrs with a high or normal score on the transformational Icadcrship scale delegate

decision making to followers as the overall average score was less and appear as 2.42.

Lenders with a low score on the transformational leadership scale, closely monitor their

followers as shown in question 6 of the questionnaire section 2A as the overall average score is

3.27 on the scale, whereas, leaders with a high or normal score on the transformational

leadership scale give more freedom to followers as the overall average score is less and appear as

2-36.

It is to be noted that every measurement has some uncertainty (experimental error). Errors may

bc introduced by sampling, analytical method measurement (e. g. bias introduced by instruments

or personal errors). To minimise the experimental error, results were concluded on the basis of

calculating the mean of all the responses of leaders and not for an individual response.

From the results of analysis of the questionnaire, it was also noted that most of the leaders

in=pcctivc of transformational leadership characteristics, indicated that they should be

conccmed with the opinion of their followers about them, when responding as a leader to the

quesfion I should be concerned about the opinion that my followers have about me. " However,

they also indicated that they should also be concerned about the opinion of their leader about

210

chavioural Asnects of Transfomiational Leadershin in M anti ractudne Ow-anisatio

them, wlicn responding as a follower to the question "I should be concerned about tile opinion

that my leader has about me. "

Leaders with a low score on the trans form ational leadership scale, make more attributions

towards the followers for failure in the processes or meeting targcts. As the average score for

question 2 "My followers are the cause, when things do not go as planned" of questionnaire

smtion 2D was 2.76, whereas, leaders with high or normal score on the transformational

leadership scale less agree with attributing the causes of failure towards followers, and the score

%-as slightly less i. e., 2.30 to 2.61.

flowcvcr, concerning leaders responses for the question "rhe cxtcmal cnviro=cnt of the

organisation plays a major role in failure or success of the planned processes", it was observed

that all the leaders irrespective of transformational leadcrship characteristics, attributed less

towards external environmental factors, like legal constraints, high production dcmands

constraints, pressure for mecting the production targcts on time, ctc. Ile responses were almost

neutral, i. e., no strong view on either side, neither agree nor disagree, and the average response

range was between 2.45 to 3.18, as shown in question 3 of questionnaire section 2 (as Icadcr) and

smfion 3 (as follower) in table 6.46. However, transformational lcadcrs took more responsibity

for the causes of failure or success of the proccsses in their organisations as the overall average

score for the u=fonnational leadcrs was 2.38 for the question "I am responsible for the success

or failure in the processes in the organisation" and for non-transformational leaders the overall

average score was 2.08.

Gr2phicallY, these results are summarised in figure 6.3 and 6.4

211

Behavioural Aspgcts of TransfOrinallonal I. cadcr-Jup in Manufacturing Orgaimations

Figure 6.3 Graphical representation of summar-, of resrx)n%c% (a% leader) ofdaw anal)sis for

pha%c-il

Leaders Responses about themselves

Fl

BLM

of*

ne4e

Figure 6.4 Graphical representation of sumrnarý of responses (as follower) of data analysis for

phasc-11.

L*ader's R*sponsts as F*Now*rs

Z$ lk- 7, 3

0:

.

I High

C 01,01. a no making CO ... .. a L ad., th. no ed hghý goals so, decision monsto, the about . 8.00 Is. a.... me. f "ns". 0011ift

-. 0 P'Soo bad km%tolf folkinve. opdoý of twb., * Play. a &is fis, the tomewet" P, otshment System My lailkile, Is, so'cest a,

Owelonse, in loileve .0 the 0480"d p"Weasaiss

OnOwPoODSO

212

W 'V NO* WfhrjG LIP a-

1-0 wm"

pIcessm

Behavioural Asl2ccts of Transfonnational Leaduship in Manu fact ud nst-Organ i sat ions

6.12 Data Analysis for Research Question 4:

For research question 4 Is clan culture the most common cultural cnvironmcnt crcatcd or existing in parallel with trans formational leadership?

Following the stcps of data analysis as shown in figure 5.4. The second stcp of the flow chail of figurc 5.4 was to collcct quantitativc data using the Camcron & Quinn Organisational Cultural

Asscssmcnt Instnimcnt (OCAI), shown in appcndix-L (Box 3 of figurc 5.4). Ibe OCAI consistcd

of six questions. Each question had four altcrnativcs/choices labelled A, B, C and D.

Rcspondents were asked to divide 100 points among these four alternatives, depending upon the

cxtcnt to which each alternative they think is appropriate for their organisation in order to be a

highly successful organisation. For example, in question 1, if they think alternative A is the most

appropriate for their organisation, alternative B and C arc somewhat appropriate, and alternative

D is hardly appropriate at all, they might give 55 points to A, 20 points to B and C, and 5 points

to D. However, they should be sure that their sum for all the alternative A. B, C, and D equals

100 for cach qucstion.

The following data was obtained from leaders of five manufacturing organisation, and analysed

using the Organisational Cultural Assessment Instrument OCAI procedure shown in figure 5.4.1

Tablc6.47 Sununary of ratings for "A" by Leaders of Organisation No. I (Box I of figure 5.4.1)

Leader No. Qj Q2 1

03 04 QS 1

06 Average 1 20 30 1 10 30 101 20 20.00 5 20 20 1 10 20 201 0 15.00 2 30 10 1 20 20 301 25 22.50 13 10 5 20 30 20 10 15.83 45 10 10 10 1 25 20 10 14.17 46 20 01 201 20 20 30 1 18.33 47 10 20 25 20 30 30 22.50----l

Aym-age for leaders Wth Low Score on TLS 19.33 3 25 30 30 30

_40 30 26.43

4 40 50 30 30 40, 50 40.00 7 23

60 60

20 30

30 20

20 40

601 301

30 20

36.67 33.33

54 20 30 40 20 301 20 26.67 14 17

50 30

40 40

80 25

40 40

20 30

30 20,

43.33 30.83

39 40 30 50 4 70 20 41.67 51 30 40 30 30 40 30 33.33 52 35 35 30 35 25 30 31.67 53 25

1 25 45 30 30.83

56 20 30 01 30 25 30 34.17 Ave" for leaders vAth High Scom on TLS 34.08

213

Behavioural Aspects of Transformational Lendmbip in

Tablc6.48 Sumnury of ratings for "B" by leaders of Organisation No. I about Organisation Culture. (Box 2 of ri mme 5.4.1)

Leader No. 01 02 03 04 05 06 Averago- 1 10 20 20 15 40 30 22.50 5 20 20 10 45 30 10 21.67 2 20 30 20 20 20 25 22.50 13 30 10 30 20 20 40 25.00 45 15

1 10

1 10

1 10

1 40

1 20

. 17.50

46 10 1 10 1 40 1 10 1 30 1 30 1 21.61 47 30_]

_30_ 1 . 25 1

_40_ 1 _30

1_20_ 1 29.17

Average for leaders vAth Low Score on TLS 22.86 3 20 20 20 30 20 20 21.67 4 30 25 30 20 30 20 25.83 7 20 30 20 M- 20 30 23.33 23 20 20 40 30 20 30 26.67 54 40 20 40 20 30 40 31.67 14 10 30 20 , 25 30 30 24.17 17 20 10 20 30 20 30 21.67 39 20 20 20 20 20 . 40 23.33 51 40 20 30 20 10 20 23.33 52 20 10 20 15 20 10 15.83 53 40 15 10 25 20 30 23.33 S -V 6 30 30 v 20 40 25 j 20 4w 2750 - ýoron

ITrLS LUgh So for leaders vAth 24.0 1z]

&. 41". 49 Summary of ratings for "C" by Leaders of Organisation No. I about Organisation Culture. (Box 3 of figure 5.4.1)

Leader No. 01 02 Q3 Q4 Q5 CM Average___ 1 30 20 40 25 20 40 29.17 5 30 30 60 30 40 70 43.33 2 20 30 30 20 20 25 24.17 13 30 65 20 1 20 40 201 32.50 45 65 30 50 1 4§33 46 50 20 201 36.67

47 . 20 20 301 24.17

Avvmoe for leaders with Low Score on TLS 34.05 3 30 20 30 20 10 25 22.50- 4 20 15 10 30 20 20 19.17 7 10 20 1 30 130 10 15 19.17

23 10 30 1 30 120 20 30 1 23.33 54 10 30 10 20 20 20 1 18.33 14 20 10 0 i-5 10 20 1 12.50 17 39

30 30

20 20

30 20

1

10 30

20 10

30 20

23.33 21.67

51 20 30 25 20 20 20 1 22.50

52 25 15 30 20 25 30 1 24.17 53 25 30 30 12 0

J3O

30 2543 56 25 10 0 20 20 25 1 18.33

20.90 _j

214

13chaviouml Aspects of Transformational Lendushin in Manufactudn-P. ft-inisat ions

Sunurzy of ratings for "D" by Leaders of Organisation No. I About Organisation Culture. (Rny 4 of fieure 5.4.1)

Leader No. al 02 1 03 04 QSI O6 Avorago

1 40 30 1 30 30 30 1 10 28.33 5 30 30 20 10 10 20 20.00

2 30 30 30 40 30 25 30.83

13 30 20 30 1 30 20 30, 26.67

45 10 20 20 40 10 201 20.00

46 20 30 20 20 30 ,

: 2ýO Z 23.33 47 40 25 20 20 :9 24.17

AveMle for leaders with Low Score on nS 24.76

3 25 30 1 201 20 30 25 1 25.00

4 10 10 1 30 1 20 10 10 1 15-00

7 10 30 20 30 10 25 1 20.83

23 10 20 10 10 30 20 16.67

54 30 20 10 40 20 20 23.33

14 20 20 0 20 40 20 20.00

17 20 30 1 25 1 20 30 1 20 24.17

39 10 30 1 10 1 10 0 20 1 13.33

51 10 10 1 15 1 30 30 30 20.83

52 20 20 20 30 30 30 30 28 , 33

53 10 ý30

2 0 0 20 10 20.00 56 1 25 20 20 25 20.00

I Average lbr leaders vAth High Score on TLS 20.63 _ __

I

The points A, B, C and D obtained above arc plotted following OCAl procedures as shown by

13ox 5 of figure 5.4.1 to obtain the organisational culture prorfle shown in figure 6.5 and 6.6.

215

13chavioural Aspects of Transfon-national Icadcrship actuflng-Organisnt ions in Manuf

Figure 6.5 Organisation Culture Prorilcs of Lcadcrs with low score on Transformational

Icadcrship scale for organisation No. 1.

Company No. I (OCAl Profile from leaders %%Ith low uore on TLS)

ow Clan AdhocrM

2286

10

Is 25

40 -

-20-

Hirarchy 05

Figure 6.6 Organisation Culture Profiles of Leaders with high score on Transformational

leadership scale for organisaflon No. 1.

Company No. I (OCAI Profile from leaders with high *core cm TLS)

Clan Adhocracy

30.

2403

. 25 -20 . 13 40 4 14 is

. 10

Hirarchy Market

216

Beliavioural Aspects of Transform ationni Lcidership in Mantifictudna Orgnnisnflofli

Data obtaincd from organisation No. 2, organisation No. 3, organisation No. 4, and organisation No. 5 arc shown in tables 6.51 to tables 6.66 in the appendix-11. Ilowcver organisational culture

proflics obtaincd from the data arc shown bclow from rigurc No. 6.7 to figurc 6.14.

217

13chavioural Aspects of Transformntional-Lcndcr nnurachidngO nnk ship in M, - W, -ations

FaZoe 6.7 Organisational Culture profile for leaders with low score on transformational leadership scale for organisation No. 2'

Clan Adhocra Sy s$ 20.

10

as -20 -13 -10 10 is 20

-10

20

4.1

Wrarchy . 30.

Market

Figure 6.8 Organisational Culture profile for leaders with high score on transformational leadership scale for organisabon No. 2

Clan Adhocracy

30

20

IQ

ooý

-10

Hirarchy -20 1 . 2122

-1

Market 1

218

13chavioural Aspects of Tmnsformitional Leadcrship_ in Ninnufactuflng Organisations

Figwo 6.9 Organisational Culture profile for leaders with low score on transfonnational leadership scale for organisation No. 3

Com pany No. 3 (OCAl Profile from leads rs w Ith low a core on TLS)

low Clan

20.

I Adhocracy Adhocracy

g

<

000

-20

Hirarchy . 30. -Z&V

Market

Figure 6.10 Organisational Culture profile for leaders with high score on transformational leadership scale for organisation No. 3

Com pany No. 3 (OCAI Profilo f rom Is ads rs w Ith high a cor* on TLS)

Clan Adhocracy 30.

24.9

-20 . 15 . 10 .3 10 6

. 10

Hirarchy Martat

219

13chavioural Aspccts of Transformationni Lodcrshipin Mang factuflng-Organi sal ions

FWO 6.11 Organisational Culture profile for loaders with low score on transfon-national leadership scale for organisation No. 4

Company No. 4(OCAl Profile from leads rs with low score on TLS)

Clan U? 2 Adhocracy

.4 . 20 wI IQ 20 3)

.aý

. 20

-30-

-40- . 340

Hrarchy Market

Figure 6.12 Organisational Culture profile for leaders with high score on transformational leadership scale for organisation No. 4

Company No. 4 (OCAl Profile from leaders with high score on TLS)

Clan Adhocracy 30

its

. 15 . 10 10

Krarchy -20 -SUS

Market

220

13chavioural Asl2ccts of Tr-, insformationni Lcadership in nctii6n& Organisations -Manuft

FV= 6.13 Organisational Culture profile for leaders with low score on transfoffnational leadership scale for organisation No. 5

Company No. 5(OCAI Profile from leaders with low score an TLS)

Clan Adhocracy 40

30

20

m.

la 0s1 18m le es 3

Mirket Fitarch

Figre 6.14 Organisational Culture profile for leaders with high score on transformational leadership scale for organisation No. 5

Com pany No. 5 (OCAl Profile from le Mo rs w Ith high s core an TLS)

Clan Adhocracy

.0 . 20 lo 1 in 20 33

. lo ý

IM Firarch Markst

221

Behavioural Aspects of Transfon-nationni Lcidcrsliin in hinnufactuflng Organi snt ions

6.13 Results of Data Analysis for Research Question No. 4

From the organisational prorilcs obtained aflcr plotting the data from the leaders about

organisation culture as shown in figures 6.1 to figure 6.10 for organisation number I to

organisation number 5, it was observed that the organisational profilcs obtained for the Icadcrs

, with low trans formational leadership characteristics in organisation-1, organisation-2, and

organisation 4 were more oriented towards a market culture. Howcvcr, for organisation 3 and

organisation-5, leaders with low transformational leadership characteristics seem more oriented

towards an adhocracy culture. However, clan and hicrarchy culture arc prcscnt in the rcsponsc

plots in all five organisations.

Tbc organisational profile obtained for leaders with high transformational characteristics is more

towards a clan type culture in all five organisations, but on the average tile profilc doesn't

pro%idc a very clear picture, because the adhocracy, mark-ct, and hierarchy cultures arc also

prcscnt to somc extent. However, organisational cultural prorilc for organisation No. 4 and No. 5

is somewhat different than those of organisation No. 1, No. 2, and No. 3 prorilc obtained from

jeadcrs, with high transformational leadership charactcristics. That is for organisation No. 4, it is

Morc towards the market culture, and for organisation No. 5 it is more towards the adhocracy

culture. The difference seems to arise from a difference in organisational owncrship. Ibc

organisations No. I to 3 were govcnunent owned organisations, organisation No. 4 was a private

company, and organisation No. 5 was a public limited organisation. This shows that

organisational, culture in governmcnt owned organisations created by transformational leaders is

a clan type due to more organisational hierarchy as compared to a privately owned organisation

with fewer organisational, hierarchical positions of management in their organisations. .

6.14 Chapter Summary

7be mcasurements obtained and the results obtained for each research question were as follows:

For Research Question 1: Do transformational leaders create a weak- situation for their followers in manufacturing organisations?

Results of the data obtained for research question No. I in phasc-1, i. e., qualitative data, indicate

that situation strength in manufacturing organisations is generally strong. For example proper

222

13chavioural Aspects of Transformational Lendership in Mnntiricttidng_Qr-p,,, inisitio-ns

rules and procedures exist in manufacturing organisations in some fonn or another, like

cxistcncc of standard code of conduct for employees, production or process spccification sheets,

quality assurance requirements procedures, and detailed parts or product drawing. When leadcrs

wcm asked about the amount of discretion they delegate to followers in performing their jobs,

when the situation strength is strong, it was observed that there is more frccdom for followers

from leaders with high or normal trans formational leadership characteristics as comparcd to

Icadcrs with low trans formati onal leadership characteristics. NVhcn the same responses were

sought in the quantitative data collection phase, the situation strength that leaders described in

their organisations was almost the same as strong which was described by them in phasc-I and

leaders generally prefer to have strict working discipline among followers, and leaders also

described that they had clear standards on praise and punishments. However, when leaders were

asked about setting clear goals for followers, it was observed after the quantitative data analysis,

that leaders with low transformational leadership charactcristics set more clear goals for

followers, than leaders with high or normal transformational leadership characteristics. It was

. also observed that leaders with low transformational leadership characteristics make decisions

thcm, sclvcs as compared to leaders with high or normal transformational leadership

characteristics, who delegate dccision-making to followers concerning their job performance.

Lcadcrs %vith low transformational leadership characteristics mark their choices more towards

closely monitoring their followers than leaders with high or normal transformational leadership

characteristics-

For Research Question 2: Do transformational leaders make internal attributions for the cause of poor performance in manufacturing organisations?

Data analysis of phase-I (qualitative data) showed that leaders with high or normal

U=formational leadership characteristics attribute the causes of poor performance more toward

external factors, i. e., towards excessive machine break down or tool breakdowns, material

inventory problems, technical problems or delays in procurement processes. They described their

followers as hard working. However, data analysis of phasc-11 (quantitative data) showed a slight

difference between the responses of leaders with high, low, or normal trans formational

leadership characteristics. Leaders with high or normal trans formational leadership

characteristics attributed a little less towards the causes of poor performance to internal factors,

th, an leaders with low transformational leadership charactcristics. Leaders responses towards the

223

13chavioural Aspects of Transformational-Undcrship inufactudng Orginis-ilions . -in

NI,

cxtcmal environment for the causes of poor performance, is almost in the same mngc i. e., 2.5 to

2.7. that is, they were not sure that it may be or may not be tile cause of poor pcrfoniiancc. Whcn

the leaders wcrc askcd about whcthcr thcy think that tlicy arc responsible for the causcs of poor

pcrforTnancc, lcadcrs with high or normal transformational Icadcrship charactcristics showcd a

morc positivc rcsponse than Icadcrs with low transformational leadcrship charactcristics.

For research question number 3: Do trans formational leaders seek more fccdback from their followers than non-transformational leaders in manufacturing organisations?

From the data analysis for research question number 3 it was noted that, leadcrs with high

transformational leadership characteristics, prefer to directly discuss with followers the progress

of the job done or had close contact with their followers. However, leaders with a low score on

t]hc trwisfonnational leadership scale prefer to get feedback through daily production reports

instead of direct contact with followers. For leaders with nonnal score on the transfonnational

leadcrship scalc, it is a mix of both directly and indirectly getting feedback through followas, as

. wcll as through review production reports or review production targcts.

For research question 4 Is clan culture the most common cultural environment created or existing in parallel with transformational leadership?

Frorn the organisational. profiles obtained after plotting the data from leaders about organisation

Culwre, it was noted that the organisational. profile obtained for the leadcrs with low

tr. uu formational leadership characteristics was more oriented towards a market culture for

go, vernment owned organisations. However, in private or public owned organisations, leaders

uith low transformational leadership characteristics, seem more oriented to an adhocracy culture.

H, Owcvcr, clan and hicrarchy culture were also present but the dominant culture was more

towards adhocracy. -Ibe organisational profile obtained for leaders with high trans formational ch=ctcristics was

directed more towards a clan culture in all the five organisations. But on average the profilc

doesn't a give very clear picture, because adhocracy, market, and hicrarchy culture arc also

prcsMt to some extent. However, the organisational cultural profilc for govcnuncnt owned and

private or public limited organisations was somewhat different from the leaders with high

transformational leadership characteristics. The private organisation is more biased towards the

muk-ct culture, and the public limited organisation more towards adliocracy culture.

224

13clinviournI Aspects of Trinsfonnationnl Lcndcrsliip in KinufactudngDronisntions

Tbc next chaptcr is aimed at discussing the rcsults obtained from data analysis in this chapter,

, with mfcrcncc to the research question and literature. It addresses the diffcrcnt intcrprctations;

and implications of the findings, and puts forward hypotheses and a model about

trwisformational leadership and situational dctcnninants on the basis of the results obtaincd from

data analysis.

225

Ilchavioural Asrgcts of Tonsformational Leadership-in Manufacturing Organisationi

Chapter 7 Discussion

7.1 Introduction

The aim of this research was to examine transformational lcadcrsliip in manuracturing

organisations in Pakistan with special emphasis on bchavioural aspect of

transformational Icadcrship and to find about the psychological substructure, the

internal world of transformational leaders, namcly what "makes them tick", and how

they developed this way, Popper & Mayscless (2DO2). Kark & Shamir (2002) have

also stated, 'research on trans formational leadership has not fully cxplorcd the

question of what are the underlying processes and mechanisms by which

trans formational leaders exert influence on followers and ultimatcly an pcrformancc. Judge and Bono (2000) highlighted 'Even if one considers trans formational Icadcrship

to be a behavioural theory, the origins of the behaviours, are unclear. ' In doing so,

situational determinants were identified from the literature and research questions

were formulated in chapter 3.

Recent research was conducted by Scarborough (2001 & 2002); on transforming

leadership in the manufacturing industry, in which she studied the factors that

influence decision-making and actions of transforming moral leaders. She attempted

to illuminate the way seven selected industrial leaders lead their lives for the purpose

of gaining a better understanding of transforming leaders in the U. S. manufacturing

sector. Her findings concluded that transformational leaders have managed to either

(a) take a failing company and turn it into a successful business vcnturc; or (b) change

the culture from a dictatorship to one of a participative management, team of

collaborative leadership, ctc. She concluded that, the factors that seem to play crucial

roles in the transforming leaders decision-making processes, and actions, arc clearly

morals, ethics, and a serious concern for their employ=, customers, suppliers, and

the community. 71cy exhibit a conscious cffort to do the right thing, and the sincere

desire to treat people fairly, respectfully, to develop them, challenge them, expand

their potential, and provide a good healthy, stimulating Working environment and

climate. She further concluded that transformational leaders undcrstand and clearly

indicated in their own way that they are not morally perfect. llowcvcr. the dcpdi of

their conviction was obvious and was also confirmed by their colleagues. T'hey have

226

what seems to be a dccp and genuine appreciation and rcspect for the people they

work with, and seem to be able to balancc the dcmands of a complex and turbulcnt business cnvironmcnt with their responsibility for their cmployccs health and wcll bcing. Ibcy also believe that it is their moral duty to do tile right thing for all involved, including the community.

For this research to study transformational leadership in Pakistani manufacturing

organisations, the literature on organisational leadership reveals that organisational leadership literature discussed by prominent scholars of organisational leadership

(Bass, Yukl, Curphy ctc) was mostly concerned with situation or contingency theories,

attribution theory, or the awareness of leaders about their actions or feedback and

organisational culture. This research included all of these four situational dctcrininants

to study trans formational leaders behaviour in Pakistani manufacturing organisations.

The research was a learning voyage to study transformational Icadcrship in

manufacturing organisations, and the findings of the research arc stated in the form of hypotheses that need to be further tested in awide range of industries and countries if

they arc to be fully gcnemlised. However, in this rcscarch the researcher has opened

the debate and investigated the situational determinants and their influcncc on

leadership in depth in one particular country. The hypotheses arc stated primarily to

act as a catalyst for more international research aimed at broadening the investigation.

In this in-depth study in Pakistan, data was collected using the mixed method

approach defined by Creswcl, (2003) from the five manufacturing organisations and

analysed by qualitative and quantitative methods of data analysis as described by Fink

(2003).

in this study in order to identify transformational Icadcrs in the manufacturing

organisations, we used the tool developed by Podsak-off ct at (1990); the 23-itcm

rneasurc of transformational leadership (transformational leadership inventory)

questionnaire. Podaskoff ct at (1990), reviewed the leadership litcraturc and idcntiried

high performance expectations, intellectual stimulation, individualized support,

fostering the acceptance of group goals, role modelling, and identifying and

articulating a vision (the item content of the lattcr five are subsumed within Bass's

three transformational sub factors) as the key behaviours of transformational leaders.

227

This tool is very well validated and extensively used in recent research projects. Substantially and similar to Farh & Clicng (1999) we used Podsak-off ct al (1990)

conccptualisation of transformational leadership because it is bchavioumlly oriented,

well validated, and has been used in both North American and Chinese cultures. This

instrument has been used recently by several researchers to measure transformational

leadership characteristics, for example, Pillai and Willams (1998), Pillai, William,

Lowe, and Jung (2003), Parry (2002), and Sprcitzcr ct al (2005). Howcvcr, the

jAultifactor Leadership Questionnaire (hILQ), which was developed by Bass and

Avolio (1990), appears to assess a unique set of very senior people that occupy

leadership roles, and therefore may have a distinct limited set applicability. Tracy

(1998) stated that MLQ is more applicable for identifying the development needs of

leaders at the top of the organisational hierarchy.

This study was aimed at leaders from the level of supervisor to the top management

to study transformational leadership in manufacturing organisations in Pakistan. It

made the assumption that leadership can be exercised by any organisation member

that has followers and at any position in the organisation. Therefore we preferred to

use the Podsakoff et al (1990) transformational leadership inventory questionnaire.

This questionnaire was designed to measure six key dimensions of transformational

leadership that have been identified in the research literature (Bass, 1985; Bennis &

Nanus, 1985; Bradford & Cohen, 1984; Congcr & Kanungo, 1987; House, 1977;

Kouzes & Posner, 1987; Tichy & DeVanna, 1986). Podsak-off ct al. 's study is the only

one that has empirically cx=incd the scald's propcrties, Podsak-off, MacKcnzic, and

Bommer (1996).

To find the answers to the research questions posed in chapter 3, data was collected in

two phases from five manufacturing organisations in Pakistan. The first phase

consisted of personal interviewing of manufacturing leaders (as qualitative data) to

On primarily broad descriptive knowledge about the research questions. 71he second

phase consisted of collecting quantitative data using a designed questionnaire for

situational and attributional aspects of leadership, and the Organisational Cultural

Assessment Instrument (OCAI) tool developed by Camcron & Quinn (1999) for

measuring organisation culture and then to judge its influence upon trans formati onal

228

Behavioural Aspscts of Trans formal iongl IsadenhipiriMang ractufl ng Organisatiom

leadership. Ilic data analysis stage provided a picture of transformational leaders

behaviour in the fivc manufacturing organisations, which were used in this study. All

rcspondcnis were approached after seeking proper permission from the top

management to gather data and an introductory letter from the researcher's supervisor,

therefore the respondents were well aware of the purpose of data gathering and they

rc"nded enthusiastically to the researcher. The cffcct of researcher bias was

minimiscd in terms of data collection by asking the leaders to respond to the

questionnaire in as near a normal manncr as possible and in a way that they believed

was appropriate. They were told that there were no right or wrong answers to any

question (in the qualitative survey) or to the questionnaire (in the quantitative survey).

Leaders responses were noted on the contact summary sheet for the qualitative phase

(Phasc-1), as described by Miles & Hubcrman (1984). On the contact summary sheet,

leaders were assigned numbers by the rcscarchcr to rccognisc them, as well as

recording details of the organisation, place, date & time of interview. In addition, on

the contact summary sheet, the researcher noted the leaders responses to the questions

asked. Ilese interviews were analysed following the steps of interview analysis by

Fink (2003). The procedure described by Fink for interview analysis was found

appropriate when the respondents were reluctant to allow recording of the intcrvicws

due to confidentiality requirements of the organisations, and to keep themselves

anonymous. Therefore no rccording is available for use by computer softwarc to

analyse the interview. However responses were noted on contact summary sheets as

described by Miles & Hubcrman (1984) which can be analysed manually by interview

analysis procedure described by Fink (2003).

In the following paragraphs, the findings to the research questions from the data

analysis, %vill be discussed Nvith reference to the literature; cffcctivcncss of the analysis

techniques, significance of the results and limitations of the research.

7.2 Transformational leadership and Situation Strength:

Until now, there has not been much research or related literature for the relationship

bctwccn situation strcngth and transformational Icadcrship, i. c., trans formational

leadcrs' bchaviour widi rcspect to situation strcngtli. Ilowcvcr, tlicrc is litcraturc

229

13chavioural AWscts of Trans fb=tion3lLLcadcrshinJa M anu factuflng Organisations

available independently on both situation strength and trans rormational leadership.

According to Bass (1985) and Avolio & Bass (1988), transrormational leaders elevate

the dcsircs of followers for achievement and self-dcvclopmcnt, whilst also promoting

the development of groups and organisations. Instead of responding to die immcdiate

self-interest of followers with cithcr a carrot or a stick, transformational leaders arouse

in the individual a hcightcned awareness of key issues, of the group and organisation,

while increasing the confidence of followers, and gradually moving them fmm

concerns for existence to concerns for achievement, growth and development. Such

leaders exhibit idcalized influcncc (charisma), individualized consideration,

intellectual stimulation, and inspirational motivation.

The first researcher that formally rccognised the importance of the leader, follower,

and situation in the leadership process was Fred Fiedler (1967) with his contingency

model of leadership. He argued that the situation may be the most ambiguous aspect

of leadership, and that the nature of task, the work setting, presence of formal rules

and regulations are a few of the situational variables that can affect the leadership

process. The situation can constrain or facilitate a leader's action and leaders can

change different aspects of situation in order to be more cffective (Hughes, Ginnctt, &-

Curphy 1993). Ile concept of situation strength has been used to study the cfTcct of

various concepts of the leadership behaviour (Carpenter, Golden, 1997, Mullins, &

Cunimings, 1999, Carpenter, Fredrickson, 2001). A framework of situational strength

by Nlischcl (1977) is described as, strong situations in which most actors construe the

situation in the same way, most draw similar conclusions as to appropriate responses,

and most are motivated and able to respond. In strong situations, the situation itself

provides incentives to make the appropriate response, and the necessary skills to

respond arc present in most individuals. Mischcl argues that in strong situations, but

not weak ones, situational factors dominate individual differences in determining the

decision maker's course of action. Conversely, hiischcl defines weak- situations as

those in which there is ambiguity about the meaning of the situation and the

appropriateness of various responses, where incentives for any particular response arc

unclear, and where individuals' ability to respond may vary. According to Misclicl,

individual differences play a more significant role in such situations, sincc no clear

directions are provided by the situation (Misclicl, 1977).

230

Situational constraints defined by Yukl (1998) were bureaucratic rules, policies,

regulations, and labour laws that must be observed. In addition, the technology used to

do the work constrains the options for how the work will be done.

In this research, situation strength in manufacturing organisations is described as

strong if there were significant rules and regulations, process sheets and policies,

together with clear and strict instructions about procedures to follow. I'lic procedures

and process sheets used in the manufacturing organisations arc meant to prescribe how

to do a job properly and to ensure all operations arc performed as required for

completing the job. This may be an attempt by the organisation to achieve a strong

situation. However, even in this situation there is still some ambiguity since the individual probably, depending upon personality, does not have to follow these

procedures. This situation can however be strengthened if the organisation applies

sanctions to the individual if they do not apply the procedures. The leader of the group is usually the one that applies the sanctions if the procedurcs arc not followed so it

was considered valid to determine the judgment of the leader conccming the amount

of discretion and their attitude towards the application of these procedures. Leaders

generally give some discretion to followers, but the assumption is that, the leaders

way of giving discretion depends upon their leadership style. Ficdlcr's (1973) research

concluded that task-oricntcd leaders perform best in situations that arc very favourablc

or unfavourablc, while peoplc-oricntcd leaders perform best in situations of intermediate favourablcness. Ilis is a contingency if-thcn approach (if certain

conditions exist, then a certain leadcrsWp style is best). The situational approach

merely states that the most appropriate style depends upon the situation. It does not

attempt to specify if-thcn conditions. For cxample, transactional leadership focuses on

setting standards and either passively waits for mistakes to occur before taking action

(in its passive form) or (in its active form) closely monitors the occurrence of any

mistake. In either its passive or active form, it focuses on identifying mistakes, Bass &

Avolio (1997).

The findings from primary data collcctcd in pliasc-1, from manufacturing leaders,

show that situation strength in all of the manufacturing organisations used in the

sarnpic was strong. RuIcs and procedurcs wcrc wcll documcntcd, proccss shccts and

231

Behavioural AsMcts of Trans formal ional Leadaship-inlianufacturing Olganisatiom

detailed drawings were available, and any changes that might have been required from

time to time were incorporated accordingly and rccordcd on process sheds. A

standard code of conduct, and quality assurance rcquircmcnts wcrc available in those

manufacturing organisations. This is interpreted as meaning that the organisations

were attcmpting to create a strong situation. However, this issue is an assumption. For

cxampic the fact that there were procedures and rules may just mean that the risk of

task error was significant and the firm had to define and control these risks. 11iis is

generally done in manufacturing organisations, whcrc the conscqucnccs of crror are

vcry serious. Therefore, I think that generally the situation strength in manufacturing

organisations is strong. I judged whether the leaders wcrc intcrprcting this in a way

that was giving little discretion and more control or alternatively were giving the

people as much discretion as possible within the limit of the rules. In this study, when

the leaders were asked whether they favourcd discretion for dicir followcrs, (as shown

in table 6.10) the answer was more positive from transformational leaders than from

non-transformational leaders. A significant amount of rcscarch on leadership

behaviour has focused on discretion. Discretion implies that the followers can make

many decisions themselves about what, how and perhaps whcn they intcrprct and

complete their tasks. Studies examining the relationship between the extent of

discretion and performance have found a positive correlation between the two factors

03auer and Green 1996; Peters and NVatcrman 1982; Schricshcim, Ncidcr, and

Scandura. 1998), although the direction of causality has not been well established by

these studies. Discretion to followers can offer various advantages to leaders. YukI

and Fu (1999) surveyed managers to identify reasons why they give discretion to

followers. Among the most important reasons for favouring discrction were to develop

follower skills and confidence, to enable followers to deal with problems more

quickly, and to improve decisions by moving them closer to the action. Some

implementation scholars writing from a bottom-up perspective have argued that giving

greater discretion to followers contributes to successrul implementation of policies

and programs (Berman 1980; Hjcm 1982; Majone and Wildavsky 1979).

With regards to the question of whether non-transformational leaders do not favour or

rcducc discretion to their followers. It was observed in the data analysis of phasc-1, as

shown in category No. 3 of table 6.7, table 6.8 and table 6.9 about giving discrction to

232

followers, that trans formati onal lcadcrs favour more discretion to followas than

leadcrs with low transformational lcadcrship characteristics (17 out of 23

trans formational leaders favour discretion to followers). It was also notcd in the data

analysis of phasc-II, that transformational Icadcrs delegate more decision making to

followers (3.31 compared to 2.42 on Likcrt scale of I to 5) than lcadcrs with low

trans formational Icadership charactcristics; as shown in question No. 5, section 2A of

table No. 6.45.

A summary of situational variables, derined after intcrvic%%, s of manuracturing leaders

and study of manufacturing organisations, are dcrined as strong and weak- is shown in

table 3.1. In the table 3.1, rules and procedures are dcrincd as an indicator of a strong

situation as they are meant to describe how a job is to be done or they provide the

guidelines for the performance of the jobs, which has to be followed by all the

individuals concerned. Rules and procedures which were assumcd for dcrining a

strong situation in a manufacturing organisation. consisted of, presence of detailed

pro, ccss sheets and parts drawings; presence of detailed quality assurance procedures;

presence of employees code of conduct, and daily production targcts; requirements.

However, in case of the non- availability of these doc=cnts the situation was

considered weak in a manufacturing organisation. In a strong situation, individuals

have low discretion in decision-mak-ing, and they follow the rules and rcgulations. By

having rules and regulations there is an implication that the organisation wants to

create a strong situation that perhaps provides a guarantee of performance. Howcvcr,

people may not follow the procedures. I judged whether people would follow the

pro, ccdurcs from their attitude and beliefs about the procedures and deduced whether

they favoured low or high discretion from their conversation, ror example as noted in

responses of leaders numbers 14,23,33 9, and 18 shown below.

According to the leaders, they created a weak- situation for their followers even if the

situational strength of the Organisation was strong. Hence, cvcn though the

Organisation had set out rules and regulations for the employees to follow and the shop

floor had been provided with drawings and process sheets, the leaders had given the

followers discretion to deviate from the standard processes if it helped them to do their

jobs. The leaders said that they were more concerned with the end results than with

233

Ilchavioural Aspccts of Transformationil Itadcrshiplialanufacturin Organisation

the processes implemented to achieve the results (e. g., Icadcr No. 14 as described

bclow). Ilowcvcr, the amount of discrction givcn diffcrcd for cach leadcr, wlictlicr trans forrnational or not. Somc of the vicws cxprcsscd by the lcadcrs wcre as follows:

"'I ant of the opinion of givingfull discretion tofollou-crs and give thent a chance to

pcrform thejob as to suit thent and their way, but there will be no compromise on the

quality of the product. " - Leader no: 14 (leader with high scorc on trans fonnational

Icadcrship characteristics scale)

"Aly organisation has a strong situation. I give discretion to my followers in

performing their jobs and look at the end result... "- Leader no: 23. (Lcadcr with

normal score on transformational leadership characteristics scale)

- Our factory has a strong situation. Processes and standards are predetcnnined,

quality assurance requirements arc aivilable, and draivings of the parts arc available

to the people on the shop floor. I balance in giving discretion to follon-crs in doing

their jobs. I give discretion to my folloivers, in doing their jobs as they feel

, comfortable doing it, and don't ask thent it-hy they have deviatedfront the standard

procedures ifit doesn't affect the quality orproduction targets to be achincd" Lcadcr

no: 33 (leader with high score on transformational leadership characteristics scale)

NVhcn comparing these results with the views of the sample of 10 leaders who have

shown the most non-transformational behaviour. It was observed as shown in code

No. 5, of table 6.8 i. e., giving no discretion to followers, that non-transformational

leaders (7 out of 10 non-transformational leaders) prefer to work in strong situations

and to create a strong situation for their followers without giving them any discretion

or limited discretion. Some of the views of non-transformational leaders in this study

arc as follows:

-I am of the opinion thatfollowers should not be given discretion in doing theirjobs,

because they mayfeel relaxed and thus could affect the production targets and quality

of the products. Aly organisation has a strong situation. Processes arc defined and

234

Behavioural Aspccts of Transfonnational Leadership inl-. IanufactxiringOrgonisation3

doctimcnicd and I inake it sure that these should bcfblloivcdprqpcrl)ý" - Lcadcr no: 9

(leader with low score on transformational leadership characteristics scale)

"Ifle have a strong situation in ourfactory, detailcdproccss shccts and draivings are

in-ailable. Followcrs are imll traincd and know thcirjobs. I am of the opinion that

proper procedures and processes should be follou-cd strictly and I don "t allow nly follou-crs to deviatefrom the standard procedlircs.,, - Leader no: 18 (leader with low

score on transformational leadership characteristics scale)

In table 3.1 goal sctting/targcts achieving is described as a strong situation because

when the goals/targcts arc defined then the organisation is dcfIning what it wants

people to do. However as described by Locke & Latham, (1990) when goals/targcts

arc set with the involvement of followers, there is an increased commitment of

followers and they can exercise some discretion in targct/goal setting.

The question arouse concerning of validity of the leaders responses; that what the

leaders said they actually do, and whether the situation strength they described in their

organisations was strong or weak- To vcrify the leaders responses, I checked the

presence of procedures that indicate that the organisation was attempting to achieve a

strong situation. Then I talked to the followers and judged whether the leaders were

interpreting the procedures in such a way that they were enforcing the procedures and

controlling discretion to followers. Some of the comments by followers about their

leader favouring discretion are cited here:

"'Afy leader is more concerned about the quality ofjob, and he gAw me discretion in

the pcrfomance of the job. For example. if some operation of a job is required in a

sequence as per process, but ifI would like to perform it in other sequence on my own

convcnicnce but it doesn't effect the quality of the product, my leader doesn't bother

about it, or a time taken to complete a job. " (Follower of a transformational Leader

No. 33).

235

13chavioural Asl! cct3 of-TransformationaLL-eadcrship-intlanufactxirinjOrginisations

"Aly leader gives discretion in doing my job regarding 1101v it should be performed. 11c assign thejob, and check it at the completion of thojob. it doesnt inatter to hint

how thejob was done, if the quality of thejob done is good, he appreciate. hosvewr (f

the quality is not good he looks at the cause of poor quality and take action as

necessary. " (Follower of a transformational leader No. 23).

Followcrs of transformational leadcrs dcscribed that tlicir Icadcrs arc morc focuscd on

the end results of the job done, and quality of the job done, they give discrction in the

performance of the job, and it doesn't matter to them how die job was pcrformcd or

the amount of time taken to perform that job.

From the data analysis obtained during phasc-II (quantitative data), which was aimed

at getting a clearer picture about situational strength and trans rormational leadership,

the leaders were asked more questions. Leaders were asked to rate their choices in two

separate sections of the questionnaire (shown in appcndix-F), where section 2,

corresponds to rate their choice as a leader, and section 3 corresponds to rate their

choice as a follower (from middle and lower management leaders). Howcvcr, leaders

at the top position of the organisation need to respond to section 2 only of the

questionnaire. The questionnaire used consisted of choices using Likcrt scale I to 5,

where 5 indicates that most of the time they cmphasise that choice, and I indicates

that they don't emphasise that choice at all. Ile neutral score of the scale was 3 i. e.,

sometimes they emphasise that choice and sometimes not. Ile score more than 3 was

considered as an agreement to the question asked from the respondent and score less

than 3 was considered a disagreement to the question asked of the respondent.

Data analysis of phase-If, indicated that 43 out of 76 leaders whose score were more

towards transformational leadership characteristics, trans formati onal lcadcrS set less

clear goals as compared to non-transformational leaders as shown in question No. 4 of

section 2A of table 6.45. The researcher assumption is that setting clear goals for

followers refer to strong situation, that followers have to complete a certain targct, or

to complete a particularjob on time, by following the standard procedures. As pointed

by Curphy ct al (1993), goal setting is probably the most familiar and easiest formal

system of motivation to use with followers. From the leader's perspective, it involves

236

13chavioural Aspccts of Trans fo=tionaLLcadcrshia iri-Manufacturing Orgmisationi

presenting followers with some future end state (a goal) and convincing them they

can achieve it if they exert cffort towards it. According to Lockc and Latham, (1990)

goals arc the most powerful determinants of task behaviour. Goals serve to direct

attention, mobilize effort, help follower continue exerting cffort until the goal is

reached. Lockc and Latham (1990) reported that nearly 400 studies across individuals,

groups, and organisations in eight different countries have provided consistent support

for several aspects of goal setting. First, goals that were both spcciric and difficult

resulted in consistently higher cffort and performance when contrasted to "do your

bcsf' goals. Second, goal commitment is critical. Nicrcly having goals is not enough.

Although follower participation in setting goals is one way to increase commitmcnt,

goals set either by leaders unilaterally or through participation with the follower can

lead to necessary levels of commitment. Commitment to assigned goals was often as

high as those goals followers helped to sc4 provided the leaders were perceived to

have legitimate authority, expressed confidence in followers' and provided clear

standards for performance. Third, followers exerted the greatest cffort when goals

were accomplished by fccdback, followers getting goals or feedback alone generally

exerted less cffort. However, transformational leadership dcrinition described by Bass

& Avolio, that the transformational leader's role is to motivate followers to perform

beyond expectations. If goals are dcfincd, followers may be able to achieve the

targets, but after achieving the targets, followers may not perform beyond the leaders

cxpectations. By setting clear goals for followers, performance beyond expectations

may not be expected. However, giving discretion to followers in the performance of

their jobs and involving followers in setting goals for them can increase their

performance beyond expectations and thus followers may perform beyond targets.

Findings from data analysis of phase-11, as shown in table 6.45 question number 4 of

section 2(A) show that trans formational leaders set less clear goals for their followers

as compared to non-u=formafional leaders in achieving the targets, and giving followers discretion in performance of thcirjobs. This shows that giving discretion by

transformational leaders to followers in performance of their jobs, transformational

leaders expect that their followers can achieve the targets, and can even perform

beyond achieving the targets. That is one characteristics of transformational leaders as

defined by Bass (1998), that transformational leader's role is to motivate followers to

perform beyond expectations. The setting of less clear goals for followers by

237

Behavioural Aspects of Transfomition3l Leadershipinlianufacluring Organisadons

trans fonnational leaders seems to be one of the hidden behaviour of transformational

leaders that cncouragcs followers to perform at their best. However, when goals arc

set in consultation with followers, which increase the commitment of followers to

achieve goals, and followers feel confidcnt in achieving the goals, the goal setting

with involvement of followers may increase performance, Locke & Latharn (1990).

llowcvcr, when leaders were asked to rate their choice on scction 3 of the

questionnaire considering themselves as followers, on the same question "setting clear

goale'. most of the followers described their immediate leaders as setting clear goals

for them as "sometimes". There is an interpretation of follower's responses about their

leader as "'sometimes", that it depends upon the nature of tile job or urgency of the job

required such that the leader set clear goals for the followers, when the job is urgently

required to be completed by a particular time. Otherwise, in normal circumstances,

leaders give their followers discretion in performing thcirjobs.

it was also observed from data analysis during phase-11, that leaders arc generally

more concerned about the working discipline among followers. Most of the leaders

(irrespective of transformational leadership characteristics) cmphasisc strict working discipline among followers. The assumption for derining working discipline in a

manufacturing enviroruncnt refers to the following orsafcty instructions, use of proper

safety equipment, and follower's behaviour towards their colleagues. Ile question of

working discipline was asked of leaders, because, when favouring discretion to

followers, transformational leaders may ignore disciplinary requirements which the

organisation may impose on the followers while performing their jobs. However, the

findings support the idea that trans formational leaders favour discretion to followers

within the limits of disciplinary requirements of the organisation's rules and

regulations. Results show that transformational leaders emphasisc the same as other leaders about working discipline among followers as shown in table No. 6.46 question

number I of section 2(A). According to Arvcy & Ivancevich (1980) when describing

working discipline among followers, cmphasised how leaders should explain rules and

requirements to followers and ensure that followers understand the serious

consequences of violations. Further they said that leaders should (except for the most

serious infractions) provide sufficient oral and written warnings before resorting to

238

punishment. Schocn & Durand (1979) stated that leaders use punishments that arc legitimate, fair, and commensurate with the seriousness of the itirraction.

To look into the bchaviours of transformational leaders in manufacturing

organisations, leaders were asked about their opinion on praise and punishment

criteria for followers. The assumption for asking about standards on praise and

punishment is whether there would be fairness and die same criteria used for the

followers for their job done for its evaluation, and that thcrc existed tile same

punishment or rewards for the followers for anyjob done irrespective of any liking or disliking of individual followers by their leaders. From the data analysis of responses, it was observed as shown in question No. 2 section 2A of table 6.46 that,

trans formational leaders cmphasisc praise more than non-transformational leaders.

However this difference is not too high. This was verified from die followers of the

transformational leaders that their leaders placed greater emphasis on praise and less

on punishment. The researcher assumption for praise and punishment is that, some

leaders have different standards for praise and punishment, and praise and punishment

criteria may depend on liking or disliking of the follower by the leader. A job done by

a follower, who is more liked by the leader, may get more praise than the same job

done by a follower, who is disliked by the same leader. Dobbins and Russell (1986a)

stated that leaders were more inclined to punish and conduct performance counselling

to a disliked follower than they do with a liked follower. They further described that

leaders were more inclined to attribute poor performance to internal factors when the

follower was disliked, rather than the follower who was liked. Dobbins and Russell

(1986a) findings supported by Turban ct al (1990) that a supervisor's liking for a

follower positively influences the treatment of the follower and also evaluations of the

follower's work' performance.

To explore further about the discretion given to followers by the leaders in doing their

jobs, leaders were asked whether they make decisions themselves or delegate decision

maldng to followers. T'he assumption in asking this qucstion is that, if leaders delegate

decision making to followers, this means that they arc giving them discretion to makc

decisions. it was found from the analysis of results of this question that, leaders widi

high or normal transformational leadership characteristics, delegate more decision

239

Behavioural Asrats of Trans fonnational Leadorshi2in-Manufacturing Organisations

making (35% morc) to followas than lcadcrs with low tmnsrormational lcadcrship

ch=ctcristics as also shown in table 6.45 question number 5 section 2(A)

According to Bass (1990), delegation implies that one has been cmpowcrcd by one"s leader to take responsibility for completing certain tasks or engaging in certain

activities. According to Lcana (1986), delegation gives the responsibility for decisions

to those individuals most likely to be affected by or to implement the decision, and delegation is more concerned w-ith autonomy. responsibility, and follower

development. Further Curphy ct al (1993) stated that delegating significant, tasks to

followers is one of the best ways for follower's development skills. It does so by

providing opportunities for initiative, problem solving, innovation, administration, and decision-making. By providing practical experience in a controlled fashion, delegation

allows followers the best training experience for skill development. One of the

t=formational leadership components as described by Bass (1985) is individualized

consideration, or leadership by developing people. This rcfcrs to the care that the

leader shows towards followers about their development, and about them as

individuals. The leader is alert to follower's needs, provides challenges and learning

opportunities and delegates to raise their skill and conridcncc. The result is that

followers are more likely to be willing to develop competence and take initiative.

Results of data analysis as shown in table 6.46 of question 5 section 2(A) show that

tr=formational leaders delegate more decision-mak-ing to their followers than non-

transformational leaders, and they favour delegation to their followers in decision-

making.

Another question concerning the favouring of discretion by leaders to followers in a

manufacturing environment was whether leaders closely monitor their followers or

control their followers in what they actually do. Tle assumption in this question was

that leaders', who do not provide or encourage discretion for their followers, would

closely monitor their followers or control flicir followers. Ilowcvcr, leaders who

favour discretion to followers will not closely monitor them and will give them a free

hand in the performance of their jobs, howcvcr they would monitor the outputs. Yukl

(1994) separated monitoring into two forms: involves collecting inform: ition about

240

operations of the leader's organisational unit, which he tcrmcd internal monitoring,

and inrormation gathering about relevant events in the larger organisation and the

cxtcmal cnvironmcnt which lie tcrmcd cxtcmal monitoring. Monitoring is usually

concerned with getting information needed to evaluate the progress of the work, the

performance of individual follower and, the quality of product. YukI (1994) obscrvcd

that, there is some evidence that internal monitoring affccts pcrrorinancc dircctly. In a laboratory experiment, Larson and Callahan (1990) found that performance increased

on a task that was monitored closely but not on a task for which there was little

monitoring. In observational research, Komaka (1986) found in one study that

managers who did more monitoring were more effective. llowcvcr from the results of data analysis as shown in table 6.46 of question 6 section 2(A), it was obscrvcd that leadcrs, %vith a low score on the trans rormational leadership scale closely monitor their

followers significantly more than transformational leaders. However, leaders with high or normal score on the transformational leadership scale give more freedom to

rollowcrs; in doing their jobs and, they don't emphasis close monitoring of their

followers. In general, the appropriate degree of internal monitoring will depend on the

compctcnce of the follower and the nature or the work More frequent monitoring is

needed when followers are inexperienced, when the tasks of followers arc highly

interdependent and require close coordination, and when disruption in the work flow

is likely due to equipment breakdowns, accidents, material shortages and so forth.

From the above discussion, the answers to the research question No. I sccm to be

positive based on research results as shown in table 6.11 and section 2A and section

3A of table 6.46. The indication that transformational leaders create a weak- situation

for their followers in manufacturing organisations. Transformational leaders favour

discretion to followers by setting less clear goals and delegating decision making to

followers to build confidence, which can help to facilitate job performancc, %vithout

compromising the quality of the product. However, they do not compromise on

working discipline among followers as sho%%n in question No. I section 2A of table

6.46. From the data analysis it was found that transformational leaders look at the end

results and they don't keep monitoring followers all the time. Instead, they give

freedom to followers to think how a job can be improved or performed in a better

MannCr.

241

Behavioural Asrscls of Transforrmtional Leadershi2in Manufactuflog Organisations

The study thus showcd that, transformational Icadcrs tcnd to crcatc a Wcak- situation

for thcir followcrs cvcn if the organisational situational strcngth was strong.

Thcrcfore from the results of data analysis, hypothesis-I (111) can be statcd as:

III: Transformational leaders tend to create a weak sl(ua(lon for their

followers In performing jobs In manufacturing organisations.

Tbc results of data analysis arc stated in the form of a hypothesis. It can be used as a

guiding principic for the leaders in manufacturing organisations about how to lead

their followers cffcctivcly. It could also be helpful for those personnel who arc

cngaged in leadership development progranuncs for training leadership

characteristics.

7.3 Transformational Leadership and Attribution Theory

To look into bchaviours; of transformational leaders and the attributions they made

about the causes of poor performance in manufacturing organisations, data was

collected from the leaders of five manufacturing organisations; used in the sample. As

it, was pointed by Levine & Moreland (1990) attribution was most active as an area of

organisational behaviour research in the 1980s, and the importance of the role of

attribution theory in organisational. settings was further cmphasised in 1%lartinko

(1995a). Recently, there has been a rcsurgcnce of research based on attribution theory.

A further unexplored area that is beginning to attract attention is the role of attribution

in motivation, Martinko (1995b); Weiner (2000).

in this research data was collected in two phases. Phase-I was aimed at gating

qualitative data by personal intcrvic%ving of manufacturing leaders, and phase-11 was

concerned with collecting quantitative data from the same leadcrs as used in phasc-1,

to verify and to gain further in-depth knowledge about the attributions made by

leaders in manufacturing organisations.

242

In phasc-1 of qualitative data analysis, from a sample of 50 leaders. 23 leaders had the

scores to be tcnncd as transformational on the basis of Podsakoff ct al (1990)

questionnaire. When these leaders were interviewed to get information about the

causes of poor performance, it was observed that 21 out of 23 trans rormational

leaders, attributed the causes of poor performance to external factors, i. e., material

supply problems, material quality problems, excessive tool break do%%ms, or power

failures.

According to the leaders, their followers were hard working and took interest in

performing their jobs, but due to unforeseen circumstances, for example, machines

breakdown or material problems, sometimes they have to face poor performance.

Tbcsc leaders said that the major causes of poor performance were material quality

problems, material inventory problems, and machine breakdowns. Some of the views

expressed by the leaders were as follows:

-Afy followers are hard working and efficient, the causes of poor performance are

most of the time excessive machines break doum, or matcrial inivitory

problems ............ Leader No. 14 (leader with high score on trans fonnational

leadership scale)

- Causes ofpoor perfomiance in my section areý dclays in procurcment process. as

material has to be imporicdfrom foreign countries, and delays occur its shipment or

customs clearance, as well as sometimes due to majorfaults occur in madline. for

u, hich rgplacement parts arc not available in country. and dclays occur... " Lxadcr

No. 48 (leader with normal score transformational leadership scale)

In phase-I of the qualitative data analysis, 30% of the leaders with high

transfonnational leadership charactcristics, attributed the causes of poor performance

cither to the follower's lack of interest in pcrfonning their jobs, or due to

inexperienced followers (internal attribution) as shown in table 6.18. NVhcreas 80% of

leaders with low transfon-national leadership characteristics attribute die causes of

poor perfonnance either to followers having a lack of intcrest in pcrfonning flicirjobs,

or due to inexperienced followers (intcmal attribution). Ilowcvcr 50% leadcrs %rith

high transfonnational leadership charactcristics and 58% %%ith nonnal Icadcrship

243

Behavioural Asnccts of Tr3nsfonwtionALc3dcrshiV JaManufacluting Organintions

characteristics attributed causes of poor pcrformancc either to machines breakdown

or tool break down (external attribution) and only 10% leaders with low

transformational Icadcrship characteristics attributed the causes of poor pcrronnancc

to cithcr machines break down or tool breakdowns (external attribution). With rcspcct

to the nature of the jobs of low trans form ational leaders, they were mostly shop floor

leaders concerned with manufacturing operations or assembly operations, and leaders

%%ith high trans fort-national leadership characteristics were mostly from higher

management hierarchy, i. e., General managers, Deputy General Nianagcr, Officcrs-in-

chargers or Managers and some shop floor supervisors too.

To verify the leader's responses about the attribution they made for the causes of poor

performance, the researcher furthcr investigated the causes of poor performance.

Leaders who said that their followers took less intcrcst in doing thcirjobs, or they arc

inexperienced, were examined by the researcher, and it was found that some followers

had a bad record of explanations or warnings issued to them by their leadcrs, and

some were newly appointed followers with less than one years cxpcriencc. With

reference to the external attribution made by the leaders, machine breakdown history

and material supply procedures were examined, and it was noticed that in extreme hot

weather, machines, and tool breakdown reports were excessively high.

Further analysis of data of phase-I indicates that, 60% of leaders with high

transformational leadership characteristics and 50% of these vith normal leadership

characteristics attributed causes to poor performance either to material or tool

inventory problems (external attribution) and 10% of the leadcrs w&ith low

transformational leadership characteristics attributed to these causes as sho%%rn in table

No. 6.17. With mspect to the nature of the job of the leaders (transformational and

non-transformational), the jobs of all the leaders were concerned with manufacturing

operations, but some leaders were more concerned with fabrication operations, some

with assembling operations, and some of them were related to manufacturing

management. It was noted that leaders made attribution (internal as well as external) in all types ofjobs, whether it is related to fabrication, assembly, or management. 7`he

type of attribution (internal or external) made by the leaders was not dependent upon

the nature of the job; it was observed that, leadcr's attribution towards the causes of

244

poor performance was dependent upon their leadership style. I lowcvcr, Dobbins and

Russell (1986), suggested that if poor performance is attributed towards internal

factors, which may result in resentment, dissatisfaction, absenteeism, and sabotage by

followers, and Wood and Mitchell (1981), obscrvcd that if a followcrhad a poor work

history, the likelihood of an internal attribution is greater. T'he previous poor work

historY makes it more likely that the follower will be blamed for the causes of poor

pcrformancc rather than other factors. If the effects of poor performance: arc scrious or

harmful, the internal attributions arc even more likely. However, if followers make

cxcuscs or apologisc for the poor performance,, the leader is less likely to make

internal attributions.

Attribution theory is a cognitive theory that has been used to explain how a leader

interprets information about the poor performance and decides how to rcact to ale

poor performance. Green and Mitchell (1979) described the reaction of a Icadcr to

poor performance as a two-stagc process. The first stage is to dctcrmine the cause of

poor performance, and the second stage is to select an appropriate response to correct

the problem. The type of attribution made by a leader influences the response to the

problem. When an external attribution is made, the leader is more likely to respond by

trying to change the situation, such as providing resources as required. When an

internal attribution is made and the leader determines that the follower had insufficient

ability, the likely response is to provide dcWlcd instruction, monitor the follower's

work more closely, set easier goals or dead lines, give warning or reprimands to the

follower. The assumption considered while answering the question was that, what

results if leaders make internal or external attribution? Podsak-off ct al (1990) defined

transformational leaders behaviour as, to demonstrate the leader's expectations for

cxcellence, quality, and /or high performance on the part of followcrs and he/she

rcspccts followers and is concerned about their pcrsonal feelings. Transforniational

leaders behaviour challenges followers to rc-cxamine some of their assumption about

thcir work and rc-think how it can be improved. For example, if leaders tend to make

external attributions for the causes of poor performance, although, it is actually due to

follower's mistakes (internal causes), followers had the chance to improve their

performance. NVhcn leaders make external attributions, and take appropriate stcps to

solve the external factors causing poor performance, followers wcrc lcft with no

245

cxcuse but to improve their performance. T'hadorc making cxtcmal attributions by

tmnsfonnational leaders for the causes of poor pcrfonnancc is observed as one of the bchaviour of transformational Icadcrship cffcctivcness.

It was further noted in the data analysis of qualitative data, that a quarter of the

population of leaders of the sample with transformational leadership characteristics

attributed their followers as hard working and cfficicnt. IIowcvcr none of the leaders

with low transformational leadership characteristics attributed their followers as hard

working or cfficicnt as shown in category No. 4 of table 6.18. This shows that

transformational leaders show respect and have concern for the personal feeling of

their followers. Transformational leaders don't let their followers down, but showing

themselves as a parent, who ignores the mistakes of their child and always appreciates

them as hard working. Similarly, although there has been some dcricicncy in the

followers, leaders have not high-lightcd them, but viewed their followers as hard

working. Popper and Mayseless (2001) reviewed studies dealing with parenting, and

compared them with studies with transformational leadership. This comparison

reveals a strong similarity between the developmental cffccts of good parents and

those of transformational leaders. It was further noted that none of the leaders with

high transformational leadership characteristics attributed the causes of poor

performance to technical problems or delays in procurement. Only 10% of leaders

-. %ith normal transformational leadership characteristics attributed causes of poor

performance either to technical problems or delays in procurement and none of the

leaders with low transformational leadership characteristics attributed to these causes,

as shown in the graph of figure 6.2.

From the data obtained in phase-I (qualitative data), it was further noted that leaders

%ith high or normal transformational leadership characteristics, attributed causes of

poor perfomiancc to external factors, i. e., matcrial/tool problems, or technical

problcms as shown in table 6.18. However leadcrs with low transformational

leadership characteristics attributed causes of poor performance to internal factors,

i. e., follower's inciTicicncy, follower's lack of interest or inexperienced followers. It

may be noted that in phasc-1, leaders were selected for personnel interviewing on the

basis of trans formational leadership characteristics rated by their followers using

246

Podsak-off ct al (1990) transformational leadership inventory questionnaire. Tcn

leaders were selected on the basis of highest score on trans formational leadership

characteristics, another 10 leaders were selected on the basis of lowest score and 13

leaders on a mean normal score.

In phasc-II, quantitative data collection, the sample size was extended to study the

whole organisation, since in phasc-I of qualitative data collection, 33 leaders were

selected on the basis of transformational leadership scale for intcrvicwing. In phasc-11,

a total of 76 leaders, 43 leaders whose score were more towards trans formational

leadership characteristics, 24 leaders attributed the causes of poor pcrronnancc more

towards external factors in some forni or the other.

Examining the attributional aspect of the leaders in more dctail, it was observed in the

data analysis of phase-11 that most of the leaders, irrespective of trans formational

leadership characteristics (more than 80%) were concerned about the opinion of their

followers or concerned about the opinion of their leader. When they responded to the

question I should be concerned about the opinion that my followers have about md"

as a leader and when they responded to the question, "I should be conccrned about

the opinion that my leader has about me" as a follower. The logic behind asking this

question was to observe the attributions they had about each other and, whether

followers and leaders were respecting fcclings of cach other, if they am respecting

each other feelings, they will also pay attention towards the attribution they made

about each other. Data showed that both (leader and follower) were concerned about

the opinion of each other, i. e., leaders to followers and followers to leaders as shown

in table 6.46 question number I of section 2(B). According to Fiedler contingency

theory (1967), leadership behaviour is a personality trait. According to Fiedler. how

positively the leaders views his or her least preferred co-work-cr (LPQ depends upon

LPC score. High LPC leaders arc classiried as relationships or people oriented (they

tend to feel fairly positive even about people they don't like very much) and low LPC

leaders are classified as task oriented. Fiedler's research indicates that when the

situation is either favourable to the leader or highly unfavourabic group pcrfonnancc

was the best if the leader had a low LPC score (i. e., task oriented leaders) whereas in

situations of moderate or low favourability to the leader, high LPC score (i. e., person

oriented leader) had the best group performance. Favourable or unfavourable

247

Behavioural Asrscts of Tr3nsfonmtion3LLeadcrshigift-tianufacturing QrganisatioUs

situations rcfcr to the extent to which the leader has control over the situation;

According to Shacklcton (1995) it is more sensible to match the lcadcr's style with the

situation, rather than the individual to change to adapt to difrcrcnt situations. Ficdlcr

suggests that a leader should deliberately try to change the situation favourablcncss by

cnhancing relations with followers, changing the amount of structure in a task or

gaining more formal power. The results of data analysis shows that transformational

leaders respect the concerns of their follower's more than non-transformational

leaders do. Lcadcrs irrespective of transformational leadership characteristics arc

generally trying to establish good relations widi followers to improve performance.

Ilowcvcr, when the leaders response was analysed for the question about the

attribution they had about their followers for the causes of poor performance in phase-

If of data analysis, for the question, "My followers arc the cause, when things do not

go as planned". It was observed that leaders with a low score on the trans formational

leadership scale made more attribution towards the followers for the causes of poor

performance or failure in achieving targets. While, leadcrswith a Wgh or normal score

on transformational leadership characteristics agree less for the causes of poor

performance towards the followers, as shown in table 6.46 question number 2 of

smtion 2(B).

To look further into the attributions made by leaders to external cnvironmcnt (e. g.,

vcndors problems, material shipment or customs clearance problems) when leaders

wcrc asked the question "rhe external environment of the rirTn plays a major role in

failure or success of the planned processes" as the causes of poor performance. 11c

general response of the leaders irrespective of trans formational leadership

characteristics was on the neutral side, that is, it may be or may not be, and it depends

upon the circumstances of the situation they had at that particular time.

As the aim of the research question about attribution was to look into the behaviour of

transformational leaders and to find if they attribute the causes of poor performance to

internal or external issues? Ilis study has provided some insights into understanding

transformational leaders bchaviours; with respect to their followers, that is, how

u=formational leaders exert influence on their followcrs to perform beyond the

leaders expectation for excellence, quality, and/or high performance as described by

248

Dchavioural Aspccts of Trans fonrmlional Leadashipinhianufacturing Omanisati -

Podsak-off ct al (1990). The data colicctcd from the lcadcrs of manuracturing

organisations, indicate that trans formational leaders tcnd to make cxtcrnal attribution for the causes of poor performance as shown in category 2 and 3 of table 6.17.111C

cause of making external attribution by transformational leaders, show that

trans formational leaders respect followers and are concerned about the pcrsonal

feelings of their followers, which is defined as one of the transformational leadership

characteristics by Podsakoff ct al (1990). As yet thcrc arc no dircct mcasurcmcnts

available in the literature for the attribution made by transformational Icadcrs.

flowcvcr, literature on attributional research states that Icadcrs generally make internal attribution for the causes of poor performance, and followers make external

attribution for the causes of poor performance, Shackicton (1995). 1"his is a general

tendency of human nature, to blame others for the causes of failure, and take credit for

the success. By making external attribution for the causes of poor pcrfonnancc,

transformational leaders see followers' mistakes as a learning opportunity, and they

tend to improve the external criviroruncrit, provide better opportunities for the

performance of the job, and leave bchind no clue through which performance may be

affected. As a result of leader's actions, followers modify their bchaviours towards the

job performance because there was no reason to blame performance to the external

cnviroruncnt.

Tbe findings of the research question arc consistent with the characteristics of

transformational leadcrship as described by Bass (1990) that transformational leaders

elevate the desires of followers for achievement and sclf-dcvclopmcn% while also

promoting the development of groups and organisations. Instead of responding to the

immediate self-interest of followers with either a carrot or a stick, transformational

leaders arouse in the individual a licightcried awarcncss of key issues, of the group and

Organisation, so increasing the confidence of followcrs, and gradually moving them

from concerns for existence to concerns for achievement, growth and dcvclopmenL

IIL. ncc irrespective of the actual circumstance by making external attributions for the

causes of poor performance even when an internal attribution would have been

cqually valid, trans formational leaders tend to favour the followcrs dcvclopmcnt and

conridcncc. They arc leadcrs who tend to ignore followcr's mistakcs, and convcrt

mistakes into a learning experience for their followcrs.

249

The findings from data analysis answer the research qucstion No. 2, that

trans forl-national leaders' generally make external attributions for tile cause of poor

pcrformance in manufacturing organisations.

The study has showed that, transformational leaders tend to make external

attributions for the causes of poor performance In manufacturing organisations.

The findings from the data analysis can bc stated as hypothesis 2 (112) dcscribing

trans formational Icadership and attribution as:

112: Transformational leaders tend to make external attributions for the

causes of poor performance In manufacturing organisations.

Research into the attribution theory of leadership is still in its infancy, Shackicton

(1995) but now thcre is evidence to reveal the type of attributions made by

transformational Icadcrs in a manufacturing cnvironmcnt and the cffccts that these can

have. However, this hypothesis is formulated from the data collected from Pakistani

manufacturing organisations only and requires testing in other countries before being

conclusively proved and gencralised.

7.4 Transformational Leadership and Feedback

For most of this century, scholars have been intcrested in the link between fccdback,

motivation, and performance (Ammon, 1956; Klugcr & DcNisi, 1996). Feedback

racarch continues because of a possible performance-cnhancing cffcct, although the

literature increasingly suggests that the cffects of feedback on performance and

follower attitude are quite variable. Cybernetic theorist Weiner (1948) is credited with

introducing the concept of feedback into general usage defining it as "a mcthod of

controlling a systcmý' (Weincr, 1954). Cusclia (1987) obscrvcd that despite the

Systematic origins of the feedback conccpt, almost all models Of feedback and

fccdback research emphasized the internal psychological processes of feedback

sending and receiving. Whether the emphasis was on fccdback characteristics, (goals,

250

Dch3vioural Asl! rcts of Transfoumlion3l Leadershipla-Manufactuflng Orranisatiom

sources, types, functions) or its relationship to motivation and pcrformance, the

intcrnal psychological state that formed the basis for fccdback choices, rathcr than

actual fcodback process, was the primary focus. According to Fisher (1978J fccdback

is a process that takes place in a circular closed loop of intcraction.

To cxamine the bchaviours of transformational leaders and to determine how they gct

foedback about their actions, qualitative data was colloacd by personal intcrvicwing

of manufacturing Icadcrs from the selected sample on the basis of Podsak-offs ct al

(1990) questionnaire completed by their respective followcrs. From the sample of 50

leaders of phasc-I from five manufacturing organisations in Pakistan, 23 lCadcrs; (10

leaders of highest score on transformational leadcrship characteristics and 13 leaders

on normal score on transformational leadership charactcristics) wcrc selected for

personal intcrviewing, to find how they get fcodback about their actions and the

progress; of the job done in their sections. Anothcr 10 leaders were selected on the

basis of lowest score on transformational leadership characteristics. Leaders responses

wcrc noted on contact summary shocts with the details of leader, organisational

details, date, time and place of intcrvicw. Those contact summary shocts were

analysed using interview analysis procedure described by Fink (2003).

From the data analysis it was noted that, leaders with a high score on the

trans formational leadership characteristics, prefer to directly discuss with followers

about the progress of the job done or had close contact with their followers by having

daily short review meetings with them as shown in table No. 6.22. As described by

these leaders, this feedback enabled them to build good working relationships with followers and provide opportunity for followers to discuss day-to-day problems

concerned with their jobs, as well as it enables leaders to rcvic%v their actions if there

is any problem in the process or in performing the job. The argument involving the

systematic aspects of feedback concerns the cultural manifestations of consistent

patterns of fcedbacL These patterns create feedback cnvironmcnts %vhcrc cultural

norms and values emerge around the sources of feedback and the types of information

conveyed. Cusclia (1987) argued that when the study of feedback is conccptualiscd in

terms of feedback loops and fccdback cnviro=cn4 the internal psychological (individual) and external communicative (system) arc jointly operative. I Ic noted "a

communication perspective to fccdback processes, while representing a clear

251

Behavioural Aspccts of Trans forrmtion3tlcadershipin-Minufactudng CýC nissfioDS

separation from cognitive models of fccdback is, nacrtlicless, intcrdcpcndcnt with

them" (Cusclia, 1987). The psychological views of sending and receiving feedback

include sources of fccdback, its credibility. goal-sctting and sclr. rcgulatory

mechanisms. Rescarch on sources of fccdback by Ilanscr & Muchinsky, (1978),

11crold & Grcllcr, (1977) established differences in the perceived inrormativeness of

rive sources of performance fccdback, in rank order dicy arc, i. e., 1) oneself, 2) the

task, 3) supervisors, 4) co-workcrs, 5) the organisation. 11crold, Liden, and

Lcathcr%vood (1987) presented confirmatory results to this rank order. However, this

order has been disputed (Bcckcr & Klimoski, 1989), and there is some controversy

over whether the scif and task arc distinct sources of feedback.

It is to be noted that some jobs require more feedback than others. For example

whenever, there arc quality problems in production, leaders generally require timely

fccdback to take immediate action to correct the problem, and this fccdback may be

directly obtained from followers as well as from the task itself. 71crcforc in general,

leaders require or seek feedback about the progress of the jobs done in their

departments, in some form or the other. It was noted that feedback seeking by leaders

does not depend upon the type of leadership style, whether trans ron-national or not. As

this study was focussed on the bchaviours of transformational leaders in

manufacturing organisations, and how transformational leaders behaviour is distinct

from non-transformational leaders. The data collected from the leaders of the five

manufacturing organisations indicate that leaders with high transformational

leadership characteristics have more direct contact with their followers than leaders

with low transformational leadership characteristics in the form of receiving feedback

rom their followers. Studies show that good leaders communicate fcclings and ideas. f

actively solicit new ideas from others, and cffcctivcly articulate argurncnts, and

persuade others (Bcnnis & Nauus, 1985. Kanter, 1983, Parks, 1985). Effective

communications skills arc important because they provide leaders and followers with

Srieater access to information relevant to important organisational decisions (Ficchtncr

& Kraycr, 1986). However only 2 out of 10 leaders with a high score on the

transformational leadership scale prefer to get feedback through management reports

concerning productivity, quality, e. g., daily production rcports, reviewing of

production targets or through indirect sources.

252

From the sample of 10 leaders, 6 leaders who had a low score on the transrormational

leadership scale prefer to get fccdback through daily production reports instead or direct face to face contact with followers as shown in table 6.23.11iis shows that non-

transformational leaders instead of getting information from their followers prefer to

get fccdback from indirect sources, e. g., production reports, quality control reports ctc.

Ilowcvc; for leaders with normal score on trans formational leadership scale, it was

found that 4 out of 10 leaders get fccdback directly from followers, and asked

followers about the progress of the job done. Five out of ten leaders with a normal

score on the transformational leadership scale had daily review mcctings with

followers, and 3 out of 10 leaders with a normal score on the transformational

leadership scale prefer to get fccdback through production reports as sho%vn in table

6.24. Therefore it can be stated that leaders with high or normal transformational

leadership characteristics try to build working relationship with their followers, and

prefer to get feedback directly from the followers. The assumption in defining the

fccdback mechanism whilst exploring transformational leaders behaviour is that

transformational leadership is concerned with follower's skills dcvclopmcn4 e. g.,

individualized consideration or leadership while developing people. 71ýs indicates the

level of care that the leader shows towards their followers about both their

professional development and about them as individuals. The leader is alcrt to the

followers' needs, provides challenges and le=ing opportunities and delegates tasks

to raise their skills and confidence. Such intellectual stimulation by the leader

cncourages followers to use their imagination and to challenge the accepted ways of

doing things, and presents an idealized influence in which the leader shows great

persistence and dctcmiination in pursuing objectives for followers. 11creforc, to see

whether transformational leader bchaviours arc actually consistent with their

characteristics, and whether these characteristics can actually be observed in their

behaviour in a manufacturing cnvironmcnL Do they in reality prefer to have close

contact with their followers since when Icadcr-followcrs communication is high, their

working relationship is believed to be high creating a climate that ultimately raises the

morale and confidcnce of their followers. Some of the views of the leaders showing

these cornments about feedback arc:

253

'I usually havc casual mcclings ivithfollourrs to build a closc contact ivith thcm,

and encouragc thefollowers by apprcciating any goodjob donc by thern and

motivate thcm to pcrform a good standardjob. " (Lcadcr No. 12, leader with high

score on transfonnational leadership scale)

askfrom myfollou-crs about the progress of thcjob done, and whether there Is

any problem occurring in the performance of the job. Nomially I have short

meetings ivith followers in the morning to discuss any problcm and Insinict thcm for any urgently nccdcdjob, if any. "' (Leader No. 14, leader with high score on

tmnsforTnational leadership scale)

-]got feedback from daily production rcports, i. e. the targets achicned. and

targets to be required to be achics-ed. If the targets achiard are behind the

sclicdule, I inquire into the causes ofpoor production. and take appropriate action

to meet the targets or iviienever. there is an), quality problems occurring, or

quality reports indicate poor quality of thejob donA then I ask m jollon-crs about y

the causes, and take action as required " (I=dcr No. 30, L=dcr %%ifli low Scorc

on tr=forinational Icadership charactcristics)

To verify the statements by the leaders about feedback-, followers were asked to

describe their leader's behaviour about them. Sixty five percent of the followers of

transformational leaders told the researcher, that their leader used to visit them during

the performance of the jobs, and their leader checked the progms of the job done and discussed with them any problem in the performance of the job or any requirements

needed for the completion of the job. However, 5019 of the followers of non.

transformational leaders informed the researcher, that they see their leader sometimes

and the leader gets feedback through production reports, but whenever there arc

problems in meeting the targets or quality problems, their leader calls for an

explanation from them to know the cause of the problem and action they arc taking.

To establish credibility of the follower's responses, the follower's responses were

noted on the contact summary sheet against their respective leaders. One of the

interpretations of feedback seeking by transformational leaders from followers seems

an atternPt to establish a close contact with followers, and to build a good working

254

13chavioural Aspscts of-Trans formational leaderft- in ManufacturingOrganisationj

relationship. Since one of transfonnational leadership characteristics is 'individually

considerate' as dcrincd by Bass (1985) that indicates transformational leaders pay

individual attention to followers. While seeking feedback fmm followers,

trans fonnational. leaders, on one side arc aware of the progress of the job done and on

the other side they get information about followers problems concerning the execution

of thcirjobs.

The findings from the result as show in category I and 2 of table No. 6.25 show that

transformational leaders maintain a close contact with their followers and regularly

, seek feedback from them. By having regular contact with followers or having short

review meetings with followers, transformational leaders actually try to maintain a

good working relationship, and seek to minimise the communication gap. It was also

found by Scarborough (2001) that transformational leaders openly talk to their

followers about their beliefs, what is right, wrong, and ethical in both company

contexts and outside the company contexts whenever possible. As defined by llicbcrt

& Klatt (2001) feedback is generally acknowledged as an essential ingredient for

cffcctive leadership. It is a fundamental part of the process leading people towards

behaviour and performance that is appropriate to any given situation. Leaders and

followers can enhance the clarity of their communications in several ways; the leader

may present a new organisational policy to followers, and they may come up with

different interpretations of this policy based on different values and expectations. By

being sensitive to followers' frames of reference and modifying messages accordingly,

leaden can minimize communication breakdowns. According to Fairhurst (2001)

cognitive models of leadership suggested that leadcr-followcr rclationsWip is a context

for communication. Drecksel (1991) observed, "I=dcrship is located, observed and

interpreted as a communicative process comprising cxtcrnalised and directly

observable behaviour. Other leadership communication researchers focus on

conversational practices and naturally occurring talk. Scholars argue that research

practices should include the study of actual communication because that which is

relational is social and between people. Montgomery (1992) noted that O'social

phenomena arc defined by the relations among their charactcristics-be the people,

places, goals, or bchaviours-not by the characteristics themselves"; hcncc tile

instantiation of relationships in communication. As Bateson, (1972) observed,

255

communication is the relationship. Bums' (1978) dcrines transfomiing leadership as,

when one or more persons engage with others in such a way that leaders and

followers raise one another to higher levels of motivation and morality ... power bases

are linked not as countcnt-cights but as mutual supportfor [a common puqWel. ... Transforming leadership ultimately moral in that it raises the level of human conduct

and ethical aspiration of both leader and led, and thus it has a transforming effca on

both ... the leader makes the initiative in making the leadcr-Icd connection, - it is the

leader who creates the links that allow communication and exchange to take

place ... Leaders. ... will have the major role in ultimately carr)*tg out the combined

purpose of leaders andfollon-crs ... and address themselivs tofolloswrt wants, needs,

and other motivation, as ivell as to their own, and thus thcy scn-c as an indcpcndcnI

force in changing the makeup of the followers motive base through gratif)ing their

moijivs. (p. 20)

From the findings of data analysis as sho, %m in table No. 6.25 and above discussion

about feedback and transformational leadership, the third hypothesis can be stated

about feedback and transformational leadership. It was also stated by Atwater ct al

(199.5), that perhaps one day, upward feedback (feedback receiving from followers) in

organisations would be as common as downward feedback (fccdback giving to

followers) and perhaps morc effective for improving pcrformancm According to

Piclstick (1998) the transformational leaders listen to fully understand the pcrccptions

of followers, their needs, and their concerns. 'Mis requires asking probing questions

and feedback as well as thinking reflectively to enhance understanding. Such leaders

display a willingness to be influenced and to use their understanding to further shape

the vision, cvcr increasing the shared nature and support for the vision. 'I'licrcrorc a

third hypothesis is formulated as:

113: Transformational leaders seek more feedback from followers In

manufacturing organisations than non-transformational leaders.

This hypothesis may be used as a guiding behaviour for the leaders in a manufacturing

Organisation to build in them transformational leadership characteristics. It can also be

256

Behavioural Asrscts of Transfonmtional Leadcnhipjn Manufacturing Ofganisations

used as a part of an assessment tool for the evaluation of transformational Icadcrship

characteristics for the up-and coming Icadcrs of manufacturing organisations, as wcll

as also being used in training programmes for the dcvclopmcnt of manufacturing leadcrs.

7.5 Transformational leadership and Organisaflonal Cul(urc

The interaction between leadership and organisational culture has been rccogniscd by

Bass who stated, "Organisational culture affccts leadership as much as lcadcrship

affccts organisational culture, Bass (1998). The importance of leadership in relation to

organisational culture is par=ounL as leaders can become sources of values within an

organisational culture and thus have an impact on followers, Bennis & Nanus (1985).

Several studies suggested that leadership is the driving force in organisational culture,

Avolio & Bass (1998); Badaracco & Ellsworth (1989); Bass & Avolio (1993,1994);

Burm (1978); Dcn Hartog, Van Muijcn & Koopman (1996); Fairliolm, (1991);

Kuczmarski & Kuczmarski (1995); Schein (1985).

According to Schein (2004) when we examine culture and leadership closely, we scc

that they are two sides of the same coin; neither can be understood by itself. On the

one hand, culture norms define how a given nation or organisation will dcrinc

leadcrship-who will get promoted, who will get the attention of followers. On the

other hand, it can be argued that the only thing of real importance that leaders do is to

create and manage culture; that the unique talent of leaders is their ability to

understand and work- with culture and therefore the ultimate act of leadership is to

destroy culture when it is viewed as dysfunctional.

According to Bass, transactional leaders work within thcir organisational cultures

following existing rules, procedures and norms; transformational leaders changc thcir

culture by first understanding it and then realigning the organisation's culture with a

new vision and a revision of its sharcd assumptions, values and norms, Bass (1985).

Ijus, there is constant interplay between culture and leadership, as leaders can be

both transactional and transformational in organisations.

257

To study organisational culture and trans formational leadership, we used the

organisational Cultural Assessment Instrument (OCAI) developed by Camcron &

Quinn (1999), to measure the organisational cultural cffects for trans formational

leadership in the fivc manufacturing organisations of the sample. Ilic Organisational

Cultural Assessment Instrument developed by Camcron and Quinn (1999) is bascd on

the Competing Values Framework (Quinn & Rohrbaugh 1981,1983, I'hompson,

McGrath & Whorton 1981). It was designed to narrow and focus the search for key

cultural dimensions helpful in organising and intcrprcting organisational phenomena.

Camcron and Quinn acknowledge that "organisational culture is extremely broad and

inclusive in its scope", a reason why there are so many dimensions or pcrspcctives.

DiPadova and Facrman (1993) found "the Competing Values Framework to be a

useful tool for helping organisational members better understand the similarities and differences of managerial leadership roles at various levels of hierarchy. Managcrs

were able to use the framework as a basis for organisation and management development with surprising disregard for privileges of rank. " This framework was

chosen for this study because it was experimentally dcrivcd and found to have a high

degree of face and empirical validity. Additionally, the organisational Cultural

Assessment instrument was idenfified as having a high level of reliability matching or

exceeding that of other instruments commonly used in the social and organisational

sciences (Cameron and Ettington, 1988; Cameron and Quinn, 1999; Bcrrio, 2003).

All the leaders from the five manufacturing organisations of the sample were asked to

complete the OCAl toolkit by indicating their perception of the culture that they

thought was appropriate for their organisation to be highly successful. 11c majority of

the transformational leaders perceived their organisation to have a clan culture, and few perceived the culture to be adhocratic or hierarchical. Clan culture as dcrined by

Cameron and Quinn (1999), as a friendly place to work whcrc people share a lot

themselves- it is more like an extended family than economic entities. Sonic basic

assumptions of clan culture arc that the environment can be best managed through

team work and employee development, customers arc best thought of as partners, the

organisation is in the business of developing a liumanc work- environment, and the

major task of management is to empower employees and facilitate their participation,

258

Ochavioural Asrscts of Transfonmtional teadcrshininM a nu facturinDmanisa lions

commitmcnt, and loyalty. Lcadcrs arc thought of as mcntors, and pcrhaps cvcn as a

parcrit figurc. I'lic organisation is licid togctlicr by loyalty and tradition and

commitmcnt is high. The organisation cmphasises the long-tcrm bcncrit of individual

development with high cohesion and morale being important. Success is dcrincd in

terms of internal climate and conccm for people. 17he organisation places a premium

on tcarnwork, participation, and conscnsus.

it was observed from the results that transformational leaders rated clan type

organisational culture more than adhocracy, market, or hierarchy culturcs. Ilowcvcr

pockets of these cultures arc also resident in the organisation as sho%%m in figurc No.

6.6, figure No. 6.8 and figure No, 6.14. From the results of the data analysis of the

organisation cultural assessment instrument, it was also noted that in the organisations

used in this study, the leaders that created weak- situational strength for their followcrs

also perceived the organisational culture to be more associated with clan and

adhocratic cultures. Studying the definitions of Clan and Adhocratic culture, it is

cvident that both of these culture types are associated to some extent with ambiguity

and individuals having discretion and power to decide their course of actions.

As derined by Hooijberg (1996), there is strong support for the quadrant structure of

the Competing Values Framework for distinguishing leadership roles. The framework

identifies eight leadership roles along the two dimensions of intcmaVcxtcmal focus

and flexibility/prcdictability resulting in two leadership roles in each quadrant. Each

role is juxtaposed with roles on the opposite side of the modcl.

Ibc upper left quadrant (clan) focuses on the people issues of the organisation and is

charactcrised by a flexible orientation and a focus on the internal functioning of the

unit. The two leadership roles in this quadrant are the facilitator and mcntor roles. The

facilitator encourages the expression of ideas, seeks consensus, and negotiates

compromise. As a facilitator, the leader fosters collective cffort, builds cohesion and

teamwork, and manages interpersonal conflict. 711c: leader's aim is to encourage group

mcmbers to see their involvement in the team as having meaning and value that is

more important than their own self-interest. I'lic, leader is rcsponsibic for

implementing lessons from the past and for creating a climatc that supports initiativcs;

259

Behayioural AsMcts of Trans forrmlionaLLcadcrshi2inli anu factudng Organisationi

and undcrwrites honest mistakes. A "zcro-dcfccts" atmosphere stifles learning and

reduces performance proficicncy to a level that only maintains the status quo.

flooijbcrg, (1996) furthcr described that, the upper right quadrant (Adhocracy) focuses

on organisational adaptation and is charactcrised by a flexible orientation and a focus

on the cnvironmcnt external to the unit, and cmphasises developing innovations and

obtaining resources for the unit. Two leadership roles arc dcrincd for this quadrant,

namely the innovator and broker leadership roics. I'lic innovator is creative, and

cncourages and facilitates change. The broker is politically astutc, acquires resources,

and maintains the unit's external legitimacy through the dcvc1opnicnt, scanning, and

maintenance of a nctwork of cxtcmal contacts. Consequently, the leader exerts

upward influence on decisions made at higher levels in the organisation.

Quinn (1996) also suggested that the upper quadrants (clan & adhocracy) of the

Competing Values Framework describe transformational leadership roles as %vhcre the

leader is portrayed as a motivator, attending to commitmcnL cmphasising company

values, and challenging people with ne%v goals. In addition, the leader is a vision

sctter, focusing on the purpose and direction and communicating a sense of where the

Organisation will be over the long term.

The right lower quadrant (market) focuses on determining and accomplishing the

organisatiorfs tasks and is charactcrised by a control orientation and a focus on the

environment external to the unit. The two leadership roles in this quadrant arc the

producer and director roles. The producer is task oriented and work focused and has

high levels of intcrest, motivation, energy, and personal drive. Leaders in the role of

producers drive themselves and their tcarns unrelentingly to%vard a stated objective to

achieve the completion of the unit's task 71c director cmphasiscs setting and

clarifying goals by defining problems, selecting aitcmativcs, dcrining roles and tasks,

generating rules and policies, and giving instructions. People who excel at the director

role are often highly competitive, decisive, and make their expectations clear.

The left lower quadrant (hicrarchy) focuses on maintaining flic stability of the

organisation and is ch=ctcrised by a control oricntation and a focus on the intcmal

functioning of the unit. In other words, the leader brings a scnsc of ordcr into the unit.

260

The two leadership rolcs in this quadrant arc the co-ordinator and the monitor. The

coordinator maintains structure, does the scheduling, co-ordinating. and problem

solving. and sees that rules and standards arc met. People who excel in this role arc dependable and reliable. I'lic monitor collects and distributes information, checks on

performance, and provides a sense of continuity and stability. I'lic monitor role

requires the leader to pay attention to dctail, to maintain control, and undcrtake

analysis.

Quinn (1996) suggested that the lower quadrants (hierarchy & market) of the frwnc%vork describe transactional leadership roles where the leader is portrayed as a

taskmaster attending to pcrfonnancc and focusing on results, and as an analyscr

concentrating on the efficiency of operations. The Competing Values Framework

recogniscs that leaders oflcn face paradoxical rcquircmcnts in meeting the competing dcrnands of stakeholders. The eight roles highlight actual ways in which leaders can deal with these competing requirements. A study of bchavioural complexity

conducted by Denison ct al. (1995) of 176 executives concluded that less cffective leaders (as assessed by superior ratings) exhibited one central cluster of three poorly differentiated roles: Co-ordinating, producing, and dirccting. Research indicates that

highly cffcctivc leaders as rated by superiors, peers, and subordinates have developed

capabilities and skills that allow them to succeed in cach of the four quadrants (Denison et al, 1995).

Findings from this study arc inconsistent with the litcraturc about leadership and

organisational culture. In this research the trans formational leaders rated their choice

1nore towards the upper quadrants of the Competing Values framework more than the lower quadrants as shown in figure No. 6.6, figure No. 6.8. and figure No. 6.14, i. e.,

rating of transformational leaders in the upper quadrants of OCAI, i. e., more towards

clan and adhocracy cultures than hierarchy and market cultures. I'lic clan and

adhocracy cultures as derined by Cameron and Quinn (1999) are concerned %%ifll

cmployccs empowerment and flexibility in the performance of task. Transformational

leaders give discretion to their followers in decision making and created a weak-

situation for their followers to make the job more flexible as found in the analysis of

research question No. I of tmnsfonnational leadership and situational strength.

261

Figure 7.1 presents a framework that represents organisational culture, Icadcrship

style, and situational strength in a cohesive structure. It comprises of 4- quadrant grid

organiscd around two factors: Icadcrship stylc and organisational culturc.

Quadrant I- Transformational lcadcrship and Adhocracy/Clan culture Quadrant 11 - Non- transformational leadership and Adhocracy/Clan culture Quadrant III- Transformational Icadership and Ilicrarchy/ Markct culturc Quadrant IV- Non- transformational leadership and Hicrarchy/ Nlarkct culture

The framework suggests that a combination of Transformational Icadcrship with Adhocracy/ Clan culture (Quadrant 1) would generate a weak situational strcngth in

the organisation providing more discretion and capability to the followers to manage

their tasks. The combination of Non-Transformational and Hierarchy/ Marka

(Quadrant IV) would generate a strong situational strength in the organisation

providing strict guidelines and structure to the followers for completing their tasks.

Wesk

Situational sorngth

stmimg

Situational strmgfh

IV

Transformational Li2denhip NOR- Transformational

Adhocraq / clan

0

-I

llkrarchyl Alarid

Figure No. 7.1: Framework depicting die cffect, of situational strcngtli on Trans forniational Leadership and Organisational culture.

262

From this model it can be hypothesiscd that:

1. Transformational Icadcrs prcfcr to work in Adhocratic or Clan typc culturc. 2. Non-trans formational Icadcrs prcfcr to work in Hicrarchy/ hlarkct typc

culturcs. 3. Transformational Icadcrs prcfcr to crcatc working cnviro=cnts with a wcak

situational strcngth for thcir followcrs. 4. Non-transformational leadcrs prcfcr to crcatc working cnvironmcnts with a

strong situational strcngth for tlicir followcrs.

I'lic framework depicts the organisational perspective in regards to die Icadcrship

style, culture, and the situational strength. It can be argued that thcrc may be a ccrtain

organisational culture but different departments in the organisation may have their

respective cultures. In addition, each individual dcpartmcnt may be headed by a leader

who may influence the culture and situational strength of the dcpartmcnt. This is

shown in figure 7.2, which depicts the internal leadership and cultural systems in

organisations.

,Z c3 0 ew ci V)

g3 E ei 6,

Weak

sawgimd

St-ol &awioftd

IV

roon*-a-d .... 0 Alý

.. I

Indhidual department2i systems

Figurc No. 7.2: Leadcrship and cultuml S)'Stcms widiin orsanisations

263

AfIcr analysing the questionnaires, the data was inserted into the rcscarch model (figure 7.3). The variables used in the questionnaire were primarily trans formati onal

variables; hence even a low score meant that the leader had some qualities of a

transformational leader. But in the context of dcvclopmcnt of organisational culture

and situational strength model it was decidcd to focus on high transrormational

behaviour, all leaders having a score of ; -*4.0 (mean- 4.0) wcrc considered as

trans rormational leaders and the rest of the sample %vas considcrcd to be non-

transformational. Thus out of the sample of 76 leaders, 37 leaders were considered to

be transformational as shown in appcndix-D. The leaders who had a score bctwccn 3.0

and 4.0 could be considered to be transformational based on certain critcria, but for

developing organisational culture and a situational strength model it was decided to

consider only those leaders as transformational who had a score over 4.0.

The 76 leaders were then asked to complete two questionnaires. One dealt with the

issues of situational strength, focussing on the aspccU of discrction that lcadcrs

provided to their followers, whereas the other was the "Organisational Culture

Assessment Indicatoe, (oCAI) questionnaire developed by Camcron and Quinn. The

OCAI questionnaire was used for getting an insight into the organisational culture

based on the OCAI typology viz. Adhocracy, Clan, Ilicrarchical, and hlarkcL I'lic

respondents were asked to complete the OCAI questionnaire to depict thcir pcrccption

of the culture in their organisations. The questionnaire measuring situation strcngdi

comprised of six questions, which looked at the level of discretion provided by the

leaders to their followers to take decisions, monitoring of followers, having a clear

standard of praise and punishment, setting of clear goals, and lcvcI of discipline in the

working environment. A 5-point scale ranging from I-docsn't emphasise to

5=strongly cmphasise was used. Leaders having a score of )18.0 (mean score 18.0)

were termed to perceive the situations that they work in as having a strong situational

strength. Leaders having a score of (18.0 were termed to perceive the situations that

they work in as having a weak- situational strength. For leaders with scores of 18 and

19, the score for the question on discrction rules %vlicthcr they were in the strong or

weak category. Where the question on discrction generated a high score on

cmphasising discretion given to followers, the situation was tcrmed as weak- and

where there was no discretion given to followers, the situation was tcrmed as strong.

264

13chayiouraLAspccts of TmnsformationaLLcadushin inlignufacturing Organisatiord

It can be clearly seen that the preference of trans fonnational leaders is to create a working cnviroruncnt with a weak situational strength for their followers. It can also be infcrrcd that Non-transformational leaders would generally prefer to create working

environments with a strong situational strength for their followers. It can also be sccn that the results did not provide a complete correlation between type of Icadcrship and

situational strength. 65% of the transformational leaders showed a preference for a

weak situational strength, whereas 35% showed a prcfcrcncc for strong situational

strength. Studying each variable affecting the situational strength and the leaders

preference could rectify the discrepancy in these results. Similarly, 74% of the non- transformational leaders showed a preference for a strong situational strength, whereas 26% showed a preference for a weak- situational strength, details as shown in

appcndix-N.

The results from the OCAI questionnaire showed some discrepancy bctwccn the

hypothesised research model and the actual data. The hypothesis that trunsformational

leaders prefer to work in Adhocratic or Clan type culture has been supported by the

data. 94.5% of the transformational leaders showed preference for a Clan culture,

whereas only 5.5% have shown preference for a Hierarchy / Market culture. The

discrepancy arises in the preference of non-tram formational leaders. Ibc hypothesis

that non-transformational leaders prefer to work in Hierarchy/ Mark-ct type cultures is

not supported. A detailed analysis regarding the cultural preference of non-

transformational leaders is required to ascertain whether the leaders in this sample have not been able to draiv out the differences between clan and hierarchy as die

hierarchy culture is next after clan in the evolution of organisational culture. This

hypothesis could be supported if based on the previous hypothesis rcgardinf;

situational strength. Since non-transformational leaders showed a preference for

strong situational strength and since the Hierarchy/ market cultures arc associated with

strong situational strength, it can be inferred that non-transformational leaders woulld

show a preference for working in Hicrarchy/ Markct type cultures.

265

35 34 23 Weak, 26 Strong. 12 Strong 8 Weak

2 5

1 Strong, I Weak 3 Strong, 2 Weak

III IV

rma4Gnudmal L*adenhlp Kow- rma4trmabmal

Figure 7-3: The research model incorpomfing the results

Ad40m47 IM4

0

I.

I

thwar[A)IF UapAd

In the context of this research, the systems model of Icadcrship and culture proposed

in figure 7.2, is also important as the respondents who were tcrmed as lcadcrs wcrc

not only the top management but also were Project Directors, Gcncral Managcrs,

Deputy General Managers, and Officer in-chargc of manufacturing units, hianagcrs,

and Foremen. The respondents wcrc tcrmed as leaders in the context of this research

by virtue of being in charge of a working group and had people reporting to them.

Hence, the systems model is important as it dcpicts that even though a leadcr (top

management) has a certain preference for organisational culture and situational

strength, a leader (as defined in the context of this research) of a section in the

organisation may have his/ her own preference for culture and situational strcngth.

Ibis may lead to either the leader in the section changing his preference in order to

align with the organisational preference (top management) or will maintain the

difference but will flind away to align with the organisational goals. Top management

however, if not satisfied with the difference in the prcf=nces bctwccn the section and

the organisation, may either replace the leader with one who maintains their

preference or who would initiate to transform. the leadership style of the section

leader.

The research model is particularly useful for deciding whcthcr it would be possible to

transform leadership style without changing cultural and situational strcngth

prcfcrcnccs. As shown in figure 7.4, we can h)pothcsisc that if the lcadcr is in

quadrant III and would like to maintain his/licr trans fonnational style of lcadcrship,

hc/she should change the prcfcrcncc for culture to Adhocracyl Clan. If the leader is in

266

llcha% ioural AsS? ccts of Transformatimal Lcaduft-aMagg . lionj

quadrant 11, and would like to maintain his/her non- transformational leadership style. he/she should change the preference for culturc to II lerarchy/ Markct.

Weak

Situational clan

Situational sf"ngth

IV

Tmnsformational 1-tedembip NOR- Trajv*'brý"al

Figure 7.4: The Alignment model of Leadership

"crefore it seems that the appearance of transformational leaders in the upper

quadrants of the OCAI is a clear indication of their leadership style i. e.,

transformational leadership style. Those transformational leaders see their

organisational culture more in terms of clan and adhocracy environment. However,

the results show that there exist distinct hierarchy and market cultures -although to a

less, er extent- rated by transformational leaders but in minor forms as shown in figures

No. 6.6,6.8,6.10, and 6.14. This may be because the OCAl asks the leaders to rate

their choice of culture more towards the culture that is most similar to their

Organisation and does not ask to ignore other forms of culture. However, in the

organisational profile for leaders with transformational leadership characteristics for

Organisation No. 1, No. 2 and No. 5, trans formational leaders rated the upper

quadrants more than lower quadrant. In the organisational profiles for organisation

No. 3 and No. 4, transformational leaders rated lower quadrants too. The difference in

the profiles between organisation No. 1, No. 2, No. 5, and that of organisations No. 3

and No. 4 seems to relate to the ditTerences in the organisation ownership of the

companies. As organisation No. I to No. 3 were governnicrit owned and organisation

No. 4 and No. 5 were public and pfivate limited companies rcspccti%, cly, for which

267 lkk,

organisational, cultural difference may have occurred. It may also be noted that

government owned organisations had more hierarchy in terms of positions of leaders

than public and private limited organisations, as well as number of people cmploycd

in both type of organisations, which may affect organisational culture.

When looking at the organisational proriles for leaders with low transformational

leadership characteristics, market and hierarchy cultures (lower quadrants) sccrn more dominant for organisation No. 1, No. 2, No. 3, and No. 4, while for organisation No. 5

it is more towards adhocratic culture (upper right quadrant).

Rating by transformational leaders to clan culture on OCAI more in organisation No.

1,2, and 5 shows that transformational leaders were more focussed to clan type

culture, as the leader in a clan culture is considered to be mcntor and cvcn parcnt figures, which is also one of the transformational leaders charactcristics. A leader in

the adhocracy culture was considered as an innovator and risk taker. In a hierarchy

culture the leader was considered as a good organizcr, coordinator, and in a market

culture the leader was considered as hard driver, competitor and producer. Ilowcvcr,

rating by transformational leaders on OCAI in organisation No. 3 and organisation No. 4 to clan culture is not very high as compared to hierarchy. adhocracy or market

culture. This shows a cultural incongruence, and these cultures arc also rated by

transformational leaders but the dominant culture they prefer is clan t)Pc culture. It

was described by Camcron and Quinn, that in a congruent culture, the strategy leadership style, reward system, approach to managing employee and dominant

characteristics, all tend to emphasise the same set of cultural values, i. e., each of the

individual ratings would be same for all quadrants. However in an incongruent

culture, individuals would rate each quadrant differently. The presence of cultural

incongruence in any organisation would cmphasisc different culturc t)pcs and shoW

no particular pattern of similarity. Cultural incongruence often leads to differences in

perspective, differences in goals, and differences in strategies within the organisation. However, from the results of data analysis, it is evident that trans formational leadcr-S

rated more towards clan type culture in their organisation, and clan culture is the most

common culture rated by transformational leaders in manuracturing organisations. 71ir,

268

Behavioural Aspects of Trans fonrotion3l Leadershi2 in tianufacturing Organi ations

profilcs obtained of organisational cultures from data analysis as shown in chaptcr 6,

h)pothesis 4 can be stated as:

114: Clan culture Is the most common cultural environment created or existing In paralld with transformational leadership.

71c stated hypothesis can be a guiding direction for the researcher interested in the

research of organisational culture. This hypothesis can be used to change a culture for

trans fon-national leadership in manufacturing organisations. By creating a clan culture in manufacturing organisation, one can expect the presence of trans formational

leadership in manufacturing organisation.

7.6 Effectiveness of the analysis techniques:

in this study, a mixed methods technique was used. As pointed out by Tashakkori and Tcddlie (1998), mixed methods arc useful because they provide bcttcr opportunities for answering research questions. Mixed method designs incorporate techniques from

both qualitative and quantitative research traditions and combine them in unique ways to answer research questions that could not be answered in any othcr way. According

to Tashakkori and Taddlie (2003) mixed mcthcAs design %ill be the dominant

methodological tools in the social and bchavioural sciences during the 21" ccntury. The major strength of mixed methods designs is that they allow for rcscarch to develop as comprehensively and completely as possible. When compared with a

single method the domain or inquiry is less likely to be constrained by the method itself Because the supplementary data arc oftcn not completely saturated or as in-

depths as they would be if they were a study in their own right, certainty is attained by

verifying supplemental data with data strategies used within the core study.

In this study, qualitative data was analysed follo%%ing the steps of qualitative data

analysis of open-ended questions by Fink (2003). The use of computer software for

the analysis of interviews was not possible because transcript or audio tapes of the interviews were not recorded so as to keep the promise made by the researcher about

conridcntially and anonymousness to the rcspondcnts. Ille procedure described by

269

Fink (2003) was found appropriate and valid where respondents were reluctant to

allow recording of interviews, and arc willing to respond to tile questions without

recording to avoid any identification of personal or organisational dctails. 111c

responses were noted on contact summary shect with personal and organisational details coded in the form of numbers. Ilowcvcr, rcspondcnts read over the statements

noted on the contact summary sheet by tile researcher to confirm the responses or to

clear any ambiguity while noting the responses on the contact summary slicct. Data

was analysed in phasc-11 using quantitative data analysis techniques described by Fink

(2003). Leaders were asked to rate their choices on the questionnaire in which a Likert

scale of I to 5, was used, where "I" corresponds to leaders emphasising that choice at

all the time, and, and 'T' corresponds to leaders not cmphasising that choice at all,

and 'T' as the ncutral responses i. e., leaders emphasisc that choice some time. %Vllilc

compiling the results, the mean responses from all the leaders were calculated for each

type of leadcr (transformational and non-transformational) and then an overall mean

for all the five organisations used in the sample was calculated. llowcvcr, ror

organisational cultural profiles, data was analysed following the procedure of data

analysis of Organisational Culture Assessment Instrument (OCAI), as described by

Cameron & Quinn (1999). Responses from the leaders on the OCAI were r-atcgoriscd

on the basis of transformational IcadcrsWp characteristics as low. high or normal

transformational leaders, and the mean response was calculated for each category. The

means obtained wcrc plotted as per OCAT procedure to obtain organisation culture

profiles. This was done because individual responses if plotted, produce a multitude of

graphs and hencc it would be difficult to observe the overall difference. All the data

obtained was analysed using standard procedures of data analysis and hypotheses

wcrc stated as a result of findings from the data analysis.

7.7 Limitations of the Experiment

Results of this study are, of course, limited by sample size. Ilic data arc sclf-rcportcd

and subject to biases, and may not accurately describe the relationship, although as

pointed out by Spector and Brannick (1995) that scif-rcported data are not as limited

as commonly expected. This study was focussed only to study transformational

leadership in manufacturing organisations in Pakistan and to know about the

270

psychological substructure, the internal world of transformational leaders that "'makes

them better than non-transformational leaders. Ilic study was aimed at exploring

trans formational leaders behaviour in manufacturing organisations, and how they

developed this behaviour. Although all tile data obtained was limited to manufacturing

organisations in Pakistan, I believe the results am probably representative of othcr

counhics certainly those with similar cultures and it would need sonic form of cultural

assessment to extend the result to very different cultures. 71c Hypothesis stated needs

further testing, which is beyond the scope of this study, due to time and economic

constraints. The stated hypotheses needs to be tested by confirmatory factor analysis

-. vith comparatively larger sample size to assess the convergent and discriminant

validities of all the situational variables on trans formational leadership within this

study. Convergent validity is used to look at the differences in test scores between

groups of people who would be expected to score differently on the test. Discriminant

validity, in which the test scores arc unrelated to tests and bchaviours in different

domains, seems to be less often assessed than is convergent validity. However, the

question of discriminant validity is important when one is trying to distinguish one

theory from another. The subtitle of Daniel Golernans book Emotional Intelligence is

"%Vhy it can matter more than IQ. " His argument is that emotional IQ is different from

traditional IQ and so measures of emotional IQ should not correlate very highly with

measures of traditional IQ. This is a question of discriminant validity.

Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) seeks to determine if the number of factors and

the loadings of measured (indicator) variables on thcrn conform to what is cxpectcd on

the basis of prc-established theory. Indicator variables arc selected on the basis of

prior theory and factor analysis is used to see if they load as predicted on the expected

number of factors. The rcsearchcrs apriori assumption is that cacti factor (the number

and labels of which may be speciricd a prion) is associated with a speci red subset of

indicator variables. A minimum requircmcnt of confirmatory factor analysis is that

one hypothesize beforehand the number of factors in the modcl, but usually the

researcher %vill also posit expectations about which variables will load on which

factors (Kim and 1%fucllcr, 1978b). The researcher sccks to dcterminc, for instance, if

measures created to represent a Went variable rcally belong togcther.

271

Confirmatory factor analysis can mean the analysis of alternative measurement

(factor) models using a structural cquation-modclling package such as AMOS or

LISREL. While structural equation modelling is t)pically used to model causal

rclationships among latent variables (factors), it is equally possible to use structural

equation modelling to explore confirmatory factor analysis mcasurcmcnt models. nis

is done by removing from the model all straight arrows connecting latcnt variables,

adding curved arrows representing covariancc between every pair of latcnt variables,

and leaving in the straight arrows from each latcnt variable to its indicator variables as

well as leaving in the straight arrows from error and disturbance tcrms to their

respective variables. Such a mcasurcmcnt model is run like any oflicr model and is

evaluated like other models, using goodness of fit measures gcncmtcd by the

structural cquation-mod cl ling package.

7.8 Significance of the Results

7bc results of this study are important for several reasons. Firstly, undcrstanding the

relationship among situation strength, attribution, kedback and organisational culture

can help to reveal the psychological substructure, the intcrnal. world of

transformational leadcrs, namely what 'ýrnakccs them tick", and how thcy dcvclopcd

this way.

For example, if the situation strcngth in the organisation %%-as strong, cvcn then

transformational leaders still give discrction to their fallowcrs, to build conridcncc in

them and to do their jobs more cffectivcly. Sccondly, rcsults can help business

Inanagcrs or other pcrsonncl in leadership positions in manufacturing organisations,

like supervisors and others, a guidcline for building in thcrn transformational

Icadcrship characteristics, and how to have a good working rclationship with

followers, which is essential to achieve maximum output and organisational success.

As stated by Ashkanasy and Tse (2000) that Icadcr-mcmber rclationships can have a

profound impact on cmploycc motivation and work- cfrcctivcncss. Gcrstncr and Day

(1997) rcported that leadcr-member relationship quality is Mated to job pcrformancc,

satisfaction with supcrvision, overall satisfaction, commitmcnt, role conflict, role

clarity, member compctcncc, and t=ovcr intcntions. Rciclilicld (2001) notes

272

similarly that exemplary organisational leaders maintain high-quality relationships

with all stak-choldcrs, including employees.

Thirdly, it can also help business managcrstlcadcrs to create a culture, which is tile

key to organisational success. Last but not the least, the academician may bcncrit

through the findings of this study and discussing the findings of this study may

provide a concept of how to build good leadership characteristics and provide training

to increase transformational leadership characteristics among future lcadcrs in

manufacturing organisations. Academics can discuss with students about the outcome

of this research and propose how transformational leadership characteristics can be

developed as when they leave their educational institution to go into the industry, they

will expected to lead, understand how to lead, and possesses mcntal modcls of

successful leadership.

Hypotheses are expressed that would need further testing across a wide range of

manufacturing organisations and national cultures to be conclusively proved. As this

study was focussed on the research to find out the psychological substructure, the

internal world of transformational leaders, namcly what "makes thcm tick-,,. and how

they developed this way, an attempt was made in this respect.

The final purpose of this study was to cxplore the applicability of organisational

theories in Pakistan as mentioned in chapter I. Ile data obtaincd from five

manufacturing organisaflons in Pakistan using Podsak-off ct al (1990) trans formational

leadership inventory questionnaire for identification of transformational leaders. The

scale used to evaluate transformational leadership characteristics by PodsakofT ct al

was a 7-point scale ranging from I=strongly disagree to 7=strongly agree, with 4 as

the neutral poinL which show neither agreement nor disagreement of the response. An

average score of more than 4 was considered to be more on the trans formational side

and a score less than 3 was towards the less trans formational side.

It was obscrvcd that 37 out of a total of 76 leadcrs in fliesc rivc manufacturing

organisations possess transformational leadership charactcristics. I lowcvcr, very fcw

leaders possessed high transformational leadcrsllip charactcristiCs, i. e., only 6 Out of

273

Behavioural Asmcts of Trans formationalteadershin irLManufacturiaz Organisationi

76 leaders scorcd more than 5 out of 7 on the avcrage scorc, and 31 out or76 Icadcrs

scorcd more bctwccn 4 and 5 on the avcragc score of the trans rormational Icadcrship

scale as shown in appcndix-D. These results show that trans rorm A onal Icadcrship

docs exist in Pakistani manufacturing organisations, but thcrc is a clear nccd to furthcr

strengthen transformational Icadcrship charactcristics among Icadcrs. as well as to

train more leaders to develop transfortnational leadcrship charactcristics and to bcncrit

from the acquisition of modcrn Icadcrship techniqucs.

7.9 Summary

From the results of data collection, it was found that transformational leaders crCatc a

weak situation for their followers in manufacturing organisations. Trans formational

leaders favour giving discretion to their followers by setting less clear goals and

delegating decision making to followers to build conridcncc, which can help them to

facilitate their job performance without compromising the quality of the product.

However, they do not compromise on working discipline among followers.

Transformational leaders look at the end results and they arcn't constantly monitoring followers, instead they give freedom to followers to Unk how a job can be improved

or performed in a better way. The study showed that, transformational leaders create a

weak situation for their followers even if the organisational situational strength was

strong.

Transformational leaders elevate the desires of followers for achievement and scif-

dcvclopmcn4 while also promoting the development of groups and organisations.

instead of responding to the immediate self-interest of followers with either a carrot or

a stick, transformational leaders arouse in the individual a heightened awareness of

key issues, of the group and organisation, while increasing the confidcnce of

followers, and gradually moving them from concerns for existence to concerns for

achievement, growth and dcvclopmcnL By making external attribution for the cause

of poor performance, although sometimes it may be due to internal factors,

transformational leaders for the sake of increasing conridcncc and scIf-dcvclopment,

attribute causes of poor performance towards external factors. They arc leaders who

ignore follower's mistakes, and consider mistakes as a learning experience for

274

Behavioural Asrscts of Trans forrmtion3l LudcrshiI2 in Manufacturing Qicanisaliom

followcrs and make cxtcrnal attribution for the cause of poor pcrroniiancc in a

manufacturing organisation.

Trans fon-national leadcrs maintain a closc contact with tlicir followcrs and rcgularly

scck fccdback from thcm. By having rcgular contact with followcrs or having short

rcvic%v mcctings with followcrs, trans fon-national leadcrs actually try to maintain a

good working rclationship, and succccd in minimising the communication gap. Transformational Icadcrs scck morc fccdback from followcrs in manufacturing

organisations than non-transformational Icadcrs.

With respect to organisational culture, it can be stated that transformational leaders

rated more towards a clan type culture in their organisation, and clan culture is the

most favoured culture rated by trans formational leaders in manufacturing

organisations.

To conclude this chapter, results of the data analysis were discusscd. with rcfcrcncc to

research questions and literature review. I'lle cffcctivcness of the analysis techniques,

limitations of the study, and significance of the rcsults %ý-as also discusscd. Mic last

chapter is aimed at concluding this study and it will also suggest some guidelines for

future research work- and a model of transformational leadership as a rcsult of the out

come of this study.

275

Chapter 8 Conclusion and Implications

8.1 Conclusion

This study has tried to answer the research questions about trans formational leadership

that chapter 3 posed. Wherever possible, it has appealed to logical explanation and the

results of cxpcrimcntal findings to try to provide the answers. Clearly, much ground has

been covered but more needs to be done before we can fully understand and confidcritly

make use of the transformational leaders behaviour in manufacturing organisations.

Ibc main objective of this research was to study transformational Icadcrship in Pakistani

manufacturing organisations, and it was observed from data analysis that 52 out of a total

of 76 leaders from rive manufacturing organisations in Pakistani manufacturing

organisations possess transformational leadership characteristics. Ilowcvcr, few Icadcrs

possessed very high transformational leadership characteristics using the Podsakoff ct al (1990) tram formational leadership scale for the evaluations of transformational leadership characteristics. Irwas noted that only 6 out of 76 leaders scorcd more than 5

out of 7 on transformational leadership scale, 31 out of 76 leaders scored between 4 and 5

on transformational leadership scale, and 15 out of 76 leaders scored between 3 and 4 on

trans formational leadership scale as shown in appcndix-D. Ibcsc results show that transformational leadership does exist in Pakistani manufacturing

oTganisations, however there is a clear need to further strengthen transformational

leadership characteristics among leaders, as well as to train more leaders to develop

transformational leadership characteristics and modem leadership techniques.

The hypotheses developed as a result of outcome of this research can be helpful in

understanding the internal world of transformational leaders, that "makes them tick" and

transformational leaders bchaviours with their followers in a manufacturing environment. The aligrunent model developed as a result of data analysis is particularly useful for

deciding whether it would be possible to transforin leadership stylewithout changing the

organisational culture and situational strength preferences as shown in figure 7.4. For

exampic, if a leaderwould like to maintain his/her trans formational style of leadership,

helshe should change his/her preference for organisational culture to Adhocr-acy/ Clan

276

type. However, if the leader would like to maintain histlicr non- transrormational Icadcrship style, he/she should change the prcfcrcncc for organisational culture to Ificrarchy/ Markd type.

Tbc study has been an attempt at understanding the psychological substructure, the internal world of transformational leaders, namely what "makes them tick, " and how they developed this way (Popper & Maysclcss (2002). Kark & Shamir (2002) have also statcd, Grcscarch on trans formational leadership has not fully explored the qucstion of what arc the underlying processes and mechanisms by which trans formational leaders exert influence on followers and ultimately on performance. Judge and Bono (2000)

highlighted 'Even if one considers transformational leadership to be a bchavioural theory,

the origins of the bchaviours arc unclear. ' Transformational leaders bchaviours have been

explored in a manufacturing context with the concepts of situational strength, attribution

theory, feedback, and organisational culture in Pakistani manufacturing organisations. The importance of the study stems from the argument that transformational leaders

behaviour influences to a significant degree how follower's work arc given freedom to

work, in organisations. 71is is useful when human resource departments of

manufacturing organisations study issues of motivation, job satisfaction, employee

morale, and employee training. Knowing that the leadership is transformational can make it easier for change and innovation in organisations; as it is now known that

trans formational leaders will thus try to create a weak- situation where followers arc given discretion and freedom to take decisions in their work-, hence increasing follower's

morale, and confidence. In addition, in this research, it was noted that leaders who create

weak situafion for followers try to promote clan culture in their organisations. Ibc clan

culture is called a clan because of its similarity to a family-typc organisation. It was also

stated by Bass & Riggio (2006) that to facilitate growth of a transformational culture in

an organisaflon there should be a sense of purpose and a fccling of family. Ile basic

assumpfions in a clan culture arc that the environment can best be managed through

teamwork and follower dcvclopmcnL Ile clan culture of an organisation can have the

aim of developing a humane work environment, and a major task of leadership in a clan

culture is to empower followers and facilitate their participation, commitmcn% and

277

loyalty.

One of the major limitations when gcncmlising these rcsults is that all the companies

selected for the study were based in Pakistan with thrcc companics in public scctor and

two in the private sector, hence the cffcct of the national culture may be significant. Since

we do not have any other sample of organisations; for comparison. at this momcnt, the

researcher suggests that the results and discussion are valid for die scicctcd sample. Ilowcvcr with respect to the difference in the public, private, and Govcmmcnt

organisations, there seems to be no difference in the score of trans formati onal lcadcrS

from these organisations as shown in appcndix-D and appcndix-E. It has also bccn noted by Dumdum ct al (2002) that there is no significant diffcrcncc in the transformational

leadership score of leaders from public and private sector organisations.

The manufacturing leaders behaviour was evaluated with rcspect to attribution theory and fccdback received by leaders in Pakistani manufacturing organisations. It was found that

trans formational leaders generally made external attributions for the causes of poor

performance, and appreciated their followers as hard working and cfficicnt. Attribution

theory, which is used to explain how leaders judge people diffcrcntly, does depend upon

the way attributions are made about the causes of poor pcrformancc. Ilowcvcr, the

tendency is to underestimate the influence of external factors and ovcrcstimatc the

influence of internal factors (when making judgments about the causes of poor

performance). Moreover, it includes the tendency of individuals to attribute their own

successes to internal factors while putting the blame for failures on external factors.

Transformation, al leaders generally blame external factors for the causes of poor

performance, and so, they tend to improve the external cnviroruncnt to improve

performance, e. g., to make task structures flexible, expedite the availability of all rcquircd

material/ equipment, and minimise any possible cause of poor performance.

Another factor that was researched together with leadership style was the receiving of fccdback by Icadcrs in manufacturing orgailisations. According to Ilicbcrt & Klatt, (2001)

that feedback is generally acknowledged as an essential ingredient for cffcctivc

278

leadership. It is a fundamental part of the process or leading people towards the bchaviour

and performance appropriate to any given situation. Transformational Icadcrs generally

prefer to seek feedback directly from followers. 11cy build close contact with their followers by having casual meetings with followers, and discuss with them the progress

of day-to-day working. Transrormational leaders discuss problcms or difficulties with

their followers concerning their jobs and take appropriate action as required. Scarborough

(2001) stated that trans formational leaders talk openly to their followers about their bclicrs; what is right, wrong, and ethical whenever possible both within company context

and outside of the company context. As feedback strategies are pivotal to both involving

others and providing a sense of direction and achievement. Ixadcrs need to communicate in a variety of ways. For example, written communication, although extensive, often

cannot be accessed by followers due the difference in educational background or

problems in interpreting the written communication, which can also lead to developing

fcclings of followers of being excluded. However direct personal communication may

serve as a catalyst to followers, and cnablc inclusivity. By welcoming fccdback from

followers this helps leaders to cultivate a more authentic and powerful leadership

presence; enabling them to rcccivc new ideas, practices and relational support that they

can use to transform their experience of leading. Transformational leaders do not pinpoint

Tnistak-cs but transform the mistakes of followers into opportunities to learn.

8.2 Implications

Most of the cfforts in leadership research have focussed on examining relations between

leaders' behaviour (i. e., leadership style) and outcome Variables such as performance and

satisfaction (Bass, 1990). However, there has been less systematic and empirical work

conducted in so far as the understanding of the internal world and the development of leaders is concerned, particularly with regard to those leaders who arc not historical

leaders, but leaders at different levels of the hierarchy in organisations; individuals who

might be labelled "leaders in everyday lifc", Popper & Mayscless (2002).

The focus of this rcsearch was on transformational leadership in Pakistani manufacturing

279

organisations. For this, the researcher believes that thcrc is grcat, ), ct untapped transformational leadership potential in Pakistani manufacturing organisations. I lowcvcr.

thcrc is a need to train more manufacturing leaders in trans formational Icadcrship styles,

as transformational leadership is associated with high lcvcl or individual and

organisational performance, Barling, Weber & Kclloway (1996). One must ensure that

the Pakistani manufacturing sector benefits from transformational leadership and builds

cffectivc leader-followcr relations and confidence in its followcrs to ultim: Itcly improve

the performance and innovative capability of the manufacturing organisations. As

Andersen (1999) mentioned, the old attitude that leaders arc born, not made, is rcvcrsing,

and instead today's philosophy is to develop Icadcrs. Because leaders dcvclop and learn

through real leadership cxpcricnccs, it is very important to train Icadcrs at all levels,

including supervisors and persons at all Icadcrship levels in manufacturing organisations. Extensive transformational leadership training programs are available worldwide and can be undertaken by senior leaders of manufacturing organisations who can ultimatcly train

middle and lowcr hierarchy leaders in their organisations. Some useful wcbsitcs for

gaining access to training in transformational leadership are givcn below as a guideline:

http: //www. mindgardcn. com

www. marshallgoldsmith. com

http: //ww%v. legacee. com

www. johnbaidoni. com

ww,. v. briantracy. com

w%vw. icadershipchallcnge. com

11owcYcr, business schoolstmanagcmcnt institutions arc also offering executive cducation

programs that can develop leadership skills in general, and transformational leadership, in

particular.

In addition, when developing a theoretical understanding, the hypotheses (if they can

continue to be supported) have important practical implications towards developing

transformational leadership characteristics among manufacturing leadcrs, especially in

280

Pakistani manufacturing organisations. By adopting the statcd hypothcscs; manuracturing leaders can strengthen their trans formational Icadership charactcristics. Findings from the data analysis are important for both acadcmicians and industrial traincrs. Results of the data analysis can be discussed with students of manufacturing cnginccring and can give

them the conccpt of how to build a transformational leadcrship style within thcmsclvcs,

so when they go into industries, they understand how to lead and possess firmly

cmbcddcd mcntal models of succcssful leadcrship.

8.3 Contribution to Knowledge

*rbc work and experiments described in this thesis contribute substantially to the main

aim and objcctivcs of this research which wcrc to study transformational leadership in

pakistani manufacturing organisations and to know about the psychological substructure,

the internal world of transformational leaders, namely what "makes thcm tick. " and how

they developed this way (Bass and Avolio). Judge and Bono (2000) have also highlighted

this in their statement 'Even if one considers transformational leadership to be a bchavioural theory, the origins of the behaviours; arc unclear. '

Transformational leaders' bchaviours were explored with respect to situational determinants, i. e., situational strength, attribution theory, feedback, and organisational

culture. In addition, transformational leadership in Pakistani manufacturing organisation

, was cxplorcd, as it was also pointed out by Avolio & Yammarino (2002) that leadership

research has become increasingly cross-cultural, exploring whether transrormational leadership is universal and how transformational leadership is moderated and mediated by

cultural differences. Some thoughts were developed that helped in understanding transformational leadership in manufacturing organisations. Hypotheses were stated in

terms of situational strength, attributional aspect, receiving of feedback by leaders, and

organisational culture with respect to trans formational leadership. These h)Pothcscs can

provide better understanding of transformational leaders behaviour in manufacturing

organisations, and guidelines for existing manufacturing leaders in terms or industrial

281

training, and for future manufacturing leaders in terms of academic

undcrstanding/knowledge of transformational behaviour in the manufacturing

environment.

According to Avolio & Yammarino (2002) there have only been a handful of studies,

which have examined how to develop transformational leadership. Many of these studies

have shown, through rigorous experiments, techniques of how to "create" constructs like

transformational leadership. There is considerably more attention required to

systematically manipulate leadership through such experimental interventions because

managers are looking for the "total solutions" to leadership development. Such

demonstrations will come about through rigorous experimentation. which %vill be an

important factor towards advancing the field of transformational leadership research. An

attempt has also been made by the author in this respect. These hypotheses also make a

practical contribution implicit in the selection of leaders, placement in leadership roles.

and development of transformational leadership in manufacturing organisations. As a

result of the data analysis a proposed model of transformational leadership in

manufacturing organisations is described in figure 8.1.

Weak Situation for I Followers

I

Hl

Clan Transfonnational External Attribution for the Causes of Poor

ulture Leadership Performance

H3

1. Proposed Model Of Tra ns t*()rmat 1 ona II caders licha\ iour

Manufactufing Organisations.

282

Bchavioural Aspscll of Trans formationat Lcadcnhi2 in hianufactudna Organicifions

Thc rcscarch qucstions as positcd in Chaptcr 3. following answcrs are produccd by this

rcscarch and arc dcpictcd bclow with rcspect to cach rcscarch qucstion:

Research Question No. 1: Do transfonnational leaders create a weak situation for theirfollou-crs in manufacturing organtsations?

Findings:

r.. - Transformational leaders favour discretion to their followers in the

performancc of thcirjobs in manufacturing organisations.

r_- Transfonnational leadcrs tcnd to crcatc wcak situations for

followcrs in manufacturing organisations.

r. - Trans fonnational leaders delegate decision making to rollowcrs in

manufacturing organisations

r. - Transformational leadcrs do not closcly monitor thcir followcrs and favour frcedom to thcir followas.

Transfon-national leadcrs place emphasis on developing working discipline among followers.

Transformational leadcrs sct Icss clcar goals/targcts for thcir followcrs or involvc followcrs in sctting targcts/goals.

Research Question No. 2: Do transfonnational leadcri make Internal

attributions for the cause of poor performance in


Findings:

&: - Transformational leaders tend to make external attributions for the

causcs of poor pcrforTnancc.

Ný- Transformational leaders consider followers, mistakes as a Icaming

283

Dchayioural A,.; nccts of Trans ronnational LeadcnhilairkManufacturing OrganisallM

opportunity.

rw- Transfonnational leadcrs try to minimisc the extcmd causcs of

poor pcrfonnancc by providing bcttcr cquipmcnt, prompt

matcrial/tool availability ctc.

Trans fonnational leaders generally attribute their followers as being

hard working and value their followers achicvcnicnts.

Transfonnational leaders have concern ror the feelings of their followers.

Research Question No. 3: Do transformational leaders seek- morejeedback-firom their followers than non-transfonnational leaders ill


Findings:

ro- Transformational Icadcrs maintain closc contact with thcir followcrs.

Transformational Icadcrs prcrcr to gct fcedback directly from thcir followers in manufacturing organisations.

Trans formational Icadcrs discuss the problcms and progrcss or the jobs with thcir rollowcrs.

Transformational Icadcrs normally havc short rcvicw mectings with thcir followcrs to gct fccdback about the progrcss and problems or the followcrs as wcll as about thcir tasks.

WO- Transformational leaders regularly visit their followers during the

execution of the job.

284

Dchayioural Aspccis of TransformationaLLeadcnhili inlianufacturing Omanisationj

Research Question Mo. 4.: Is clan culture the most cominoll cultural vivironniclit created or aristing in parallel isith transfionnational leadership?

Findings:

Clan culturc is the most common culturc of trans formati onal Icaders in manufacturing organisations.

Adhocracy culturc is also a common culturc for trans formati onal Icadcrship.

rw- The alignment model dcvclopcd as a result of analysis of data for

organisational culture is useful for dcciding whahcr it would be

possible to transform leadership style without changing cultural and

situational strength preferences. As shown in figure 7.4. it can be

hypothcsisc that if the leader is in quadrant III and would like to

maintain his/her transformational style of leadcrship; he/she should

change the preference for culture to Adhocracy/ Clan. If the lcadcr

is in quadrant 11, and would like to maintain his/her non- transformational leadership style. he/she should change the

preference for culture to Hierarchy/ Market.

8.4 Success of the Research

Tbc study has been successful in studying transformational lcadcrship with the concepts

that leadership research has become increasingly cross-cultural, exploring whether

transformational leadership is universal and how transformational leadership is modcratcd

and mediated by cultural differences, in this context Pakistani manufacturing

organisations have been studied. The importance of the study stems from the assumption

that trans formational leadership behaviour can influence to a great degree how followers

work and arc given freedom to work in organisations. This is useful when the human

resource departments of manufacturing organisations study issues of motivation, job

285

satisfaction, employee moraic, and employee training. Knowing that thc leadcrShip is

transformational can makc it easier for changc and inno%-ation in organisations as it can bc inferred that trans formational leaders will thus try to create weak situations whcre in

cmployccs arc givcn discretion and freedom to take dccisions in thcir work licnce

increasing employee morale, and confidence. In addition, the Clan culture associated with

weak situations promotes team working and innovation. One of the major limitations for

gcncralising thcsc results is that all the companies scicctcd for the study wcrc based in

Pakistan, and this may bring out some differences in the results if they arc studied as an

cffcct of national cultures. The proposed alignment model nccds furthcr testing and would bcncrit by testing it within diffcrcnt national cultures. This would provide more support

and would help in gencralising it.

8.5 Recommendation For Future Work

It is recommended that since the outcomes of this study tire stated in the form of hypotheses, which require further testing (across a %%idc range of sampics and with different national cultures). The hypotheses, which are the outcome of this, rcscarch

nccds further testing by researchers. Ile statcd h)pothcscs nccds to be tcstcd by

Confirmatory Factor analysis w&ith a comparativcly largcr sample size to assess the

Convergent and Discriminant Validities of all the situational N-ariablcs or trans ronn3tion3l

leadership within this study. Convcrgcnt Validity is uscd to look at the diffcrcnccs in tcst

scorcs bctwcen groups of people who would be cxpectcd to score diffcrcntly on the tcst,

and Discriminant Validity in which the test scores are unrclatcd to tests and behaviours in

diffcrcnt domains.

Another direction for follow-up studies is the recommendation th3t, to further understand

transformational leaders' bchaviours in manufacturing organisations, more situational

%, ariables need to be investigated, e. g., how transformational leaders set examples for their

followers to follow; how transfomational leaders create new opportunities, develop,

articulate and inspire followers with his/her Nision of the future in manufacturing

286

Behayiour3l Aspects ofTransfomiationalleadmilin-inlýtanufactu vQManita: fimj

organisations. In addition, furthcr situational dctcrminants likc compctcncc of IcadcrS,

cducation, agc, and mood, of leadcrs nccd to bc invcstigatcd. As wcll as cxtrovcrsion- introvcrsion, task-detcrminants should also bc invcstigatcd to undcrstand the bchaviours

of transformational Icadcrs in manufacturing organisations.

To sum up, this research is an attempt to address questions already raised in Bass's early book (Bass, 1985), namcly: who arc transformational leaders and how do they develop?

An attempt is made in understanding the behaviour of trans forma tional lcadcts', the internal world of these leaders, and what "makes them tick. " I'lic suggested directions and

concepts discussed here and their expansion can broaden our perspective an the less

visible and less observed aspects underlying many of the bch3viours and outcome

%-ariables so frequently investigated, mcasured and discussed in trans formational

leadership literature.

287

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Appendix- A

Transformational Leadership Inventory Questionnaire

Please mark the following options about your immediate leader.

Ql. Has a clear understanding of where we are going.

3=Disagree 4= No strong 5=Agrcc I -Strongly 2=Disagree to some view either to some 6=Agrcc 7- Strongly disagr re extent way extent a9rcc

Q2. Paints an interesting picture of the future for our group.

3=Disagree 4= No strong 5=Agrcc I =Strongly 2=Disagrcc to some view either to some 6-Agrcc 7- Strongly disagree extent way cxtcnt ajzrce

Q3. Is always seeking new opportunities for the organisation.

3=Disagrce 4= No strong 5=Agrce I -Strongly 2=Disagree to some view either to some 6=Agrcc 7- Strongly disqýcc

- extent way extent

- agrcc

f-U %, Z-. Inspires others with his/her plans for the future.

3=Disagree 4= No strong 5=Agrcc I -Strongly 2=Disagrce to some view either to some 6=Agrdcc 7= Strongly disagree extent way extent a9rcc

Q5. Is able to get others committed to his/her dream.

3=Disagree 4= No strong S=Agrcc I =Strongly 2=Disagrce to some view either to some 6=Agrcc 7= Strongly disagree extent way extent agrcc

Q6. Leads by "doing, " rather than simply by "telling".

3=Disagree 4= No strong 5=Agrce I -Strongly 2=Disagree to some view either to some 6=Agrcc 7= Strongly disagree extent way extcnt ajzrcc

Q7. Provides a good model for me to follow.

3=Disagree 4= No strong S=Agrcc I -Strongly 2=Disagree to some view either to some 6=Agrce 7= Strongly disagree

_ extent way extent agree

Al

At)pcndl%-

Q8. Leads by example.

3=Disagrce 4= No strong 5=Agrcc I -Strongly 2=Disagrce to some view cithcr to some 6-Agrcc 7- Strongly disagree extent. way extent a9rcc

Q9. Fosters collaboration among work group.

3=Disagree 4= No strong 5=Agrcc I -Strongly 2=Disagrce to some view either to some 6-Agrcc 7- Strongly disagree

- extent way extent agrcc

QIO. Encourages employees to be "team players. "

3=Disagrce 4= No strong 5=Agrcc I =Strongly 2=Disagrce to some view either to some 6=Agrcc 7- Strongly disagree extent way extent agrcc

Qll. Gets the group to work together forthe same goal.

3=Disagree 4 No strong 5=Agrcc I =Strongly 2=Disagrcc to some view either to some 6=Agrcc 7= Strongly

disagree extent way extent a=c

Q12. Develops a team attitude and spirit among employees.

3=Disagrce 4= No strong 5=Agrce I =Strongly 2=Disagrce to some view either to some 6=Agrce 7= Strongly disagree

- extent way extent agree

Q13. Shows us that he/she expects a lot from us.

3=Disagree 4= No strong 5=Agrcc I =Strongly 2=Disagree to some view either to some 6=Agrce 7= Strongly disagree extent way extent agree

Q14 Insist on only the best perfonnancc.

3=Disagree 4= No strong 5=Agrcc I -Strongly 2=Disagree to some view either to some 6=Agrcc 7= Strongly disaggrce extent way extent agree

Q15. Will not settle for second best.

3=Disagree 4= No strong 5=Agrcc I =Strongly 2=Disagrce to some view either to some 6=Agrcc 7= Strongly disagree exten" I

A2

Appendix- A

Q16. Acts with considering my feelings.

3=Disagree 4= No strong S=Agrcc I=Strongly 2=Disagree to some view citlicr to some 6-Agrcc 7- Strongly disagree

- extent way cxtcnt agrcc

Q17. Shows respect for my personal feelings.

3=Disagree 4= No strong 5-Agrcc I=Strongly 2=Disagree to some view either to some 6=Agrcc 7- Strongly disagree

--- extent way cxtcnt

- - agrcc

Q18. Behaves in a manner thoughtful of my personal needs.

3=Disagree 4 No strong 5=Agrcc I -Strongly 2=Disagrec to some view either to some 6-Agrcc 7- Strongly

disagree extent way cxtcnt -

ajzrcc

Q19. Treats me with considering my personal feelings.

3=Disagree 4= No strong 5=Agree I =Strongly 2=Disagree to some view either to some 6=Agrcc 7- Strongly dis. agree extent way extent a9rcc

Q20. Challenges me to think about old problems in new ways.

3=Disagree 4= No strong 5=Agrce I -Strongly 2=Disagree to some view either to some 6=Agrcc 7= Strongly d ! Eee extent way cxtcnt OgTqc

Q2 1. Asks questions that prompt me to think.

3=Disagree 4= No strong 5=Agrcc I =Strongly 2=Disagree to some view either to some 6-Agrcc 7- Strongly disagee extent way cxtcnt a9 M-C

Q22. Has stimulated me to rethink the way I do things.

3=Disagrce 4= No strong 5=Agrce I=Strongly 2=Disagree to some view either to some 6=Agrcc 7- Strongly disa-grce extent way extent aerce

Q23. Has ideas that have challenged me to rc-cxamine some of basic assumptions about my work.

3=Disagree 4= No strong 5=Agrcc I =Strongly 2=Disagree to some view either to some 6-Agrce 7r- Strongly disagree extent way extent

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SummanLo_f ResDonses from Followers on Transformational Leaders&llcmle Appendix-C

Om-Samde Statistics

Follower No. 1 Leader No. 1 N 23

Mean 2.26

Avg. mea off-eader

No.

n

Std Deviation

Follower No. 2 Leader No. 1 23 2.70 Follower No. 3 Leader No. 1 23 3.09 Follower No. 4 Leader No. 1 Follower No. 5 Leader No. 2

23 23

3.22 3.57

0.43

Follower No. 6 Leader No. 2 23 3.74- --- Follower No. 7 Leader No. 2 23- 3.91 Follower No. 8 Leader No. 2 23 3. FO Follower No. 9 Leader No. 2 Follower No. 10 Leader No. 3

23 23

2.70 4.78

3.38 0.51

Follower No. 11 Leader No. 3 23 4.30 Follower No. 12 Leader No. 3 Follower No. 13 Leader No. 4

23 23

4.39 4.30

4.49 0.25

Follower No. 14 Leader No. 4 23 4.91- Follower No. 15 Leader No. 4 23 4.83 Follower No. 16 Leader No. 4 Follower No. 17 Leader No. 5

23 23

4.43 2.26

4.62 0.30

Follower No. 18 Leader No. 5 23 2.30 Follower No. 19 Leader No. 5 23 2.61 ---- Follower No. ZU Leader No. 5 Follower No. 21 Leader No. 6

23 23

2.35 2.87

0.16

Follower No. 22 Leader No. 6 23 2.57 Follower No. 23 Leader No. 6 23 2.74 Follower NO. 24 Leader No. 6 23 2.52 Follower No. 25 Leader No. 6 23 2.87 2.71 0.16 Follower No. 26 Leader No. 7 23 4.09 Follower No. 27 Leader No. 7 23 4.65 Follower No. 28 Leader No. 7 23 4.26 Follower No. 29 Leader No. 7 23 4.83 Follower No. 30 Leader No. 7 23 4.87 4.54 0.35 Follower No. 31 Leader No. 8 23 3.17 Follower No. 32 Leader No. 8 23 2.48 Follower No. 33 Leader No. 8 23 2.70 Follower No. 34 Leader No. 8 23 2.57 Follower No. 35 Leader No. 8 23 2.04 Follower No. 36 Leader No. 8 23 2.04 2.50 OA Fonower No. 37 Leader No. 9 23 2.52

q

Follower No. 38 Leader No. 9 23 2.39 Follower No. 39 Leader No. 9 23 2.78 Follower No. 40 Leader No. 9 23 2.48 Follower No. 41 Leader No. 9 23 2.70 Follower No. 42 Leader No. 9 23 2.74 Follower No. 43 Leader No. 9 23 2.43 Follower No. 44 Leader No. 9 23 2.65 - -2.59 -0.15 Follower No. 45 Leader No. 10 23 2.87 ! Follower No. 46 Leader No. 10 23 3.00 Follower No. 47 Leader No. 10 23 2.35 Follower No. 48 Leader No. 10 23 2.83

cl

Swn-m-a ry-of ResDonses from F2112wers on TfrIII AppondIX-C

Fona"r No. 49 Leader No. 10 23 Follorwer No. 50 Leader No. 10 23--2-. 35 Folicrwer No. 51 Leader No. 10 FoDower No. 52 Leader No. 11

23 23

2.78 5.09-

2.71 - 0.26

FoDower No. 53 Leader No. 11 23 4.48 - Follower No. 54 Leader No. 11 23 4.00 Fonower No. 55 Leader No. 11 Follower No. 56 Leader No. 11 _23- 23

5.13- 4.83 --- -

Fonawer No. 57 Leader No. 11 '

23 4.17 Fonower No. 58 Leader No. 11 23 4.65 Follower No. 59 Leader No. 11 23 4.91 Foacrwer No. 60 Leader No. 11 Follower No. 61 Leader No. 12

23 23

5.22 5.04- . _.

4.72 0.4

FoGawer No. 62 Leader No. 12 23 FoDower No. 63 Leader No. 12 23 5.00- Follower No. 64 Leader No. 12 25- 5.17- 1 Fonorwer No. 65 Leader No. 12 23 4.87 Follower No. 66 Leader No. 12 23 5.00 Follower No. 67 Leader No. 12 23 4.83 - ----- FoDower No. 68 Leader No. 12 Foacrwer No. 69 Leader No. 13

23 23

4.39 2.30

-79 0.24

Follower No. 7U Leader No. 13 23 2.70 Fonower No. 71 Leader No. 13 23 3.13 . ....... ...... Folower No. 72 Leader No. 13 23 3.48 Folower No. 73 Leader No. 13 23 3.04 Folbwer No. 74 Leader No. 13 23 3.30 Forower No. 75 Leader No. 13 Follower No. 76 Leader No. 14 Follower No. 77 Leader No. 14

23 23 23

2.78 - 4.78 5.22 -

ý2-9ý6 -0.40

FoVower No. 78 Leader No. 14 23 4.91 Follawer No. 79 Leader No. 14 23 5.35 - Follower No. 80 Leader No. 14 23 5.22 - Fonower No. 81 Leader No. 14 Follower No. 82 Leader No. 15

23 23

5.09 5.30

5.09 0.21

FoaDwer No. 83 Leader No. 15 23 5.13 Fonower No. 84 Leader No. 15 23 5.61 F, Oikrwer No. 85 Leader No. 15 23 5.26 ........ Follower No. 86 Leader No. 15 23 5.00 Folower No. 87 Leader No. 15 23 5.57 --5-31 0.24 Follower No. 88 Leader No. 16 23 4.7o Follower No. 89 Leader No. 16 23 5.13 Follower No. 90 Leader No. 16 23 4.91 Fozbwer No. 91 Leader No. 16

_23 4.52

Follower No. 92 Leader No. 16 23 4.83 Follower No. 93 Leader No. 16 23 5.48 Follower No. 94 Leader No. 16 Follower No. 95 Leader No. 17

23 23

5.30 ' 3.22

-4.98 0.34

Follower No. 96 Leader No. 17 23 2.83 Foziower No. 97 Leader No. 17 23 2.65 Follower No. 98 Leader No. 17 23 2.87

. Follower No. 99 Leader No. 17 -

23 3.17 - op)ter o. 10OLeaderNo. 17 [ FF

_23 2.83 2.93 0.22-1

C2

Sw-runary-of Remonses from Followers on Transformational LqoadqfShlD SCDI# Appondlx-C

'Vo-florwer No. 101 Leader No. 18 23 3. Folawer No. 102 Leader No. 18 23 2.57 Focorwer No. 103 Leader No. 18 23 2.30- FoDower No. 104 Leader No. 18 Folower No. 105 Leader No. 19

23 23

2.65- 3.13 .

--2-6-5ý ......... .

65 . 33 0.33

FoAawer No. 106 Leader No. 19 23 304 - FoAawer No. 107 Leader No. 19 Folower No. 108 Le

, ader No. 20

23 23

2.61 3.13-

--2rq-3 ---U-2ý8

Fonower No. 109 Leader No. 20 23 4.96- tonorwer No. 110 Leader No. 20 T-0-nower No. 111 Leader No. 21

23 23

4--9-6 5

---4ý. 35 1.05

Fonower No. 112 Leader No. 21 Fonower No. 113 Leader No. 22

23__ 23

5.22 2

5.15 0.09

Fonower No. 114 Leader No. 22 'Fonower No. 115 Leader No. 23

- W

23 - 23

2.26 4.57

-2.33 ýg -0.18

Folorwer No. 116 LeYd e MNO. 23 23 5.04 Fonower No. 117 Leader No. 23 Fonorwer No. 118 Leader No. 24

23 23

4.7a 4.96

4.80 0.2

Folower No. 119 Leader No. 24 23 5.17 Folower No. 120 Leader No. 24 Fonower No. 121 Leader No. 25

23 23

4.96 2.74

5.03 0.13

Foaawer No. 122 Leader No. 25 23 2.57 Fonorwer NO. 123 Leader No. 25 23 2.65 Fonorwer No. 124 Leader No. 25 23 3.13 Fosawer No. 125 Leader No. 25 Folorwer No. 126 Leader No. 26

23 23

2.96 4.96

......... 2.81 --0-23-

Fonorwer No. 127 Leader No. 26 23 5.30 FoAawer NO. 128 Leader No. 26 23 4.61 Focower NO. I Z9 Leader No. 26 23 5.2-2 Folower No. 130 Leader No. 26 Foacrwer No. 131 Leader No. 27

23 23

5.09 5.17 -

5.03 _ý . __0.27

Foucrwer No. 1 UZ Leader No. 27 23 4.74 Fonorwer No. 133 Leader No. 27 23 4.61 Fonower NO. 1 j4 Leader No. 27 23 4.87 - -4-8-5 0.24 Fonower No. 135 Leader No. 28 Focower NO. 1 ib Leader No. 28

23 23

5.43 4.57

Fofjower No. 137 Leader No. 28 23 4.91 Fonower No. lid Leader No. 28 Fonower No. 139 Leader No. 29

23 23

5.00 2.83

4.98 ..

0. . .........

Fobower No. 140 Leader No. 29 23 2.91 Fonower No. 141 Leader No. 29 23 2.61 Fonower No. 142 Leader No. 29 23 3.17 2.88 -0-2 3ý Fonower No. 143 Leader No. 30 Fovower No. 144 Leader No. 30

23 23

2.17 2.61

Follower No. 145 Leader No. 30 23 2.83 Follower No. 146 Leader No. 30 Fonower No. 147 Leader No. 31

23 23

3.22- 3.43

-72ý. 71 0.44

Fobawer No. 148 Leader No. 31 23 2.78 Fonower No. 149 Leader No. 31 23 3.04 Fonower No. 150 Leader No. 31 Fonower No. 151 Leader No. 32

23 23

3.04 4.83 ..

3.08 ..... 1-1

0.27

-Focower No. 152 Leader No. 32 23 4.70

C3

Surv-nary-of ResDonses ftom Followers on_ Unsform tional L1 -1- Appondix-C

'Foacmer No. 153 Leader No. 32 23 4.91 Fonower No. 154 Leader No. 32 23 4.78 - Fonower No. 155 Leader No. 32 23 5.29- FoDower No. 156 Leader No. 32 Fonawer No. 157 Leader No. 33

23_ 23

4.65 5.22

4.86 0.22

Fonower No. 158 Leader No. 33 23 5. ------- FODower No. 159 Leader No. 33 23 4.65- Folorwer No. 160 Leader No. 33 23 5.26 Fobower No. 161 Leader No. 33 23 4.57 Fonower No. 162 Leader No. 33 FOPDwer No. 163 Leader No. 34

23 23

5.09- 3.00

---- 4.99 0.30

Folower No. 164 Leader No. 34 23 -

3.09- Fooorwer No. 165 Leader No. 34 23 3.30 Focower No. 166 Leader No. 34 23 2 Fonower No. 167 Leader No. 34 23 -3-. 04 Fonower No. 168 Leader No. 34 FoDorwer No. 1 b9 Leader No. 35

23 23_

2.91 4.91-

3 ýO5 0.14

FoDower No. 170 Leader No. 35 23 5.09 FoAawer No. 171 Leader No. 35 23 4.26- ----- Folower No. 172 Leader No. 35 23 5.0ý- Follower No. 173 Leader No. 35 23 5.48 Fonower No. 174 Leader No. 35 Fopower No. 175 Leader No. 35 Fonower No. 176 Leader No. 36

23 23 23

5.09 5.22 3.09

5.02 ' --0.38

Focower No. 177 Leader No. 36 23 3.26 Fooo, wer No. 178 Leader No. 36 23 3.13 Fomower No. 179 Leader No. 36 23 3.39- Fovower NO. 1 IJU Leader No. 36 Fopower NO. I t$l Leader No. 37

23 23

2.78 4.74

---i-l -3

Fonower No. 182 Leader No. 37 23 4.91 Fopower No. 183 Leader No. 37 23 ý504 Forower No. 184 Leader No. 37 23 4.65 Foporwer No. 185 Leader No. 37 23 4.30 Fonawer NO. 1 tib Leader No. 37 23 4.35 0.30 Focower No. 187 Leader No. 38 23 2.74 Fonower No. 188 Leader No. 38 23 2.91 Fonower No. 189 Leader No. 38 23 2.83 Fonower No. 190 Leader No. 38 23 2.96 Fonower No. 191 Leader No. 38 23 3.04 2.90 0.12 Foaawer No. 192 Leader No. 39 23 4.78 Fonower No. 193 Leader No. 39 23 4.30 Fonower No. 194 Leader No. 39 23 4.61 Focower No. 195 Leader No. 39 23 4.96 Fonower No. 196 Leader No. 39 23 4.61 Fowwer No. 197 Leader No. 39 23 4.74 '- --4ý. 67 0.22 Foliower No. 198 Leader No. 40 23 5.65 FOaDwer No. 199 Leader No. 40 23 4.52 Folower No. 200 Leader No. 40 23 4.70 Foclower No. 201 Leader No. 40 23 4.83 Fonower No. 202 Leader No. 40 23 4.61 Fonower No. 203 Leader No. 40 Fonower No. 204 Leader No. 41

23 23

4.30 4.48

-4. _77- -0-4 ý7

C4

Summary of Responses from Followers on Transforma_tional Leadershii) Scal Appondix-C

FoDower No. 205 Leader No. 41 -

23 4.74 FoDower No. 206 Leader No. 4T 23 4.96 FoDorwer No. 207 Leader No. 41 23 4.87 FoDower No. 208 Leader No. 41 FoDower No. 209 Leader No. 42

23 23

4.65 2.70

4.74 0.19

FoDower No. 210 Leader No. 42 23 2.61 FoDower No. 211 Leader No. 42 23 2.79- FoPower No. 212 Leader No. 42 23 3.26 FoDower No. 213 Leader No. 42 FoDower No. 214 Leader No. 43

23 23

3.22 5.22

2.91 0.30

Fogower No. 215 Leader No. 43 23 4.70 Fonower No. 216 Leader No. 43 23 5.05- FoDower No. 217 Leader No. 43 23 5.00 FoPower No. 218 Leader No. 43 23 4.70 FoDower No. 219 Leader No. 43 23 4.83 4.91 0.20 Fonower No. 220 Leader No. 44 23 3.09 FoDower No. 221 Leader No. 44 23 2.96 Fonorwer No. 222 Leader No. 44 23 2.91 Fobower No. 223 Leader No. 44

_23 3.35

FoDower No. 224 Leader No. 44 23 2.96 FoDower No. 225 Leader No. 44 23 2.96 3.04 0.16 Fonower No. 226 Leader No. 45 23 5.04 Fonower No. 227 Leader No. 45 23- 4.74 Fonower No. 228 Leader No. 45 23 5.00 Fonower No. 229 Leader No. 45 23 3.48 Fonower No. 230 Leader No. 45 23 3.22 Fonower No. 231 Leader No. 45 23 2.48 1. ()8 Fonower No. 232 Leader No. 46 23 2.65 Fonower NO. 233 Leader No. 46 23 3.43 Follower No. 234 Leader No. 46 Fouower No. 235 Leader No. 47

23 23

3.22 2.96

--71 ý0 0.40

Fonower No. 23b Leader No. 47 23 2.96 Fonower No. Z37 Leader No. 47 23 3.26 Fonower No. 238 Leader No. 47 23 3.13 -708 0.15 Fnnnwer No. 239 Leader No. 48 23 4.70 Folbwer No. 240 Leader No. 48 23 4.83 FoDower No. 241 Leader No. 48 23 4.52 Fonower No. 242 Leader No. 48 23 4.78 - ----4.71 0.13 Fonower No. 243 Leader No. 49 23 2.78 Fonower No. 244 Leader No. 49 23 2.83 Focower No. 245 Leader No. 49 23 3.17 Fonower No. 246 Leader No. 49 23 3.13 Fonower No. 247 Leader No. 49 23 3.00 Fonower No. 248 Leader No. 49 23 2.74 2.94 0.19 Fonower No. 249 Leader No. 50 23 2.96 Fonower No. 250 Leader No. 50 23 2.87 Fonower No. 251 Leader No. 50 23 3.22 Fonower No. 252 Leader No. 50 23 3.17 Fonower No. 253 Leader No. 50 23 2.78 Fonower No. 254 Leader No. 50 23 3.04 3.01 0.17 Fonower No. 255 Leader No. 51 23 4.82

I-FoDower No. 256 Leader No. 51 _23

4.52

C5

SsinMa ry-of ResDon"sirom Followerl on JMngerMstlon Shlo Scale -alLeader Appondix-C

'Folo, wer No. 257 Leader No. 51 23 3.73 Ponorwer No. 258 Leader No. 51 23 4. IY- Foborwer No. 259 Leader No. 51 Fonower No. 260 Leader No. 52

23 23

4-1 -3 3.91

ý4 -2 -6 -0-4 2ý

Focower No. 261 Leader No. 52 23 4.30 - Focawer No. 262 Leader No. 52 Fonower No. 263 Leader No. 53 Fobower No. 264 Leader No. 53 Folorwer No. 265 Leader No. 53 FoDawer No. 266 Leader No. 54 Folower No. 267 Leader No. 54 Foborwer No. 268 Leader No. 55

23 23 23 23 23 23 23

4AY- 4.66--

-4.04- 4.08- 3.08 3.34 2.43

-4-. 21 -

4.24

0.27

0.31

0.18

Fonower No. 269 Leader No. 55 23 2.2F- Fonower No. 270 Leader No. 55 23- --ý2.73 Fonawer No. 271 Leader No. 55 Fc)ocrwer No. 272 Leader No. 56

23 23

2.56- 4.56

2.50 0.20

Folower No. 273 Leader No. 56 23 4.13 Fonower No. 274 Leader No. 56 23 4.65 Fonower No. 275 Leader No. 56 23 4.65 Folower No. 276 Leader No. 56 Fonower No. 277 Leader No. 57

23_ 23

4.47 3.477

4.49 0.22

N

Fonower No. 278 Leader No. 57 23 3.08 . ....... Fonower No. 279 Leader No. 57 Focower No. 2BU Leader No. 58

23 23

3.04 - 4.26-

3.20 -11 O 24

Focorwer No. 281 Leader No. 58 Fonower No. 282 Leader No. 58 FoAower No. 283 Leader No. 59

23 23 23

4.21 4.17 2.26

4.21 0

Fonower No. 284 Leader No. 59 Fonower NO. Zn Leader No. 60

23 23

2.3T- 2.95

--230- ----Fý06

Focawer No. 286 Leader No. 60 23 3.04 Fonower No. 287 Leader No. 60 Fonower No. 288 Leader No. 61

23 23

3.21 2.60

-3.0 ý7 ----O-l 3ý

Fonower No. 269 Leader No. 61 23 2.13 Focower No. 290 Leader No. 61 Fonawer No. 291 Leader No. 62

23 - 23

72-651

3.56 2.46 0.29

Fomower No. 292 Leader No. 62 23 3.34 Fonower No. 293 Leader No. 62 FoCbwer No. 294 Leader No. 63

23 23

3.08 3.08

--Ký33 --73ý4

FooDwer No. 295 Leader No. 63 Fnanwer No. 296 Leader No. 63

23 23

3.17 3.13

Folower No. 297 Leader No. 63 23 3.17 Folawer No. 298 Leader No. 63 Fonawer No. 299 Leader No. 64

23 23

3.13 .. 4.91

.... 3.13 . _. _0.04

Folower No. 300 Leader No. 64 23 4.34 Foibwer No. 301 Leader No. 64 Folbwer No. 302 Leader No. 65

23 23

3.30 4.21

-0-82ý

Folower No. 303 Leader No. 65 23 4.30 Fonower No. 304 Leader No. 65 23 4.26 -432 ý6 Folower No. 305 Leader No. 66 23 2.39 Fotbwer No. 306 Leader No. 66 23 2. Fonower No. 307 Leader No. 66 23 2.39 '- --24ý7' n -i Folower No. 308 Leader No. 67 23 2.60 1 1

C6

Sum-mary of Responses from Eollowers on Transform-tional LeadershlD Seal@ Appondix-C

Fonower No. 309 Leader No. 67 23 2.78 FoDower No. 3 10 Leader No. 67 Fonower No. 311 Leader No. 68

23 23

2.52- 4.65

-2-6ý3 0.13

Fonower No. 312 Leader No. 68 23 4.30- - Fopower No. 313 Leader No. 68 Fonower No. 314 Leader No. 69

23 23

4.08 - 4.21

1---4. -34 0.29

Fonower No. 315 Leader No. 69 23 4.39 - ----43-0 0.13 Fonower No. 316 Leader No. 70 23 4.34 Fonower No. 317 Leader No. 70 23 A 4.78 FoDower No. 318 Leader No. 70 23 4.34 4.49 0.25 Fonower No. 319 Leader No. 71 23 4.82 Fonower No. 320 Leader No. 71 23 4.39 Fonower No. 321 Leader No. 71 23 4.47 4.56 0.23 Fonower No. 322 Leader No. 72 23 2.34 Fonower No. 323 Leader No. 72 23 2.47 Fonower No. 324 Leader No. 72 23 3.04-

" 2.62 0.37

Fonower No. 325 Leader No. 73 23 4.7Y Fonawer No. 326 Leader No. 73 23 4.82 Fonower No. 327 Leader No. 73 23 4.69 Fonower No. 328 Leader No. 73 23 4.21

- 4.61

-- 0.27

Fonawer No. 329 Leader No. 74 23 4.39 -- Fonower No. 330 Leader No. 74 23 4.04 Fonower No. 331 Leader No. 74 23 3.73 4.05 -0.33 Foacr. ver NO. 332 Leader No. 75 23 3.66 Fonower NO. 333 Leader No. 75 23 3.52- Fonower No. 334 Leader No. 75 23 3.13 3.50 0.37 Fosawer No. 335 Leader No. 76 23 3.82 Fonawer No. 336 Leader No. 76 23 3.34 Foaower No. 337 Leader No. 76 23 3.13 Fopower No. 338 Leader No. 76 23 3.04- Fonawer No. Jj9 Leader No. 76 J

_ 23 3.43

C7

Leader's Score on Podsakoff Transformational Leadership Questionnaire

One-Sample Statistics

Leader No. No. IN Av mean of the I

Appendix-D

III Leader std. dOviation I Organligation No. G. Rw4x%#ý- I. W

Leader No Leader No.

. eader No.

.1

.2 3 4

1 40

23 23- 23

15. zz

2.70 - 4.39

4.43

-12.82

3.38 4.49 4.62

043 051 0,25 0 30

. eader No. 5 23 235 2 38 .

. eader No. 6 23 2.87 . 2 71 016

-eader No. 7 23 4 87 . 4 0.16

. . 54 0 3 . eader No. 8 23 2.04 2 50 . 5

. eader No. 9 23 2.65 . 2 59 0.43

. eader No. 10 2 2.78 . 2 71 0.15

, eader No. 11 23 5.22 . 4 72 0.26

eader No. 12 23 4.39 . 4 91 0,46

eader No. 13 23 2.78 . 2 96 024

eader No. 14 23 5.09 . 5 09 eader No. 15 23 5.57 . 5 31

U21

eader 23 5.30 . 4 98 0,24

-4- Kj^ 17 111) 1 . ---. 0.34

I VV. 41 40 4 0.22 0 2 5.15 No. 22 23 2 3 2.26 2

.2 6 2.39 No. 23 23 4.78 4.80 No. 24 23 4.96 5.03 No. 25 23

f

2.96

9

2.81 No 26 23 5.09

- - - 5.03

No. 27 23 4 87 -- A 85 No. 28 23 1 00 5uuI A Gn

Leaoef ulu ---) 1 1 zo J-U4 3.08 Leader No. 32 23

. 65 4.86 Leader No 33 23 5.09 4.99 Leader No. 34 23 2.91 3.05 Leader No. 35 23 5.22 5.02 Leader No. 36 23 2.78 3.13 Leader No. 37 23 4.35 4.67 Leader No. 38 23 3.04 2.90 Leader No. 39 23 4.74 4.67 Leader No. 40 23 4.30 4.77 Leader No. 41 4.65 4.74 Leader No. 42 23 3.22 2.91 Leader No. 43 23 4.83 4.91 Leader No. 44 23 2.96 3.04 Leader No. 45 23 2.48 3.99 Leader No. 46 23 3.22 3.10 Leader No 47 23 3.13 3.08 Leader No 48 23 4.78 4.71 Leader No 49 23 2.74 2.94

, Leader No. 50 23 104

N=No. of questions T L&-- Transformationa l Leadersh ip Scale D1

2 I I

3 1

3

4

5

0.12 0.22 0.47 0.19 0.30 0.20 016 1 08 040 015 013 019 D 17

Leader's Score on Podsakoff Transformational Leadership Questionnaire Appendix-D

Leader No. 51 23 4.1 4.266 0 42 0 42 Leader No. 52 23 4.43

- - 4.21 *1

. 1 0 027 7

Leader No. 53 23 7 0-8 4.24 . 1 031 0 31

Leader No. 54 23 3.34 3.21 0 . 1

0 18 Leader No. 55 23 2.56 2.5 1 0 20

Leader No. 56 23 4.47 4.49 . 1 0-22

Leader No. 57 23 3.04 3.2 2

024 Leader No. 58 23 4.17 4.21

2 005

Leader No. 59 23 Z34 2.3 2

006 Leader No. 60 23 3.21 3.07

2 0 13

Leader No. 61 23 2.65 2.46 . 2 0 29

Leader No. 62 23 3.08 3.33 . 2 0 24

Leader No. 63 23 3.13 3.13 . 2 0 04

Leader No. 64 23 3.30 4.18 . 3 0 82

Leader No. 65 23 4.26 4.26 . 3 0 05

Leader No. 66 23 2.39 2.47 . 3 0 15

Leader No. 67 23 2.52 2.63 . 3 0 13-

Leader No. 68 23 4.08 4.34 . 3 0 29

Leader No. 69 23 4.39 4.3 . 3 0 13

Leader No. 70 23 4.34 4.49 . 3 0 25

Leader No. 71 23 4.47 4.56 . 3 0 23 -

Leader No. 72 23 3.04 2.62 . 3 0 37

Leader No. 73 23 4.21 4.61 . 3 0 27 -

Leader No. 74 23 . 3.73 4.05 . 4 0 33

Leader No, 75 i

23 1 3.13 3.5 . 4 0 37

o. 76 Leader N 23 1 3.43 3.35 . 5 0 nn wI

rlign Score on TLS Low score on TLS Normal score

I-

N=No. of questions TLS=Transformational Leadership Scale D2

ORGANISATION STRIJCIVI1RE OF ORGANISATION No. i

231

(Coord) 52

7 4

Officer Inchwgc Skilled /%cmI Storr% -Ax"a 4 211

3 ,x- 13 41 rwsný,! i %linivcm, . 94

45 (Asscmblý Shop) (Fabncation 39 Shop)

47 IF

46 55 (Asscmhh Shcopli fRowing IýhtKi

14 17

Skilled/Scmi Labour (35 ý-23 skilICII "CIIII E , k SLilled'Scmi Lahmn A I i - I ab"m (42 1-31

skil" Skillcd Skilled 1-4010- 1 atour Labour

Semi- SCMI-

Skillcd Sýkilllcd ; I L

LAO- [Abour tx a , O ur Kj

Color code:

Low scorer Normal scorer

Ei

Aimcn(livE

ORGANISATION STRUCTURE OF ORGANISATION NO. 2

29

Coord 1 57

!. I. 12

1

59

1 49 1

16

siLflied Skilied 11 Skilled

L~

11 Lahnur Lahnur

ý 11

1

20

28

60 61

15

Skilled,, ont Labour453l, -32

scmf- scmi- II Scmi-

SLAW Skilled Skilled

Labo-

II

Labour Labour

Color code:

Low scorer Normal scorei-

SkillediSmi lzhour(38ý-29

II ah, is It lili

s, lo, 9

1: 2

(Stote% I

Officet Irwharge

621

I"k', I ", "', ,,,

8 jk mf ýI

SkilletYr, cmi Labour(4204

Skilled /%eml I ah(ma 18)

Appendi-x-E,

ORGANISATION STRUCTURE OF ORCANISATION No. 3

63

31

36

I,,

65

1

10

It hari, cii , x, 66 nv , ticc, , li

I, :-, 1 67 1

34 21

71

M 69 191 6

70 , 41 h(, r 1 72

68

Skilled/Serni Latxmr 0 M-13

vAillcd Skilled Skilled I At-Our laN)ur Labour

.., ani-skollcd I ScIn SCII11- s LAINCIRM Skilled Skilled I

LAbour Labour

Color code: II P-, 1) i.. I- Low scorer Norma scorer

Skilled /Smi I abow (9)

E3

ORGANISATION STRUCTURE OF ORGANISATION No. 4

I ý. .,; ý.. 011"'i, 73

1 33 1

35 11 "' 74 11 42

37 I1 22 1

43 fAssembIN Shov)

"tip" 40 18

PT, Dduclion --

()pcrati vcs j 12 ý-]7 ion Operalives

KEV: Ili, J) Ncorel. Low scorer Normal scorer

E4

ORGANISATION STRUCTURE OF ORGANISATION No. 5

KEY:

Low scorer Normal scorer

E5

Apt)endix- I-`

Wolfson School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering Loughborough University Leicestershire LEII 3TU

United Kingdom

SURVEY OF MANUFACTURING LEADERS/ MANAGERS ON SITUATIONAL/ATTRIBUTIONAL BEHAVIOURS.

c11I17_ 1F-1 ililsi P(s1E-11IPP I']1T. W (. ]

The objectives of this research Is to examine the situ ational/attri butio nal behavlours In manufacturing organisations. The results are only to be used as part of the research project within the Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Loughborough University.

2. All Individual responses to this questionnaire will be kept STRICTLY CONFIDENTIAL.

3. please give your views on situational/attributional aspects that are in opinion served best within your organisation.

Kindly return the completed questionnaire by hand at your earliest as possible on your convenience.

It will not take more than 10-15 minutes to complete the questionnaire.

"THANK YOU FOR YOUR TIME AND PARTICIPATION

S. A. Masood (Researcher) Wolfson School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering Loughborough University Leicestershire LE11 3TU UK Tel: +44 1509 227690/+44 1509 227612 Fax: +44 1509 227648 E-mail: S. A. Masood@)Ibo o. ac. uk

Fl

ADvendix-E

Organisation's No. (For researcher's use only)

Leader's/Manager's No. (For researcher's use only)

TLS: (For researcher's use only)

SECTION 1: GENERAL QUESTIONS

_Please-tick r/l where gogroRriate

1. Name (optional):

2. Position in the organisation;

Junior F-I Middle E] Scnior F7 Years worked in the present position:

4. Gender: Male F-7 Female

5. Educational Qualifications:

6. Years of work experience:

7. Years spent in the present position:

8. How many employees does your organisation have?

Less than 100 F-I Between 10 1 to 250

Between 251 to 500 17

More than 500

9. How many people do you directly manage?

Less than 10 17 Between. II to 20

Between 21 to 40 F -1 More than 40 F-ý

F2

Appendix- 14'

A] As a leader/ manager, look at the choices given below, and for cach choice mark the number relevant to the choice, where

I- signifies that you do not cmphasise the choice in your day-to day working style at all, 2 =once in a while, 3= sometimes, 4= Fairly often, and 5 =you cmphasise that choice all the time.

1. Keeping a strict working discipline among followers.

2. Having a clear standard on praise and punishment.

3. Operating a highly structured and disciplined system.

4. Setting clear goals for employees.

5. Niaking decisions myself rather than delegating decisions to followers.

6. Closely monitoring/controlling what followers actually do.

Doesn't Ernphasisc Emphasise

234

234

2345

2345

2345

2345

F3

AI)I)En(llx-

B] As a leadcr/ manager, for the following choices mark the number relevant to dic choice , Where:

I =strongly disagree, 2=disagrec, 3= no strong view on either side, 4=agree, and 5=strongly agree.

1.1 should be concerned about the opinion that my followers have about me.

2. My followers are the cause, when things do not go as planned.

3. The external environment of the firm plays a major role in failure

or success of the planned processes.

Strongly Strongly Disagrcc agrcc

1234

234

234

F4

L%PI)CH(Iix--It ,

Al As a follower, please rate your Icadcr/managcr, look at the choices given below, and for each choice mark the number relevant to the choice, where

I= significs that you do not cmphasise the choice in your day-to day working style at all, 2 =once in a while, 3= sometimes, 4= Fairly often, and 5 =you cmphasise that choice all the time.:

1. Keeping a strict working discipline among followers

2. Having a clear standard on praise and punishment.

3.0perating a highly structured and disciplined system.

4. Setting clear goals for employees.

5. hiaking decisions himself rather than delegating decisions to followers.

6. Closely monitor/control what followers actually do.

Doesn't Emphasisc Emphasisc

234

234

234

234

2345

2345

F5

Atmendix-F '

B] Asa follower park the number relevant to your the choice where :

I =strongly disagree, 2=disagrcc, 3- no strong view on either side, 4=agrce, and 5=strongly agree.

1.1 should be concerned about the opinion that my leader has about me.

2. My leader/manager is the cause, when things do not go as planned.

3. Ile external environment of the organisation plays a major role in failure

or success of the planned processes.

4.1 am responsible for the success and failure of the processes in the organisation.

Strongly Strongly Disagrcc agrcc

12345

2345

2345

2345

F6

Svmrnary of Leaders Responses on the Questionnaire In Phase-11 of data-colloction Avt)ondlx-O

organisation No.

Leader No.

Questionnaire Section No. Q. No. Choice No.

51 2(A) 4 2 5 3 5 4 4 5 4 6 5

2(B) 1 3 2 2 3 2

3 2(A) 1 2 2 3 3 3 4 4 5 4 6 3

2(B) 1 4 2 3 3 2

3(A) 1 3 2 4 3 3 4 5 5 4 6 3

3(B) 1 4 2 2 3 2 4 3

52 2(A) 1 3 2 5 3 4 4 5 5 4 6 5

2(B) 1 5 2 1 3 3

3(A) 4 2 5 3 4 4 5 5 4 6 5

3(B) 1 5 2 5 3 3 4 5

7 2(A) 1 3 2 4

GI

Svrnrnary 4)f Leaders ResDonses on the Questionnaire In Phase-11 of data colloction At)v4? ndlx-O

4 3 5 4 6 5

2(B) 1 3 2 5 3 4

3(A) 1 3 2 3 3 5 4 4 5 4 6 5

3(B) 1 4 2 4 3 5 4 4

23 2(A) 1 2 2 5 3 5 4 2 5 3 6 2

2(B) 1 3 2 3 3 4

3(A) 1 3 2 4 3 5 4 3 5 2 6 3

3(B) 1 4 2 2 3 5 4 3

4 2(A) 3 2 4 3 5 4 3 5 1 6 2

2(B) 3 2 2 3 4

3(A) 1 3 2 3 3 5 4 4 5 3 6 3

3(B) 1 3 2 4

G2

Summary of Lgaders Responses on the Qu9stionnalre In PhOse-11 of dato colloction Asmondix-O

3 3 4 3

2 2(A) 1 5 2 5 3 5 4 4 5 4 6 5

2(B) 1 4 2 4 3 3

3(A) 1 3 2 2 3 4 4 2 5 3 6 2

3(B) 3 2 3 3 4 4 3

2(A) 1 5 2 5 3 5 4 5 5 5 6 4

2(B) 1 3 2 4 3 2

3(A) 3 2 4 3 5 4 3 5 2 6 3

3(B) 1 1 2 3 3 3 4 3

53 2(A) 1 4 ................. .. 2 5 ..... . ...... 3 5

4 5 5 5 6 4

2(B) 1 2 2 4 3 3

3(A) 1 5 5

i 3 5

G3

Svrrmary of Leaders Responses on the Questionnaire In Phose4l of data collection AiD[mndlx! G

4 5 5 5 6 4

3(B) 1 1 2 3 3 3 4 2

47 2(A) 1 3 2 4 3 4 4 3 5 3 6 4

2(B) 1 3 2 3 3 4

3(A) 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 3 5 2 6 3

3(B) 1 2 2 4 3 3 4 3

17 2(A) 1 5 2 4 3 5 4 5 5 4 6 4

2(B) 1 3 2 3 3 3 6 4

3(A) 1 2 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 4

3(B) 1 3 2 4 3 4 4 3

39 2(A) 1 3 2 4 3 5 4 2 5 2 6 2

2(B) 1 3

G4

Surrrnary of Leaders Responses on the Questionnaire In Phoso-11 of data colloction AiDiDondix-O

2 2 3 4

3(A) 1 4 2 4 3 4 4 2 5 3 6 2

3(B) 3 2 2 3 3 4 3

46 2(A) 1 3 2 4 3 4 4 3 5 3 6 2

2(B) 1 3 2 3 3 4

3(A) 1 3 2 4 3 3 4 2 5 2 6 1

3(A) 1 2 2 2 3 3 4 3

5 2(A) 1 5 2 4 3 5 4 5 5 4 6 4

2(B) 1 2 2 4 3 3

3(A) 1 4 2 3 3 3 4 2 5 2 6 2

3(B) 1 3 2 3 3 3

54 2(A) 11 4 2 4 3 5

GS

Summary of Lgaders Responses on the Questionnaire In Phosoji of data colloction AiDDondix-G

4 3 5 3 6 3

2(B) 1 3 2 4 3 3

3(A) 1 5 2 4 3 5 4 4 5 5 6 3

3(B) 1 3 2 3 3 2 4 2

55 2(A) 1 14 2 4

3 5 4 2 5 2 6 2

2(B) 1 3 2 2 3 3

3(A) _I

3 2 4 3 5 4 3 5 3 6 3

3(B) 1 3 2 3 3 4 4 3

13 2(A) 1 3 2 2 3 4 4 3 5 2 6 3

2(B) 1 3 2 3 3 2

3(A) 1 4 2 4 3 5 4 2 5 2 6 2

3(B) 1 ---

3 2 2

G6

Svrnmary of Leaders Responses on the Questionnalroln Phase-11 of data colloction ADvondix-O

3 3 4 3

45 2(A) 1 5 2 5 3 5 4 3 5 3 6 2

2(B) 1 3 2 2 3 3

3(A) 1 3 2 4 3 5 4 3 5 4 6 4

3(B) 1 3 2 3 3 3 4 3

56 2(A) 1 5 2 5 3 5 4 5 5 5 6 4

2(B) 1 3 2 4 3 3

3(A) 1 4 2 4 3 5 4 3 5 4 6 3

3(B) 1 2 2 3 3 3 4 2

2 56 2(A) 5 2 4 3 5 4 2 5 3 6 3

2(B) 1 3 2 2 3 2

29 2(A) 1 4 2 4 3 5

G7

Svmmane of Leaders Responses on the Questionnaire In Phase-11 of data collection, ADinndix-O

4 3 5 4 6 3

2(B) 1 3 2 3 3 2

3(A) 1 5 2 4 3 4 4 3 5 3 6 3

3(B) 1 3 2 3 3 3 4 4

2 57 2(A) 1 4 2 3 3 4 4 3 5 2 6 2

2(B) 1 3 2 3 3 2

3(A) 1 3 2 4 3 4 4 3 5 3 6 3

3(B) 1 3 2 3 3 2 4 3

2 12 2(A) 1 4 2 5 3 5 4 2 5 2 6 2

2(B) 1 3 2 2 3 3

3(A) 1 3 2 4 3 5 4 3 5 3 6 3

3(B) 1 3 2 3

G8

Svmrpary of Leaders Responses on the Questionnalre In Phase-11 of data-collgctlon Avogndim-0

3 3 4 3

2 58 2(A) 1 3 2 4 3 4 4 3 5 2 6 2

2(B) 1 3 2 2 3 3

3(A) 1 3 2 4 3 4 4 3 5 3 6 3

3(B) 1 4 2 3 3 3 4 3

2 59 2(A) 1 3 2 3 3 4 4 4 5 4 6 4

2(B) 1 3 2 4 3 3

3(A) 1 4 2 4 3 4 4 4 5 4 5 2

3(B) 1 4 2 3 3 4 4 3

2 49 2(A) 5 2 4 3 5 4 2 5 3 6 2

2(B) 1 4 2 3 3 4

3(A) 1 4 2 3 3 5

G9

5-vrn-mary of Leaders Resvonses on the Questionnaire-In PhoseAl of -data colloctlon AiDI29ndlx-O

4 3 5 3 6 2

3(B) 1 3 2 3 3 2 4 3

2 16 2(A) 1 5 2 4 3 5 4 2 5 2 6 3

2(B) 1 3 2 2 3 2

3(A) 1 5 2 4 3 5 4 3 5 3 6 2

3(B) 1 3 2 2 3 2 4 2

2 2(A) 5 2 4 3 4 4 3 5 2 6 3

2(B) 1 3 2 2 3 2

3(A) 1 3 2 4 3 4 4 3 5 3 6 2

3(B) 1 5 2 3 3 3 4 3

2 20 2(A) 1 4 2 4 3 5 4 3 5 3 6 2

2(B) I ---

4

GIO

Svrnrnary of Leaders Resgonses on the Questionnalre In Phaso4lof data-collection opondix-O

2 2 3 2

3(A) 1 4 2 4 3 2 4 2 5 3 6 2

3(B) 1 3 2 2 3 3 4 2

2 60 2(A) 1 4 2 4 3 5 4 3 5 3

1

6 3 2(B) 1 4

2 3 3 4

3(A) 1 4 2 4 3 5 4 3 5 3 6 2

3(B) 1 3 2 3 3 2 4 2

2 15 2(A) 1 5 2 4 3 5 4 2 5 1 6 1

2(B) 1 3 2 2 3 2

3(A) 1 4 2 4 3 5 4 2 5 3 6 1

3(B) 1 4 2 3 3 2 4 2

2 19 2(A) 1 1

4 2 4

Gil

Surnmary c)f Leaders Responses on the Questionnaire In Phase-11 o -eta collection At)Dqndix-O

3 5 4 3 5 3 6 4

2(B) 1 3 2 2 3 2

3(A) 1 4 2 4 3 5 4 2 5 2 6 2

3(B) 1 3 2 2 3 3 4 2

2 28 2(A) 1 5 2 4 3 5 4 2 5 2 6 2

2(B)

1

1 4 2 2 3 2

3(A) 1 5 2 4 3 4 4 4 5 2 6 2

3(B) 1 3 2 2 3 4 4 2

2 61 2(A) 1 5 2 4 3 5 4 5 5 4 6 3

2(B) 1 3 2 2 3 2

3(A) 1 2 2 4 3 5 4 2 5 2 6 2

3(B) 1 5

G12

Svmmary of Leaders ResDonses on the Questionnaire-in Phasoji of -data collection AiDoondlx-G

2 3 3 2 4 3

2 9 2(A) 1 5 2 4 3 4 4 3 5 3 6 4

2(B) 1 4 2 3 3 3

3(A) 1 4 2 4 3 4 4 3 5 3 6 2

3(B) 4 2 3 3 4 4 3

2 48 2(A) 1 5 2 5 3 4 4 3 5 2 6

2(B) 1 4 2 3 3 3

3(A) 3 2 4 3 5 4 4 5 4 6 2

3(B) 1 3 2 2 3 2 4 2

2 62 2(A) 2

4 4

3 4 4 2 5 2 6 3

2(B) 1 3 2 3 3 3

3(A) 1 2 2 3

G13

Svmrnary of Leaders Rest)onses on the Questionnaire In Phose4l of data collgctlon ADDendlx: Q

3 4 4 2 5 3 6 4

3(B) 1 4 2 3 3 3 4 3

2 8 2(A) 1 5 2 4 3 4 4 3 5 2 6 2

2(B) 1 4 2 1 3 4

3(A) 4 2 3 3 4 4 2 5 2 6 3

3(B) 4 2 2 3 3 4 3

3 63_ 2(A) 1 5 2 4 3 3 4 4 5 4 6 4

2(B) 1 3 2 4 3 4

31 2(A) 1 4 2 4 3 3 4 2 5 4 6 4

2(B) 1 3 2 4 3 3

3(A) 1 3 2 4 3 3 4 3 5 2 6 2

3(B) 1 4

G14

Svmmary of Leaders Resnonses on the Questionnaire In Phase-11 of data collection AiDvgndix-O

2 3 3 2 4 3

3 64 2(A) 1 4 2 4 3 3 4 2 5 2 6 1

2(B) 1 3 2 2 3 4

3(A) 1 3 2 4 3 3 4 2 5 2 6 3

3(B) 1 4 2 2 3 4 4 3

3 36 2(A) 1 4 2 3 3 4 4 3 5 2 6 2

2(B) 1 3 2 2 3 4

3(A) 1 4 2 4 3 4 4 3 5 2 6 3

3(B) 1 4 2 3 3 2 4 3

3 65 2(A) 1 5 2 4 3 3 4 2 5 1 6 2

2(B) 1 3 2 2 3 4

3(A) i==

4 [=

2 4

G15

Svmrnarv of Leaders Responses on the Questionnaire In Phaso4l of data collection Avvendlx-O

3 3 4 2 5 2 6 3

3(B) 1 4 2 3 3 3 4 2

3 10 2(A) 1 5 2 3 3 3 4 4 5 4 6 4

2(B) 1 3 2 2 3 3

3(A) 1 4 2 3 3 3 4 1 5 2 6 2

3(B) 1 3 2 3 3 2 4 3

3 66 2(A) 4 2 3 3 3 4 2 5 4 6 5

2(B) 1 3 2 3

.... . ..... 3 3 3(A) 1 4

2 3 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 5

3(B) 1 4 2 3 3 4 4 3

3 67 2(A) 1 4 2 4 3 3 4 2 5

- 3

6 2

G16

Svrn lary of Leaders Resr)onses on the questionnaire In Phase-11 of data collectlon ADt)ondlx-O

2(B) 1 3 2 2 3 3

3(A) 1 3 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 3 6 2

3(B) 1 2 2 3 3 3 4 2

3 21 2(A) 1 4 2 4 3 3 4 2 5 2 6 1

2(B) 1 3 2 2 3 3

3(A) 1 4 2 4 3 3 4 4 5 3 6 3

--------- 3(B) 1 3 2 3

3 4

4 2 -- 3 50 2(A) 1 4

2 3 3 3 4 4 5 4 6 4

2(B) 1 4 2 3 3 3

3(A) 1 4 2 4 3 3 4 4 5 3 6 3

3(B) 1 4 2 3 3 4 4 3

3 41 2(A) 4

G17

Surnmary-of Leaders Responses on the Questionnaire In Phase-11 of data collectlon AmDondix-O

2 4 3 3 4 4 5 4 6 2

2(B) 1 3 2 3 3 3

3(A) 1 3 2 4 3 3 4 3 5 4 6 4

3(B) 4 2 3 3 3 4 3

3 68 2(A) 1 4 2 3 3 3 4 2 5 2 6 2

2(B) 3 2 3 3 2

3(A) 1 3 2 3 3 2 4 2

................ . 5 3 6 2

3(B) 1 4 2 3 3 3

---------- 4 2 69 2(A) 1 4

2 4 3 3 4 2 5 2 6 3

2(B) 1 4 2 3 3

3(A) 1 2 2 2 3 3 4 2 5 2 6 2

G18

Svrnmary of Leaders Responses on the Questionnalre In PhI3041 Of 48ta colloction ADDondlx-O

3(B) 1 4 2 3 3 2 4 2

3 70 2(A) 1 2 3 4 4 2 5 2 6 2

2(B) 1 4 2 2 3 1

3(A) 1 3 2 3 3 3 4 2 5 2 6 2

3(B) 1 4 2 3 3 3 4 2

3 24 2(A) 1 4 2 5 3 4 4 3 5 2 6 1

2(B) 1 4 2 3 3 3

3(A) 1 2 2 3 3 2 4 2 5 2 6 3

3(B) 1 3 2 3 3 3 4 2

3 34 2(A) 1 3 2 3 3 3 4 4 5 4 6 4

2(B) 1 3 2 3

13 4 3(A) 11 2

Gig

Summary of Leaders Responses on the Questionnaire In Phase-11 of data Colle. c. tion At)t)ondlx-O

2 2 3 3 4 4 5 4 6 3

3(B) 1 3 2 3 3 3 4 2

3 71 2(A) 1 4 2 4 3 4 4 2 5 3 6 1

2(B) 1 3 2 3 3 2

3(A) 1 4 2 3 3 3 4 2 5 2 6 4

3(B) 1 4 2 3 3 2 4 4

3 6 2(A) 1 3 2 3 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 4

2(B) 1 3 2 4 3 3

3(A) 1 3 2 3 3 4 4 4 5 3 6 4

3(B) 1 2 2 3 3 4

3 72 2(A) 4 1

1 5

2 5 3 4 4 4 5 3

G20

Sum-mani of Leaders Responses on the Questionnaire In Phaso4l of data colloction Amondix-O

6 3 2(B) 1 4

2 3 3 3

XA) 1 4 2 3 3 3 4 3 5 4 6 3

3(B) 1 4 2 3 3 4 4 3

3 38 2(A) 1 4 2 4 3 3 4 4 5 3 6 3

2(B) 1 3 2 3 3 4

3(A) 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 4 5 3 6 4

3(B) 1 4 2 3 3 3 4 4

4 73 2(A) 4 2 5 3 5 4 4 5 3 6 2

2(B) 1 3 2 2 3 4

33 2(A) 1 4 2 4 3 4 4 2 5 2 6 2

2(B) 1 4 2 3 3 3

3(A) 1 4

G21

Svmmary of Leaders Responses on the Questionnaire In PhasoAl of -data colloctlon AvDgndlx-O

2 4 3 4 4 3 5 4 6 2

3(B) 1 3 2 2 3 3 4 4

4 35 2(A) 1 5 2 4 3 4 4 3 5 3 6 2

2(B) 1 4 2 3 3 2

3(A) 1 4 2 4 3 4 4 3 5 2 6 2

3(B)

1

1 4 2 3 3 2 4 2

4 37 2(A) 1 5 2 5 3 5 4 3 5 2 6 2

2(B) 1 4 2 2 3 2

3(A) 1 4 2 4 3 4 4 4 5 4 6 3

3(B) 1 4 2 3 3 4 4 2

4 43 2(A) 1 3 2 4 3 4 4 3 5 2

G22

Svmmary of Leaders Responses on the Questionnaire In Phase4l of data collectlon Avi)vndix: Q

6 2 2(B) 4

2 3 3 2

3(A) 1 4 2 4 3 3 4 2 5 3 6 2

3(B) 4 2 3 3 3 4 2

4 74 2(A) 1 4 2 4 3 4 4 2 5 2 6 2

2(B) 1 3 2 3 3 2

3(A) 1 3 2 4 3 4 4 2 5 1 6 2

3(B) 1 5 2 3 3 2 4 2

4 22 2(A) 1 4 2 4 3 4 4 4 5 4 6 5

2(B) 1 4 2 4 3 3

3(A) 1 4 2 3 3 4 4 3 5 2 6 3

3(B) 1 4 2 3 3 4 4 2

G23

Summary of Leaders Re5ponses on the Questlonnalre In Phasoji of data colloction ARv9ndlx: Q

4 40 2(A) 1 5 2 4 3 4 4 2 5 2 6 2

2(B) 1 4 2 3 3 2

3(A) 1 4 2 3 3 4 4 3 5 3 6 2

3(B) 1 5 2 3 3 2 4 2

4 42 2(A) 1 3 2 2 3 3 4 3 5 2 6 1

2(B) 1 3 2 2 3 1

3(A) 1 3 2 2 3 4 4 3 5 4 6 3

3(B) 1 4 2 3 3 4 4 3

4 18 2(A) 1 5 2 4 3 4 4 2 5 6

2(B) 1 3 2 2 3 2

3(A) 1 4 2 4 3 3 4 2 5 2

G24

su_mmarv of Leaders Responses on the Questionnaire In Phaso4l of data colloctlon ADDondix-O

6 1 3(B) 1 4

2 2 3 2 4 1

5 75 2(A) 1 3 2 4 3 2 4 4 5 4 6 4

2(B) 1 3 2 2 3 2

5 44 2(A) 1 4 2 4 3 2 4 2 5 2 6 2

2(B) 1 3 2 1 3 2

3(A) 1 4 2 3 3 3 4 2 5 1 6 1

3(B) 1 3 2 2 3 1 4 2

5 26 2(A) 1 5 2 4 3 3 4 2 5 1 6 1

2(B) 1 4 2 4 3 2

3(A) 1 4 2 4 3 3 4 2 5 2 6 1

3(B) 1 3 2 2 a 2 4 2

G25

5-urnmary of Leaders R9sponses on the Quelstlonnalre In Phase-11 of data colloctlon ADDondlx. G

5 27 2(A) 5 2 4 3 2 4 2 5 1 6 1

2(B) 1 3 2 2 3 2

3(A) 1 2 2 2 3 2 4 3 5 3 6 2

3(B) 1 3 2 2 3 2 4 2

5 76 2(A) 1 4 2 3 3 2 4 3 5 2 6 2

2(B) 1 3 2 2 3 1

3(A) 1 3 2 2 3 2 4 3 5 2 6 2

3(B) 1 3 2 2 3 4

5 32 2(A) 1 4 2 4 3 3 4 2 5 2 6 3

2(B) 1 3 2 3 3 2

XA) 1 4 2 3 3 3 4 2 5 1

G26

Svmmary of Leaders Responses on the Questlonnalre In PhIS9410 data colloction At)i)ondlx--g

6 1 3(B) 1 3

2 2 3 2 4 1

5 25 2(A) 1 4 2 3 3 2 4 5 6

2(B) 1 3 2 2 3 2

3(A) 1 3 2 3 3 2 4 4 5 2 6 2

3(B) 1 3 2 2 3 4 4 2

5 30 2(A) 1 3 2 3 3 2 4 5 5 5 6 5

2(B) 1 3 2 2 3

3(A) 5 2 4 3 2 4 2 5 1 6 1

3(B) 1 3 2 2 3 2 4 1

14 2(A) 1 4 2 3 3 2 4 3 5 2 6 3

2(B) 1 4 2 2 3 3

G27

Sumrnary of Leaders Rest3onses on the Questionnaire In P-hose4l of data colloction AiDiDondlx: g

3(A) 1 3 2 4 3 4 4 3 5 3 6 2

3(B) 1 3 2 2 3 2 4 3

G28

Appentlix-11

Lcadcrs rcsponscs for organisation No. 2 (Largc licavy wcight vchiclcs manufacturing

factory) with low, high, and normal scorc on trans format i onal Icadcrship scalc (TLS)

as shown in tabic-6.29,6.30 and 6.3 1.

Tablc-6.29 Organisation No. 2 Lcadcrs rcsponscs with Low scorc on TLS. (Box 3 of

i gurc 5.1.2)

Questionnaire Sac No.

Question No.

Leader No. 59

Choice No.

Leader Noll

Choice No.

Leader No. 9

Choice No.

Leader No. 8

Choice No. Mean Score

Standard Deviation

2A al 3 5 5 5 4.5 1.00 02 3 4 4 4 3.75 0.50 03 4 5 4 4 4.25 050 04 4 5 3 3 3.75 0.96 05 4 4 3 2 3.25 0., 96 06 4 3 4 2 3-25 0,96

28 al 3 3 4 4 3.5 0.58 02 4 2 3 1 25 IN 03 3 2 3 4 3 0.82

3A al 4 2 4 4 3.5 1.00 02 4 4 4 3 3.75 0.50 03 4 5 4 4 4.25 050 04 4 2 3 2 2.75 0.96 05 4 2 3 2 2.75 0.96 06 2 2 2 3 2.25 050

3B at 4 5 4 4 4.25 050 02 3 3 3 2 2.75 0.50

03 14 2 4 3 3.25 0.96 04 13 3 3 3 3 000

Tabic-6.30 Organisation No. 2 Leadcrs rcsponscs with Iligh scorc on TLS. (Box 3 of figure

Questi- onnal- re Sm

No.

Ques- tion No.

Leader No. 56

Choice No.

Leader No. 12

Choice No.

Leader No. 58

Choice No.

Leader No. 16

Choice No.

Leader No. 15

Choice No.

Leader No. 25

Choice No.

Leader No. 57

Choice No.

Leader No. 11

Choice No.

Leader No. 60

Choice No.

Loader No. 48

Choice No.

Leader No. 62

Choice No.

Mean Score

Stand- ord

Devia- tion

2A al 5 4 3 5 5 5 4 5 4 5 4 4.45 069 02 4 5 4 4 4 4 3 4 4 5 4 4.09 0.54 03 5 5 4 5 5 5 4 4 5 4 4 4.55 0.52 04 2 2 3 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 2 2.45 OV 05 3 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 2 209 0.54 06 3 2 2 3 1 2 2 3 3 1 3 2,27 0.79

2B 01 3 3 3 3 3 14 3 3 4 4 3 127 0.47 02 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 3 3 3 2.36 0.50 03 2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 4 3 3 2.55 0.69

3A a, 3 3 5 4 5 3 3 4 3 2 350 0.97 02 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 190 0.32 03 5 4 5 5 4 4 4 5 5 4 4$0 1 053 04 3 3 3 2 14 3 3 3 4 1 2- 300 1 0.67

R

05 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 4 3 300 047 06 3 3 2 1 2 3 2 2 2 4 240 084

3B 01 3 4 3 4 3 3 5 3 3 4 150 0.71 02 3 3 2 3 2 3 3 3 2 3 2.70 048 03 3 3 2 2 4 12 3 2 2 3 260 0.70

3 3 2 2 12 13 3 2 2 13 2.50 1 053

III

Al)l)ciidlx. ll

Tablc-6.31 Organisation No. 2 Lcadcrs rcsponscs with Nomial scorc on TLS. (Box 3

of rigurc 5.1.2)

Questionnaire Sac No.

Question No.

Leader Nolg

Choice No.

Leader No. 49

Choice No.

Leader No. 20

Choice No.

Leader No. 19

Choice No. Mean Score Standard

Deviation

2A 01 4 5 4 4 4.25 0.50

02 4 4 4 4 4 0.00

03 5 5 5 5 5 0.00

04 3 2 3 3 2.75 0.50 as 4 3 3 3 3.25 0.50 06 3 2 2 4 2.75 0.96

2B 01 3 4 4 3 35 0.58 02 3 3 2 2 2.5 0.58

03 2 4 2 2 2.5 1.00

3A al 5 4 4 4 4.25 0.50

02 4 3 4 4 3.75 0.50 03 4 5 2 5 4 1.41

04 3 3 2 2 2.5 0.58 as 3 3 3 2 2.75 0.50 06 3 2 2 2 2.25 0.50

313 al 3 3 3 3 3 0.00

02 13 3 12 12 2.5 0. F

03 3 2 3 3 2.75 0.50

04 4 3 2 2 . 2.75 0.96

Lcaders rcsponscs for organisation No. 3 with low, high, and normal scorc on

transformational Icadership scalc (TLS) arc as shown in tablc-6.32,6.33 and 6.34.

Tabic-6.32 Organisation No. 3 (Largc hcavy cquipmcnt manufacturing factorY)

Leadcrs rcsponscs with Low Scorc on TLS. (Box 3 of figurc 5.1.2)

auestion- Question Leader Leader Leader Leader Nol Leader Standard pairs Sec. No No. 10 No. 66 No. 67 Choice No. No. 72 Mean Score )@vlatlon

No. . Choice No. Choice No. Choice No. Choice No.

2(A) 1 5 4 4 3 5 42 0

2 3 3 4 3 5 36 089

3 3 3 3 3 4 32 4 4 2 2 4 4 32 110

5 4 4 3 5 3 38 - - 6 4 5 2 4 3 36 14

-' 2(8) 1 3 3 3 3 4 32 0 44

4 08 2 2 3 2 4 3 28 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 55 0

3(A) 1 4 4 3 3 4 36 45

2 3 3 2 3 3 28 3 3 3 3 4 3 32 36ý 4 1 4 4 4 3 32 1

--'1,14 5 2 5 3 3 4 34 6 2 5 2 4 3 32

h

3(B) 1 3 4 2 2 4 3 0

H

21 3 3 3 3 3 3 089

3 2 31 4 4 34 0 89 41 3 21 11 31

__2.4_

112

Appendix-11

Table-6.33 Organisation No. 3 Leaders responses with High score on TLS. (Box 3 or figurc

5.1.2)

Questio- nnalre

Sec. No.

Lea- der No.

Leader No. 64

Choice No.

Leader No. 65

Choice No.

Leader No. 21

Choice No.

Leader No. 68

Choice No.

Leader No. 69

Choice No.

Leader No. 70

Choice No.

Leader No. 24

Choice No.

Leader No. 71

Choice No.

Leader No. 63

Choice No.

Leader NoAl

Choice No.

Mean Score

Stand. ard

DevIs- tion

2(A) 1 4 5 4 4 4 5 4 4 5 4 430 _O

48 21 4 4 4 3 4 5 5 4 4 4 4,10 0,51 3j 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 3 3 330 0.48 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 4 4 Z50 5 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 3 4 4 2.40 097 6 1 2 1 2 3 2 1 1 4 2 1.90 0.99 1 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 3 3 3 3.30 048 2 2 2 2 3 1 2 3 3 4 3 2.50 0-85 3 4 4 3 2 3 1 3 2 4 3 2.90 0-99

3(A) 1 3 4 4 3 2 3 2 4 0 3 3.11 1.23 2 4 4 4 3 2 3 3 3 0 4 3.33 1.25 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 2 3 0 3 2.78 097 4 2 2 4 2 2 2 2 2 0 3 2,33 0.99 5 _ 2 2 3 3 2 2 2 2 0 4 2.44 1.03 6 3 3 3 2 2 2 3 4 0 4 2.89 1.17 1 4 4

1

3 4 4 4 3 4 0 4 3.78 1.26 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 0 3 289 09 3 4 3 4 3 2

J 3 E3 ý

3 2 0 3 3.00 1.10 4 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 4 0

..... 2.44 1.03

Table-6.34 Organisation No. 3 Leaders responses with Normal score on TLS. (Box 3

of figure

Question- nalre Sec.

No.

Question No.

Leader No. 31

Choice No.

Leader No. 36

Choice No.

Leader No. 50

Choice No.

Leader No. 34

Choice No.

Leader No. 38


Deviation

2(A) 4 4 4 3 4 38 045 02 4 3 3 3 4 3.4 0.55 03 3 4 3 3 3 32 045 04 2 3 4 4 4 3.4 089 05 4 2 4 4 3 3.4 089 06 4 2 4 4 3 3.4 089

2(B) al 3 3 4 3 3 32 0.45 02 4 2 3 3 3 3 0.71 03 3 4 3 4 4 36 0,55

3(A) Ql 3 4 4 2 2 3 1 DO 02 4 4 4 2 3 3.4 089

_ 03 3 4_ 3 3 4 3.4 0.55 04 3 3 4 4 4 36 0.55 05 2 2 3 4 3 2.8 0.84 06 2 3 3 3 4 3 0.71

3(B) 01 4 4 4 3 .4

38 045 02 3 3 3 3 3 3 0.00 03 2 2 14 3 3 2.8 084 04 3 3 13 2 4 3 0.71

H3

Appcnilix-11

Leaders responses for organisation No. 4 (Auto mobilcs manuracturing plant) with low, high, and normal score on transformational leadership scalc(TLS) as shown in

table-6.35,6.36 and 6.37.

Table-6.35 Organisation No. 4 Leaders responses with Low score on TLS. (Box 3 of figurc

au stionnalre Sec No. 10, Question

No. Leader No. 22

Choice No.

Leader No. 18


Deviation

2(A) al 4 5 4.5 0.71 02 4 4 4 0.00 03 4 4 4 0.00 04 4 2 3 1.41 05 4 1 2.5 2.12 06 5 1 3 2.83

2(B) al 1 4 3 3.5 0.71 02 4 2 3 1.41 Q3 3 2 2.5 0.71

3(A) Ql 4 4 4 0.00 Q2 3 4 3.5 0.71 03 4 3 3.5 0.71 04 3 2 2.5 0.71 05 2 2 2 0.00 06 3 1 2 1.41

- 3(B) Ql 4 4 4 0.00 Q2 3 2 2.5 0.71 03

-- 4

- 2 3 1.41

04 t 2 1 1.5 0.71

Table-6.36 Organisation No. 4 Leaders responses with High Score on TLS. (Box 3 of figure

Question- nalre Sec.

No.

Question No.

Leader No. 73

Choice No.

Leader No. 33

Choice No.

Leader No. 35

Choice No.

Leader No. 74

Choice No.

Leader No. 37

Choice No.

Leader No. 43

Choice No.

Leader No. 40

Choice No.

Mean sr-ors

Standard D*vlatlon

2(A) 4 4 5 4 5 3 5 4.29 0,76 02 5 4 4 4 5 4 4 4.29 0.49 Q3 5 4 4 4 5 4 4 4.29 0.49 04 4 2 3 2 3 3 2 2.71 0.76 05 3 2 3 2 2 2 2 2,29 0.49 06 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2.00 0.00 01 3 4 4 3 4 4 4 3.71 0,49 02 2 3 3 3 2

_3 3 2.71 0.49

03 4 3 2 2 2 2 2 2.43 0.79 3(A) 01 4 4 3 4 4 4 383 0.41

02 4 4 4 4 4 3 383 0.41 03 4 4 4 4 3 4 3,83 0.41 04 3 3 2 4 2 3 2.83 0.75 05 4 2 1 4 3 3 183 1.11 06 2 2 2 3 2 2 2.17 0.41

3(B) al I -- 3 4 6 4 4 5 4.17 0.75

02 2 3 3 3 3 3 2.83 0.41 03 3 2 2 4 3 2 2,67 082 04 4 2 2 2 2 2 2.33 082

114

Appaidix-11

Table-6.37 Organisation No. 4 Leaders responses with Normal score on TLS. (Box 3

of figure 5-1.2)

Questionnaire Sec. No.

Question No.

Leader No. 42

Choice No.

2(A) Ql 3 Q2 2 03 3 Q4 3 05 2 06 1

-2(B) Ql 3 Q2 2 03 1

3(A) 01 3 02 2 03 4 Q4 3 Q5 4 Q6 3

3(B) Ql 4 02 3 Q3 4 Q4 3

Leaders responses for organisation No. 5 (Auto parts manufacturing factory) with low,

high, and normal score on transformational leadership scale (TLS) arc as shown in

table-6.38,6.39 and 6.40.

Table-6.38 Organisation No. 5 Leaders responses with Low score on TLS. (Box 3 of figure


Question No.

Leader No. 25

Choice No.

Leader No. 30


Deviation

2A Ql 4 3 3.5 0.71 02 3 3 3 0.00 03 2 2 2 0.00 04 1 5 3 2.83 Q5 1 5 3 2.83 06 1 5 3 2.83

213 Ql 3 3 3 0.00 _ 02 2 2 2 0.00

03 2 1 1.5 0.71 3A al 3 5 4 1.41

02 3 4 3.5 0.71 Q3 2 2 2 0.00 04 4 2 3 1.41 05 2 1 1.5 0.71 06 2_ 1 1.5 0.71

3B W 3 3 3 0. 02 2 2 2 0.00 03 4 2 3 1.41 04 2 1 1.5 0.71

115

Appendix-11

Table-6.39 Organisation No. 5 Leaders responses with High score on TLS. (Box 3 of figure 5.1-2)


Question No.

Leader No. 26

Choice No.

Leader No. 75

Choice No.

Leader No. 27

Choice No.

Leader No. 76

Choice No.

Leader No. 32


Deviation

2A 01 5 3 5- -4

4 4,20 064 02 4

14 4 31 4 380 045

03 3 2 2 2 3 2.40 --- 0.55 04 2 4 2 3 2

-2.60--- 0 eg

05 1 4 1 2 2 2.00 - 1.22 06 1 4 1 2 3 2.20 1.30

2B al 4 3 3 3 3 320 OA5 02 4 2 2 2 3 2,60 - 089 03 2 2 2 1 2 180 045

3A al 4 0 2 3 4 325 161 02 4 0 2 2 3 2.75 148 03 3 0 2 2 3 2.50 1.22 04 2 0 5 3 2 2.50 122 05 2 0 3 2 1 2.00 1.14 06 1 0 2 2 1 1.50 084

3B al 3 0 3 3 3 3,00 1 . 34 02 2 0 2 2

- 2 2.00 , 089

03 2 0 2 4

1 2 1.75 089 04 2 0 2 1 1 1.50 084

Table-6.40 Organisation No. 5 Leaders responses with Nonnal score on TLS. (Box 3

of figure

Questionnaire Question Leader No. 44

Sec. No. No. Choice No.

2A Ql 4 02 4 Q3

- 2

0 4 2 05 2 UO 1 2

2B Q1 3 02 1 Q3 2

3A 01 4 02 3 03 3 04 2 05 1 06

d

1 3B Ql 3

02 2 0-3 1

-04 2

H6

Appoidix-11

Tablc-6.42 Organisation No. 2 Comparison of Rcsponscs from Lcadcrs with Low,

High, and Normal Transformational Lcadcrship Charactcristics: (Box 4 or figurc

5.1.2)

Organisation No. 2 Comparlsion of Leadership Style

Questionnaire Sec. No. Question No.


Leadership


Leadership

High Transformational Remarks

characteristics Characteristics Characteristics

2A(As leader) Q1 4.5(1.50) 4.25(0.50) 4.45(0.69) Strict discipline among

subordinates

02 3.75(0.5) 4(0) 4.09(0.54) Clear standard on praise &

punishment

03 4.25(0.5) 5(0) 4.54(0.52) Operating highly structured

system

Q4 3.75(0.96) 2.75(0.5) 2.45(0.52) Setting clear goals for

employees

Q5 3.25(0.96) 3.25(0.5) 2.09(0.54) Making decision myself

Q6 3.25(0.96) 2.75(0.96) 2.27(0.79) Closely monitor subordinates

2B Q1 3.50.58) 3.5(0.58) 3.27(0.47) Concerned about opinion of

subordinates

Q2 2.5(l. 29) 2.5(0.58) 2.36(0.50) Subordinates are cause for

failure

External envimoment plays role Q3 3(0.82) 2.5(11.0) 2.54(0.69) in success or failure of planned

pro, cessess

3A (As follower) Q1 3.5(l) 4.25(0.5) 3.5(0.97) Strict discipline among

subordinates

02 3.75(0.5) 3.75(0.5) 3.9(0.32) Clear standard on praise &

punishment

Q3 4.25(0.5) 4(1.41) 4.5(0.53) Operating highly structured

system

Q4 2.75(0.96) 2.5(0.58) 3(0.67) Setting cjear goals for

_ employees

05 2.75(0.96) 2.75(0.50) 3(0.47) Making decision myself

06 2.25(0.5) 2.25(0.50) 2.4(0.84) Closely monitor subordinates

3B 01 4.25(0.5) 3(0) 3.5(0.71) Concerned about the opinion of

theleader

Q2 2.75(0.5) 2.5(0.58) 2.7(0.48) Leader is the cause of failure

External envirnoment plays role Q3 3.25(0.96) 2.75(0.50) 2.6(0.70) In success or failure of planned

processess

I am responsible for success or 04 3(0) 2.75(0.96) 2.5(0.53) failure of the processes In the

I organisation

117

Appendix-11

Table-6.43 Organisation No. 3 Comparison of Rcsponscs from Lcadcrs with Low,

High, and Normal Transformational Lcadcrship Charactcristics: (Box 4 or figure

5-1.2)


Ouestionnaire QuesUon Low

Transformaflonal Normal

Transformational High Transformational Remarm

Sec, No. No. Leadership characteristics

Leadership Characteristics Characteristics

(As leader) Q1 4.2(0.84) 3.8(0.45) 4.3(0.48) Strict discipline among Subordinates

Q2 3.6(0.89) 3.4(0.55) 4.1(0.57) Clear standard on praise punishment

Q3 3.2(0.45) 3.2(0.45) 3.3(0.48) Operating highly structured system

Q4 3.2(l. 10) 3.4(0.89) 2.5(0.85) Setting clear goals for employees

Q5 3.8(0.84) 3.4(0.89) 2.4(0.97) Making decision myself

06 3.6(l. 14) 3.4(0.89) 1.9(0.99) Closely monitor subordinates

2B Q1 3.2(0.45) 3.2(0.45) 3.3(0.48) Concerned about opinion of subordinates

Q2 2.8(0.84) 3(0.71) 2.5(0.85) Subordinates are cause for failure External envirnoment plays role In

Q3 3(0.0) 3.6(0.55) 2.9(0.99) success or failure of planned processess,

3A (As Q1 3.6(0.55) 3(1.0) 3.11(1.23) Strict discipline among subordinate) subordinates

Q2 2.8(0.45) 3.4(0.89) 3.33(l. 25) Clear standard on praise & punishment

Q3 3.2(0.45) 3.4(0.55) 2.78(0.97) Operating highly structured system

04 3.2(l. 30) 3.6(0.55) 2.33(0.99 ear goals for employees Q5 3.4(l. 14) 2.8(0.84) 2.44(l. 03) Making decision myself

Q6 3.2(l. 30) 3(0.71) 2.89(1.17) Closely monitor subordinates

3B Q1 3(1.0) 3.8(0.45) 3.78(1.26) Concerned about the opinion of the leader

Q2 3(0.0) 3(0.0) 2.89(0.97) Leader Is the cause of failure External envimoment plays role In

Q3 3.4(0.89) 2.8(0.84) 3(1.16) success or failure of planned processess

I am responsible for success or 04 2.4(0.89) 3(0.71) 2.44(l. 03) failure of the processes In the

I I I organisation

118

Appaidix-11

Table-6.44 Organisation No. 4 Comparison of Responses from Lcadcrs with Low,

High, and Normal Transformational Leadership Characteristics- (Box 4 or figurc

5.1.2)


Questionnaire Sec. No

Question No


Leadership


Leadership

High Transformational Remarks

. . characteristics Characteristics Characteristics

2A(As leader) Q1 4.5(0.71) 3(0) 4.28(0.76) Strict discipline among subordinates

Q2 4(0.0) 2(0) 4.28(0.49) Clear standard on praise & punishment

Q3 4(0.0) 3(0) 4.28(0.49) Operating highly structured system

Q4 3(1.41) 3(0) 2.71(0.76) Setting cJear goals for employees

Q5 2. -5(2.12)

2(0) 2.28(0.49) Making decision myself Q6 3(2.83) 1(0) 2(0) Closely monitor subordinates

2B Q1 3.5(0.71) 3(0) 3.71(0.49) Concerned about opinion of subordinates

Q2 3(1.41) 2(0) 2.71(0.49) Subordinates are cause for failure

External envimomont plays role 03 2.5(0.71) 1(0) 2.428(0.79) In success or failure of planned

processess; 3A (As Q1 4(0.0) 3(0) 3.83(0.41) Strict discipline among

subordinate) subordinates

Q2 3.5(0.71) 2(0) 3.83(0.41) Clear standard on praise a punishment

Q3 3.5(0.71) 4(0) 3.83(0.41) Operating highly structured system

04 2.5(0.71) 3(0) 2.83(0.75) Setting cJear goals for employees

Q5 2(0.0) 4(0) 2.83(1.17) Making decision myself

Q6 2(1.41) 3(0) 2.17(0.41) Closely monitor subordinates

3B Q1 4(0.0) 4(0) 4.17(0.75) Concerned about the opinion of the leader

02 2.5(0.71) 3(0) 2.83(0.41) Leader is the Cause of failure External envimoment plays role

03 3(1.41) 4(0) 2.67(0.82) In success or failuro of planned processess

I am responsible for success or Q4 1.5(0.71) 3(0) 2.33(0.82) failure of the processes In the

organisation

119

Appendix-11

Tablc-6.45 Organisation No. 5 Comparison of Rcsponscs from Lcadcrs with Low,

High, and Normal Transformational Lcadcrship Charactcristics: (Box 4 of figurc

5.1.2)

Organisation No. 5 Comparlsion of Leadership Stylo

Quesitionnaire Sec. Question Low

Transformational Nonnal

Transforrnational High Transforri. 4bwW Reffiarts

No. No. Leadership characteristics

Leadership Characteristics CharWe(iSUCS

2A(As leader) Q1 I 3.5(0.71) 4(0) 4.2(0.84) Strict discipline among

subordinates

Q2 3(0) 3.8(0.45) Clear standard on praise &

4(0) punishment

03 2(0) 2(0) 2.4(0.55) OporaUng highly structured

-system 04 3(2.83) 2(0) 2.6(0.89) SoWng clear goals for employees

05 3(2.83) 2(0) 2(1.22) Making decision myself

06 3(2.83) 2(0) 2.2(1.30) Closely monitor Subordinates

2B Q1 3(0) 3(0) 3.2(0.45) Concerned about opinion of

subordinates

02 2(0) 1(0) 2.6(0.89) Subordinates are cause for failure

External envimoment plays rolo in 03 1.5(0.71) 2(0) 1.8(0.45) success or failure of planned

processess

3A (As Q1 4(1.41) 4(0) 3.25(1.67) Strict discipline among subordinate) , subordinates

Q2 3.5(0.71) 3(0) 2.75(1.48) Clear standard on pralso & punishment

Q3 2(0) 3(0) 2.5(1.22) OperaUng highly structured

system Q4 3(1.41) 2(0) 2.5(1.22) SelUng cJear goals for employees

Q5 1.5(0.71) 1(0) 2(1.14) Making decision myself

Q6 1.5(0.71) 1(0) 1.5(0.84) Closely monitor subordinates

3B 01 3(0) 3(0) 3(1.34) Concerned about the opinion of

theloader

02 2(0) 2(0) 2(0.89) Leader Is the cause of failure

External envirnoment plays role in 03 3(1.41) 1(0) 1.75(0.89) success or failure of planned

processoss

I am responsible for success or 04 1.5(0.71) 2(0) 1.5(0.84) failure of the processes In tho

organisaUon

1110

Appendli-If

Table 6.51 Summary of ratings for W by Organisation No. 20 Leaders about Organisation Culture. (Box I of figurc SAM

Leader No. 01 02 03 , 04 05 06 Avorag! 8- 10 20 30 110 20 10 1.7

, 9 --

20 20 10 130 10 40 21.07 61 30 25 10 15 20 20 18.33 15 10 40 30 20 130 130 20.07 1

19 10 10 40 110 10 10 15.00 29 30 25 30 15 30 20 23.33 49 30 201 10 10 20 301 20.00 59 25 201 10 30- 301 301 24.17

Average for leaders with Low Score on TLS 20.73 11 30 40 20 50 40 30 35.00 48 50 40 60, 30 50 30 43.33 76 301 101 40 301 201 201 25.00 57 20 30 30 20 101 40 25.00 60 40 30 30 20 201 40 30.00 62 20 20 20 25 10 30 20.83 12 40, 50, 40 55 45 501 46.67 16 601 301 30 40 50 401 41.67 20 601 501 401 35 401 45 _ 45.00 28 40 40 35 40 40 40 39.17 58 35 40 25 40, 40 10, 31.67

Average for leaders with High Score on TLS _34.85

1111

Appcndl%-11

Table6.52 Summary of ratings for "B" by Organisation No. 2" Loadors about Organisation Cultura, (Box 2 of figure 5.4.1)

Leader No. 01 02 Q3j Q4 05 06 Avarago 8 5 30 301 40 40 10 25.83 9 20 30 401 1 30 10 24.17 61 10 40 401 15 35 IS 25.83 15 30 10 15 0 10 20 10.17 19 10 40 20 20 20 40 25.00 29 20 201 15 10 30 20 10.17 49 10 20 40 40 30 20 26.07 59 20 10 301 25 301 401 25.83

Average for leaders with Low Score on TLS 1 1 23.96 11 10 5 20 10 101 201 12: 50 48 20 101 10 20 101 30 1 16.67 76 20 201 30 10 20 20 1 20.00 57 10 301 20 120 30 30 1 23.33 60 40 20 120 30 40 35 30.83 62 15 30 20 10 30 20 20.83 12 20 25 20 25 10 10 18.3.3 16 10 20 10 20 10 20 15.00 20 20 15 10 20 10 20 15.83 28 120 130 120 115 120 10 19.1 58 130 120 140 115 125 120 1 25.00

Average for leaders with High Score on TLS I 9. jz

Tabie 6.53 Summary of raUngs for 'V by OrganisaUon No. Z' Leaders ütx>ut OrganisaUon Culture. -fr.., ffl Cl 11

Leader No. 01ý 02ý 03, 04 05 , b 6, AvýýO

8 551 301 20 20 20 501 32-50 9 301 201 30 30 30 251 27-50 61 301 251 30 60 25 25 32. 15 30 20 20 20 20 20 21.67 19 50 20 20 40 401 20 3t67 29 20 25 351 65 201 101 2g. 17 49 30 40 30 20 251 201 27ý, 50 59 251 401 40 15 201 201 26.6,7

Average for leaders with Low Scom on TLS 1 28.65 11 40 201 20 20 20 15 22. 48 10 20 20 25 10 5 15-00 76 25 40 20 30 30 30 29-17 57 40 20 30 40 35 15 3000 60 10 20 25 30 30 15 2167 62 35 130 30 45 20 20 30.00 12 20 15 20 10 20 30 19.17 16 10 20 30 20 20 20 20. 20 10 W 20 15 10 10 12. 28 5 20 20 15 10 20 1 :. Ou 58 15 30 25 125

, 15 L40 5.0 Average for leaders with Hiqh Score on TLS 202

1112

Apl)ciidlx-ll

Table6.54 Summary of ratings for "D" by Organisation No. 2" Leaders about Organisation Culture, `- l -4r4r-- CA IN

Leader No. 01 02 03 04 05, 06, Avorago 8 30 20 20 30 201 30 25.00 9 30 30 20 25 301 25 26.67 61 30 10 20 20 201 40 23.33 15 301 301 35 30 401 30 32.50 19 30 30 20 30 301 30 28.33 29 30 30 20 20 201 50 28.33 49 30 20 201 30 251 30 251.83 59 30 30 201 30 201 101 23.33

Average for leaders with Low Score on TLS I 1 1 26.67 11 20 35 40 20 301 351 30.00 48 20 30 101 25 301 351 25.00 76 25 30 10 130 301 301 25.83 57 30 20 20 20 25 115 1 21.67 60 10 30 25 20 10 110 1 17.50 62 30 120 130 20 40 130 1 28 . 33 12 20 10 20 10 25 110 1 15.83 16 20 30 30 20 20 120 23.33 20 10 25 30 30 40 125

l

26.67 28 35 10 25 30 30 26.67 58 20 110 110ý 20 18.33

Average for leaders with High Score on TLS 23.561

H 13

Appendix-11

Table6.55 Summary of ratings for "A" by Organisation No. 3" Leaders about Organisation Culture. I -C4r-- it A 11

OVA a ul 3.6-

Leader No. ol 02 03 04 05 06 Avorsoo 6 10 40 0 30 30 10 20.00 10 40 30 20 5 20 10 20.83 66 10 40 25 10 20 20 20.83 67 20 301 10 251 251 20 21.67 72 25 101 25 10 201 10 10.67 31 10 101 25 35 10 10 16.67 34 10 01 35 30. 10 20, 17.50

36 0 10 30 10 30 10 15.00 38 10 40 30 40 10 30 26.67

50 10 10 0 25 10.00

Average for leaders with Low Score on TLS 18.58

41 40 40 35 140 120 40 1 35.83 ----------- 63 35 20 40 20 140 20

_--79.17 21 30 40 25 50 130 40 35.83

24 40 150 60 20 125 -Lo

40.83

64 30 130 30 30 130 .

10 26.67

65 25 120 130 20 30 30 25.83

68 10 120 150 35 25 25 ---77.50

69 30 140 30 30 30 33.33

70 40 10 20 25 25 50 28-33

71 30 35 35 1 20 1 20 30 ! 8-33 _ _ Average for leaders with High Score on TLS

_31.1

1114

Appcndix-11

Table 6.56 Summary of ratings for "B" by Organisation No. 3' Leaders about Organisation CulturID, . tnnx I of flaure 5.4.1)

Leader No. 011 02 03 04 05 061 Avorago_ 6 301 10 40 10 10 401 23.33 10 201 10 30 10 40 20 21.67 66 50 20 25 40 20 20 20.17 67 30 30 1 20 30 1 30 30 28.33 72 20 201 30 301 301 40 28.33 31 40 40 20 10 20 1 10 23.33 34 50 10 20 20 501 _

, 20 28.33 36 10 40 ?5 30

a

10 25.83 38 60 15 '. 5 0 50 130 1 33.33 50 1 20 1601 20 15 30 20

- I-- - 27.50

Average for leaders with Low Score on TLS 26.92 41 20 120 20 10 20 10 1 16.67 63 20 130 20 40 20 40 0 1 28.33 21 10 120 20 10 20 10 15.00 24 20 110 10 20 15 ýo 15.83 64 30 140 30 30 130 30 31.67 65 25 40 20 40 140 40 34.17 68 20 20 20 20 120 20 20.00 69 25 30 120 20 30 20 24.17 70 25 20 130 25 40 20 26.67 71 30 125 140 30 20 130 29.17

Average for leaders with High Score on TLS 2417

Table 6.57 Summary of ratings for "C" by Organisation No. 3* Leaders about Organisation Culture. , rin-- -2 ýf ficn ire 5 4-1)

Leader No. 011 02 . 03 041 051 06 Average

6 301 10 20 201 101 20 18.33 10 201 30 20 651 20-1 30 30.83 66 201 20 30 10 1 30 1 30 23.33 67 301 201 50 251 201 20 27.50 72 251 601 25 401 201 30 33.33 31 201 301 25 151 40 60 31.67 34 201 701 20 251 30 20 30.83 36 701 201 15 20 20 50 32.50 38 2 15 15 10 20 17.50 50

1 50

_10 1 401 30 30 55 35.83

Average for leaders with Low Score on TLS 28.17 41 10 20 20 20 20 20 1 18.33 63 25 20 25 10 20 20 1 20.00 21 20 10 20 20 20 20 18.33 24 30 20 120 30 30 10 23.33 64 20 120 20 120 30 30 23.33 65 30 10 30 20 15 15 20.

, 00

68 30 30 . 10 15 125 25 22.50

69 25 20 20 20 20 20 20.83 70 15 30 FO 20 15 115 19.17 71 20 120 15 30 - 22.50


H15

Appendix-if

Table 6.58 Summary of ratings for "D" by Organisation No. 3* Leaders about Organisation Cultura. in-- A, -. f Amirp. 5 411

Leader No. 011 02 03 04 05 06 Avorago 6 301 40 40 40 50 30 38.33 10 201 30 30 20 20 40 20.67 66 20 20 20 40 30 30 26.07 67 20 20 20 201 251 30 22.50 72 30 10 20 201 301 20 21.67 31 30 20 30 401 30 20 28.33 34 201 20 25 25 10 40 23.33 36 20 301 30 30 20 301 26.67 38 10. 201 30 25 30 201

- 22.50

50 20 2OT 40 30 30 201 26.67 Average for leaders with Low Score on TLS 26.33

41 30 120 25 301 40 30 29.17 63 20 130 15 30 20 20 22.50 21 40 130 35 20 30 30 30.83 24 10 20 10 30 30 20 20.00 64 20 10 120 20 10 130 18.33 65 20 30 20 20 115 115 20.00 68 40 30 20 30 30 130 30.00 69 20 10 30 30 20 20 21.67 70 20 40 30 30 20 115 1 25.83 71 20 120 110 io 20.00


Table6.59 Summary of ratings for "A" by Organisation No. 4. Lcadcrs about Organisation

1---- 113-- 1 ̂ f f1mirl- ý4 11 t-U I LUI

Leader No. al 02 03 04 051 06 Average 18 10 20 5 20 101 20 14.17 22 20 30 20 20 301 10 21.67

42 01 10 251 20 30 5 15.00

Average for leaders with Low Score on TLS 1 1

16.94

37 30 40 20 25 30 10 25.83

40 50 30 . 40 30 30

, 40, 36.67

43 40 30 120 130 40 30 31.67 33 30 40 120 130 40 30

_31.67 35 15 25 20 40 40 30 28.33

73 35 20 25 35 30 20 . 50

74 25 30 . 20 0 30

140 27.50 29.88

H16

Appendix-11

Table 6.60 Summary of ratings for "B" by Organisation NoA Leaders about Organisation Culture. in- ) ^f iricnirp ct AII

Leader No. 011 021 03 04 05 061 Avorago 18 10 51 10 30 20 101 14.17 22 20 20 10 18.33 42 10 10 101 11.67

Average for leaders with Low Score on TLS 14.72 37 10 20 130 120 201 201 20.00 40 20 20 120 120 10 101 16.67 43 20 20 30 110 15 25 20.00 33 30 10 10 120

120 10 16.67 35 30 25 30 120 20 25 25.00 73 25 40 15 2

' 20 30 25.83

74 135 30 30

120

30 130 1 29.17

Average for leaders with High Score on TLS 21-90

Table 6.61 Summary of ratings for "C'by Organisation No. 4. Leaders about Organisition Culture Mny I nf ficnire 5.4.1)

Leader No. 01 021 03 04 051 06 Average 18 50 15 70 10 601 50 42.50 22 20 30 20 20 10 60 26.67 42 1 70 60 201 50 20 65 47.50

Average for leaders with Low Score on TLS 38.89 37 30 30 20 20 201 301 25.00 40 20 20 10 20 20 1151 17 . 50 43 20 20 30 20 20 125 1 22.50 33 30 20 130 120 20 120 1 23.33 35 25 30 110 110 20 25 20.00 73 20 1 0 20 20 20.00

- 74 20 20 15 20.83

21.31 vera e for leaders with High Score on TLS

H17

Appendix-11

Table 6.62 Summary of ratings for "D" by Organisation No. 4. Lcadcrs about Organisation Culture Inny 4 nf f ivure 5.4.1)

Leader No. Ql 021 Q31 04 05 06 1 Average 18 30 601 151 40 10 201 29.17 22 40 30 40 0 40 201 33.33 42 1 20 20 35 20 40 5.83

Average for leaders with Low Score on TLS 29.44 37 30 101 30 135 30 40 29.17 40 10 301 30 130 40 35 219.17 43 20 30 120 40 25 20 25.83 33 10 30 140 30 20 40 28.33 35 30 20 140 30 20 201 26.67 73 20 30 13D I20 30 30 26.67 74 20 20 151 22.50


6.63 Summary of ratings for "A" by Organisation No. 5.. Leaders about Organisation Culture (Rnx I of fieure 5.4.1)

Leader No. 01 021 03 04 05 061 Average 25 20 20 20 30

1

10 20 20.00 30 15 25 30 10 20 30 21.67 44 30 20 20, 20 in 20 210.00

Average for leaders with Low Score on TLS 20.56 _ 27 20 60 1201 40_ 801 351 42.50

32 20 40 1301 15 _201

251 25.00 75 50 15 1251 70_ 401 201 36.67 55 30 20 1201 20 20 60 28.33 26 30 20 1401 0 60 60 40

120

20 ý

1

35.00 3ý5-00 -Aver-age

H18

AppaidIx-11

6.64 Summary of ratings for "B" by Organisation No. 5.. Leaders about Organisation Culture (Box 2 of fieure 5.4.1)

Leader No. Ql 02 03 04 05 106 Averago 25 30 30 50 40 35 140 37.50 30 40 30 40 50 40 30 38.33 44 . 50, 30, 40 145 551

1

301 41.67 Average for leaders with Low Score on TLS

- 39.17

27 30 201 201 25 101 451 25.00 32 30 40 301 45 30 551 38.33 75 10 45 451 10 40 20 28-33 55 35 35 301 40 50 20 35.00 26 20 A5A 401 10 20 45 30 00 '

Average for leaders with High Score on TLS 31 33

6.65 Summary of ratings for "C" by Organisation No. 5.. Lcadcrs about Organisation Culture (Rnx I nf ficrure 5.4.1)

Leader No. 01 02 03 04 05 06 1 Average 25 30 30 20 20 30 20 1 25.00 30 20 25 20 25 20 201 21.67 44 1101 301 20 120 201 301 21.67

Average for leaders with Low Score on TLS 22.78 27 30 101 30 25 10 15 20.00 32 20 101 201 20 20 10 16.67 75 20 20 101 10 10 40 18.33 55 15 15 20 20 15 10 15.83 26 20 20 10 20 201 20 f 18.33

6.66 Summary of ratings for "D" by Organisation No. 5.. Leadcrs about Organisation Culture (Rny 4 of fi vure 5.4.1 )

Leader No. Ql 02 1Q3 04 Q5 106 fAverage

25 20 20 110 10 25 1201 17.50 30

J

25 20 10 C 15 20 201 18.33 44 0 10

±

20 2. 2

LCI tl

5: 15 20 1 16.67 Average for leaders with Low Score on TLS 17.50

27 20 10 301 10 0 51 12.50 32 30 10 201 20 30 101 20.00 75 20. 20 201 10 10 20 16.67 55 20 301 0 30 20 15 10 20.83 26

- 30 15 101 10 20 15 1 6.67


H19

Appendix, f

Contact Summary Sheet

Type of contact: Interview Person: Leader No. 9 Place: Organisation No. 2, Pakistan Date: 20 November, 2003 Time: 10.00 hrs hrs,

Meeting details: Leader No. 9, was interviewed regarding to describe his organisation in terms of situation strength and whether he give discretion to his fiallowcrs in performance of their jobs? He was also asked to describe the causes of poor performance at any time in his organisation and how he gets fccdback about his actions?

Salient points from the meeting

> About situation strength of his organisation, he described the situation strength as strong. Process sheets and detailed parts and assembly drawings are available, quality assurance requirements arc available and implemented, employee code of conduct is available.

> He said that, followers should not be given discretion in the pcrformancc of theirjobs, because they may feel relax and therefore it may cause dclays in achieving targets as well as it may affect the quality.

> He said he discuss with followers about the progress of the job if there is any quality problems or low production occurs.

> Poor performance occurs because of followers lack of interest. If followcrs do their jobs with interest and do their jobs properly, poor performance may be overcome.

Follower's comments:

> His followers said that their leader is strict on following thc proccdurcs and doesn't give discretion to them in performing thcirjobs.

> He normally get feedback through daily production rcports and quality reports. However whenever there is problem of poor production or quality problems occurs, he asks to them about the causes.

it

AppendIx, f


Type of contact: Person: Place: Date: Time:

Interview Leader No. 12 Organisation No. 2, Pakistan. 19 November, 2003 11.30 hrs

Meeting details: Leader No. 12, was interviewed regarding to describe his organisation in terms of situation strength and whether he gives discretion to his followers in performance of their jobs? He was also asked to describe the causes of poor performance at any time in his organisation and how he gets fccdback about his actions?

Salient points from the interview: > Situation strength he defined in his organisation was strong, proccss

specification sheets, detailed parts drawing and assembly drawings wcrc available, detailed quality assurance requirements were available, and employee code of conduct was also available.

> He said he favour discretion to his followers in doing thcir jobs. It is morc matter to him that the quality of the job is good. However, if for the sakc of follower convenience, followers deviate from the standard proccdurc which doesn't affect the quality of the product, he don't bother about it.

> He said his followers are hard working and do their jobs with intcrcst. However causes of poor performance most of the time are due to n1atcrial inventory problems, or material quality problems, for which delays occur in production.

> He normally has daily short review meetings with his followers to get feedback about the progress or any problems occurring in the performance of the jobs. He used to have a close contact with his followers and used to visit followers work places to know about progress or problem areas and takc action accordingly.

Followers Comments:

> His followers told that their leader give them discretion in doing their jobs. I Ic focus on the quality of the job done.

> They told that they have a close contact with their leader and they can scck guidance at any time if a matter id beyond their control, and they normally had daily short review meetings with their leader to discuss thc progress or problems facing by them.

J2

Appendix, l


Type of contact: Interview Person: Leader No. 14 Place: Organisation No. I Pakistan. Date: 16 October, 2003 Time: 09.3 0 hrs

Meeting details: Leader No. 14, was interviewed regarding to describe his organisation in terms of situation strength and whether he give discretion to his followers in performance of their jobs? He was also asked to describe the causes of poor performance at any time in his organisation and how he gets feedback about his actions?

Salient points noted from the interview are : > He described his organisation situation strength as strong, process shcCts,

detailed part drawings were available on the shop floor as well as quality assurance procedures were available in quality control dcpartmcnt. Employee's code of conduct was available in personnel department, and any changes in the procedures or rules were documented accordingly.

> He said he is of the opinion that followers should be given discretion in the performance of their jobs in the way which better suit them, howcvcr this discretion is limited only when it doesn't affect the quality of the product, so they have confidence in them and can do better job. He gives full discretion to his followers in the performance of their jobs with respect to decision making at their own.

> About causes of poor performance, he said, his followers are hard working and efficient, causes of poor performance most of the time are due to cxccssivc machines break downs, or material inventory problems, because material has to be imported from foreign countries and some time delays occur due to shipment or customs clearance problems, which causes poor performance.

> About feedback he said he normally asked his followers about the progress of the job done, and to check whether there is any problem occurring in the performance of theirjobs.

> He said that he do weekly brain storming sessions with his followers to boost their morale and encourage them for a better prospects and broadcn their vision.

> He normally had daily short meetings with his followers at die start of the day to discuss any problem and give them instruction about any urgent job if any.

Follower's comments: > My leader gives discretion in the performance of my jobs, and in making

decision myself on routine matters. > We have regular meetings with the leader in the morning in which we discuss

any problem facing by us or any short fall in the production or quality mattcrs. > My leader used to visit me during the performance of the job and check

himself any problem occurring and to get feedback about the job donc.

J3

Appendix-J


Type of contact: Interview Person: Leader No. 18 Place: Organisation No. 4, Pakistan. Date: 02 December, 2003 Time: 10.30 hrs

Meeting details: Leader No. 18, was interviewed regarding to dcscribc his organisation in terms of situation strength and whether he give discretion to his followers in performance of their jobs? He was also asked to describe the causes of poor performance at any time in his organisation and how he gets fccdback about his actions?

Salient points from the interview: > He described his company as strong situation, process sheets and drawings

are provided and rules and regulations are well established. tic keeps tile process and regulations unaltered until and unless some document to change is provided by higher management.

> He is not bothered about making meetings with subordinates but focus oil the output and quality of production. He is worried about production targets and quality of production.

> He strictly follow the procedures and push his subordinates not to deviate from standard operating procedures.

> He told that he keep a distance from his followers so they may not be friendly and as to why lack in their jobs or fail in meeting the targets.

> He is of the opinion that followers should not have discretion in performing their jobs and decision making, because if followers have discretion the chances of having mistake is high and so he avoid giving discretion to followers.

> He has no confidence in his followers and so don't let them to havc discretion in decision making.

> Poor performance mostly cause due to followers less cfforts or taking less interest by the followers in doing theirjobs.

> He got feedback through daily production reports and he had weekly review meetings with his followers to discuss progress and problems which may effect production or quality matters.

Followers Comments:

> My leader focus on the quality of the job done and he docsn't allow discretion in performing the job. He insist to follow the proper proccdurc, however if procedure require amendment, he document the rcquirc chang.

> His leader generally get feedback through production rcports, howcvcr when some problem occurs during production, his leader asked from him about the causes.

J4

Ativoidix, l


Type of contact: Interview Person: Leader No. 23 Place: Organisation No. 1, Pakistan. Date: 22 October, 2003 Time: 11.30 hrs

Mccting dctails: Leader No. 23, was intcrvicwcd regarding to describe his organisation in terms of situation strength and %vlicther lie give discrction to his followcrs in performance of thcirjobs? He was also asked to describe the causes of poor pcrformancc: at any time in his organisation and how lie gets fccdback about his actions?

Salient points from the interview:

> He defined his organisation situation strength as strong. Procedures and processes arc defined and documented. Process spccification sheets, quality assurance requirements procedures, detailed assembly and part drawing of the parts to be manufactured or assembled were available in the organisations. Employees code of conduct %%is also available in the personnel department of the organisation.

> He said he give discretion to his followers in the performance of thcirjobs, and he focus on the end results, if the quality of the job is good, he don't mind if followers for their convenience deviate from standard procedures. However, he tries to implement the suggestions given by the followers to improve the process in terms of quality or to reduced the manufacturing time. He favours discretion in decision making to his followers on the matters which may not affect the quality of the product.

> He appreciates those followers who do any extra work beyond and appreciate the follower's work during daily meetings to make others to follow him

> About the causes of poor performance he said most of the time causes of poor performance arc material supply problems, and machines break downs. Materials arc imported from foreign countries and sometimes delays occur due to shipment or customs clearance problems.

> He used to have a close contact with his followers to know the day to day feedback of his actions and progress of the job. He used to have daily review meetings with his followers.

Followcr's Commcnts:

> My leader used to have regular short meetings with us in the morning to talked the progress of the job done and to know about any problem if we have in performing ourjobs.

> My leader gives discretion in the performance of the job and in decision making which doesn't afTcct the quality of the product, and lie rocus on the quality of the job done.

is

Appen(lix, l

Contact Summary Shect

Type of contact: Interview Person: Leader No. 30 Place: Organisation No. 5, Pakistan. Date: 25 November, 2003 Time: 15.00 hrs

Meeting details: Leader No. 30, was interviewed regarding to dcscribc his organisation in terms of situation strength and whether he give discretion to his followers in performance of theirjobs? He was also asked to dcscribc thc causcs of poor performance at any time in his organisation and how he gets fccdback about his actions?

Salient points from the interview: > He said, his company is a private sector manufacturing company, and

manufacture auto parts for local markets. The manufacturing orders of thc product to be manufacture are vary from day to day, and genuine sample of the parts normally provided as a guide sample to followers to manufacture the parts. Therefore followers were not provided with detailed parts drawings for the parts to be manufactured. However sketchy drawings and process instruction sheets are provided to followers. Detailed drawings, proccss specification sheets and quality assurance requirements are available in engineering department.

> About the causes of poor performance, he said that most of the times causcs of poor performance are due to machines or tool breakdowns. Somainics machines parts are broke down or tool broke down occur for which immediate replacement tool or parts were not available, and delays occur.

> About the feedback he said, I get feedback from daily production rcports, i. c., the targets achieved, and targets to be required to be achieved. If the targcts achieved were behind schedule, I inquire into the matter, and take appropriate action to meet the targets or whenever, there were quality problems occurring, or quality reports indicate quality problems, then I ask my follower about the causes, and take action as required.

> He is of the opinion not to give discretion to followers in performing their jobs. He said that followers should follow proper procedures and rulcs and should not be allowed to deviate from standard procedures. Because once they have given discretion, then they make it a routine practice which can latcr cause problems in implementing procedures and rules strictly.

Followers Comments: > Followers told that their leader is strict in following the proccdurcs and hc

doesn't allow them to deviate from the standard procedures. > Their leader discuss with them the progress of the job done only whcn thcrc

are problems in the production or quality problems occurs.

J6

t%ppen(llx, l



Meeting details: Leader No. 33, was interviewed regarding to describe his organisation in terms of situation strength and whether he give discrCtion to his followers in performance of theirjobs? He was also asked to describc the causes or poor performance at any time in his organisation and how he gcts fccdback about his actions?

Salient points from the interview: > He defined his company as strong situation. Process sheets and drawings of

the parts to be manufacture or assembly are available and cmploycc codc of conduct and regulations are well defined.

> Processes and standard procedures are predetermined, quality assurance requirements are available in this organisation.

> He is however delegates discretion to followers in doing their jobs and taking some routine decisions at their own.

> He strongly welcome any suggestion by subordinates and any good idca is implemented and documented accordingly. He is of the opinion of giving discretion to followers in doing their jobs as they feel comfortable however he doesn't compromise on the quality of thc product while favouring discretion to followers.

> About poor performance he said, his followers arc hard working and %Vcll trained, causes of poor performance may be due to unforeseen, e. g., po%vcr failures.

> He got feedback by checking daily production reports, how much job has bccn done by the followers and quality control reports.

Followers Comments: > Our leader more concern on the quality of the job done and it doesn't mattcr

to him if we deviate from procedures if it convenient to ud and docsnot affect the quality of the product.

> Our leader some time used to visit us for asking the progress of the job and to know about any problem if we are having in the performance of the jobs.

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Meeting details: Leader No. 48, was interviewed regarding to dcscribc his organisation in terms of situation strength and whether he give discrction to his followers in performance of their jobs? He was also askcd to dcscribc thc causcs of poor performance at any time in his organisation and how he gcts fccdback about his actions?

Salient points from the interview: > He defined his company in terms of situational strength as strong situation.

Rules and procedures are well written down and documented in the organisation. Process sheets for each work stations were available and quality assurance requirements, detailed parts drawing were available in the organisation.

> He is of the opinion of giving discretion to the followers in doing their jobs. He said followers should not be bound to do their jobs in the %vay, which is described, although it may not suit him. Followers should have discrction in doing their jobs, so that they can perform a better job, the %%"ay in which they like.

> He said he got feedback by having daily short review meetings with his followers. He discuss with his followers about daily progress and discuss with them any problem areas which may require attention.

> He normally has confidence in followers and give them some power of decision making,

> Major causes of poor performance in my organization were material inventory problems, or delays in the procurement process and machines break- do%%ms. Sometimes unexpected machines parts are broken and has to be imported from foreign countries, for which delays occur causing poor performance.

Followers Comments:

> We normally had daily meetings with our leader and discuss any probicnis which we having in doing ourjobs.

> Leader favour discretion in doing their jobs, for example if they dcviatc from the standard procedure and it does not affect the quality of the job.

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Aimendix. ,

Organisational Cultural Assessment Instrument

Please rate your organisational. culture as per instructions given below:

Instructions:

Organisation Culture Assessment Instrument consists of six questions. Each qucstion has four alternatives. Divide 100 points among these four alternatives dcpcnding on the extent to which each alternative you think is appropriate for your organisation in

order to be highly successful organisation. Give a higher number of points to the

alternative that is most appropriate for your organisation. For example, in qucstion 1,

if you think alternative A is the most appropriate for your organisation, aitcmativc B

and C are somewhat appropriate, and alternative D is hardly appropriate at all, you

might give 55 points to A, 20 points to B and C, and 5 points to D. Just be sure that

your total equals 100 for each question.

The Organisational Culture Assessment Instrument

I Dominant Characteristics Points

A The organisation is a very personal place. It is like an

extended family. People seem to share a lot of themselves

B The organisation is very dynamic and entrepreneurial place.

People are willing to stick their necks and take risks.

C The organisation is very results oriented. A major concern is

with getting the job done. People are very competitive and

achievement oriented.

The organisation is very controlled and structured place.

Formal procedures generally govern what people do.

Total 100

Ll

Appendix-1,

2 Organisational Leadership Points

A The leadership in organisation is generally considered to

exemplify mentoring, facilitating, or nurturing

B The leadership in organisation is generally considered to

exemplify entrepreneurship, innovating, or risk taking.

C The leadership in organisation is generally considcrcd to

exemplify a non-sense, aggressive, result-oricntcd focus.

D The leadership in organisation is generally considered to

exemplify co-ordinating, organising, or smooth-running

efficiency.

Total 100

3 Management of Employees Points

A The management style in the organisation is characterised by

teamwork, consensus, and participation.

B The management style in the organisation is characterised by

individual risk-taking, innovation, freedom, and uniqueness. C The management style in the organisation is characterised by

hard-driving competitiveness, high demands, and

achievement. D The management style in the organisation is characterised by

security of employment, conformity, predictability, and

stability in relationship. Total 100

L2

- ppell(lix-1,

4 Organisation Glue Points

A The glue that holds the organisation together is loyalty, and

mutual trust. Commitment to this organisation runs high.

B The glue that holds the organisation together is commitment to innovation and development. There is an emphasis on being

the cutting edge.

C The glue that holds the organisation together is emphasis on

achievement and goal accomplishment. Aggressiveness and

winning are common themes.

D The glue that holds the organisation together is formal rules

and policies. Maintaining a smooth running organisation is

important.

Total 100

5 Strategic Emphases Points

The organisation emphasises human development. High trust,

openness, and participation persist.

The organisation emphasises acquiring new resources and

creating new challenges. Trying new things and prospecting

for opportunities and valued.

The organisation emphasises competitive actions and

achievement. Hitting stretch targets and winning in the

marketplace are dominant.

The organisation emphasises performance and stability.

Efficiency, control and smooth operations are important.

Total 100

L3

Appendix-1,

6 Criteria of Success Points

A The organisation defines success on the basis of the

development of human resources, teamwork, employee

commitment, and concern for people.

B The organisation defines success on the basis of having the

most unique or newest products. It is a product leader and

innovator.

C The organisation defines success on the basis of winning in

the marketplace and outpacing the competition. Competitive

market leadership is key.

D The organisation defines success on the basis of efficiency.

Dependable delivery, smooth scheduling, and low-cost

production are critical. Total

I 100 - __ I

Thank you for your cooperation and time for Completing the Questionnaire

L4

641

Transformational leadership and organizational culture: the situational strength perspective SA Masood, SS Danl*, ND Bums, and CJ Backhouse Wolfson School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering. Loughborough Unl,. Trsity, Loughborough, UK

7he manuscript uas received on I November 2005 and u, us accrpted after rcg*lon jor publication on 6 February 2006.

DOI: 10.1243109544054JEM499

Abstract: This paper provides a new leadership alignment model Incorporating %-arious concepts focusing on leadership styles, organizational leadership. and situational strength. These concepts are brought together to Introduce a leadership model, which looks not only at Individual leadership and the effect of that on the organization but also at an organization as a system and how leadership behaviour and culture In Individual departments of sections In an organization can be explained. Based on the work of Podsakoff ct aL. a 23-ltcm measure of transformational leadership questionnaire was employed to evaluate transformational leaders. 339 followers from fi%v manufacturing companies %cre asked to complete the questionnaire about their leaders and It was analysed to Identify transformational leaders. The 76 manufacturing leaders then completed the organizational culturý assessment instrument and a situational strength questionnaire, which %%-as used to study the hypothesis.

Keywords: transfonnational leadership. organizational culture. leadership alignment mcAcl. situational strength

I INTRODUMON

Leadership Is one of the most researched areas around the globe. It has gained importance In every walk of life from politics to business and from educa. tion to social organizations. Leaders must prepare to address the changes that will come about as a consequence of the globalization of the market. Business markets are becoming unstable, customer needs and desires are changing, and Information flow is becoming more diverse and complex 111. These changes require leaders and organizations that are able to respond to continuous changes In resources, technologies, marketing methods, and distribution systems.

This leadership project deals with the effect of enterprise context upon leadership behaviour and vice versa, in the manufacturing sector. There is little

theory or eAdence concerning the kinds of leader behaviour required In vaflous organizational settings. It Is likely that either different bcha%jours or differential importance of bcha%iours %jU be associated %ith differences In organizations. organ. izational %rariables such as size, organizational environment. type of strategy. technology, and org3. nizational forms are likely to impose different demands on leaders and thus rNuIre spedfic leader behaviours 121. The main focus of this researdi is to locate the process that runs in the background or all leadership activity. lfftspccti%v of %, hatcvur factors as described abo%v affccts the Icadcrship activity. For this a psychological perspect1w to understanding the process Is considered. Leadership research has always h3d the element of psychology associated vdth It In the different theories of traits. dispositions, mothrations, etc, but these theories focus on the indhidual ps)rJic of the leader. Iliere has been sporadic rcseartch carried out using theories of organizational culture and situatlowd strength and these focus on the psycliological process of leadership. 11ils is the focus of the mearcli

*Corresponding author Wolfson School of Mechankal and Manufacturing Engineering. Loughborough Unitersity. Loughborough, Leicestershire LEII 3TU, UJC emaik S. DanI@ lboro. ac. uk

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in this particular project. A study of the psychologi. cal focus will be made In order to support and provide towards understanding the effect of context upon the manufacturing leadership scenario.

2 RESEARCH CONTEXT

Burns (31 described leadership as 'a stream of evolving Interrelationships In which leaders are continuously evoking motivational responses from followers and modifying their behaviour as they meet responsiveness or resistance, in a ceaseless process of flow and counter flow'. According to Bass [4), transformational leaders possess good visioning, rhetorical, and Impression management skills, and they use these skills to develop strong emotional bonds with followers. The Idealized Influ-

ence aspect of transformational leadership Is very close to the charismatic leadership; however, according to Bass [4) there are major differences between transformational and charismatic leaders. Charisma is a necessary but not sufficient component of transformational leadership. Some leaders may be charismatic but may have no transformational leadership characteristics. He used followers' perceptions or reactions to determine whether or not a leader was transformational.

Bums 131 described transformational leadership as a process in which 'leaders and followers raise one another to higher levels of morality and motivation'. Transformational leaders seek to raise the consciousness of followers by appealing to higher Ideals and moral values such as liberty, justice, equality, peace, and humanitarian, and not to baser emotions such as fear, greed, jealousy, or hatred. In terms of Maslow's 151 need hierarchy. transformational leaders activate higher-order needs in followers. Research by Krishnan 161 suggests that superior performance Is possible only through stimulating and motivating followers to higher levels of performance through transformational leadership. Superior performance is possible only by transforming followers' values. attitudes. and motives from a lower to a higher plane of arousal and maturity. Boehnke et aL 171 even found support for the claim that the main dimensions of leadership for extraordinary performance are universal. Studies have found significant and positive relatlon. ships between transformational leadership and the amount of effort that followers are willing to exert. satisfaction with the leader, ratings of job performance, and perceived effectiveness of leader 141. In

a research study conducted by Podsakoff et aL 181,

an examination was made of the Impact of transfor. mational leadership behaviour on organizational citizenship behaviour and the role of followers' trust

and satisfaction In that process. Six main transformational behavlours were Identified as follows: articulating a vision. providing an approptlate model. fostering die acceptance of group goals, high performance expectations. Individualited support. and Intellectual stimulation. In contrast. organizational citizenship bchavlours that were tested were the follo%%ing- altruism. conscientiousness, sportsmanship, courtesy, and civic virtue. It Is reported from this study that. although transformational leader beha%iours had no direct effect an orgi- rilzational citizenship behaviour. they Influenced both employee trust and satisfaction. Employee trust Influenced organizational citizenship bcha%iour. but employee satisfaction did not.

Transformational leadership could be potentially effective across a variety of situations. although certain contextual factors such as structure or the organization could facilitate the emergence and impact of transformational leadership 191. Bunu 131 also stated that transformational leadership may be exhibited by an)mne In the organization In any type of position. It may ln,. ol%v people Influencing peers and superiors as %-cH as Mowers. It can occur in the day-to-day acts of ordinary people. but It Is not ordinary or common. Bureaucratic organizations emphasize legitimate po%%cr and respect for rules and traditlom rather than Influence based either on exchange or inspiratiom

Transformational leadership has become a ncces. slty in the post-industrial %orld of wotk 1101. It has been specified as an important mechanism for Introducing organizational change and has rmcl%vd substantial research attention over the last two decades. As a result. there Is now considerable Lmo%%icdge about the transformational leadership phenomenon. It. however. has also generated several conceptual Issues. such as the need for more kno%i- edge about the relationship of transformational Ica. dership %ith business contextual Issues. as several researchers noted 111.121 that transformational Ica- dership research Is at a stage %Aicre Its conceptual exan-driation Is important. In the last two decades there has been accumulating eAdence to suggest that transformational leadership Is an Influential form of leadership that Is associated %ith high levels of Indhidual and organizational performance (see, for example, references 1131 and 1141). Ilo%vver. research on transformational leadership has not fully explored the question of whit am the unded), ing processes and mechanisms by which transformational leaders exert their Influence on folloKvrs and ultimately on performance 114). As YuU 115) con. cluded after rcviciAng research on this topic. 'a vad - ety of different Influence processes may be In%-ol%vd In transformational leadership. and different transformational behaviours may Invol%v different

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Transformational leader&Wp and organUational culture 941

Influence processes'. In a study conducted by Scarborough 116) the emphasis to understand the underlying psychological processes was achieved by differentiating transformational leadership with transforming leadership. It is suggested In the study that transforming leadership as defined by Bums 131 requires a moral and ethical component to leadership behaviour, whereas transformational leadership as defined by Bass [41 contains more Inspiration and charisma and does not require the moral component of transforming leadership. in the context of this paper, the main focus is to gain Insight into the leadership of today's manufacturing companies within the perspective of the definition of transformational leadership. It is suggested that transformational leaders can have a dual effect. exerting their Influence on followers through the creation of personal Identification with the leader and social identification with the work unit, and that these different forms of identification can lead to differential outcomes.

Although Bass treated charisma and transformational leadership as distinct concepts, many researchers do not. The work of Tichy and DeVanna 1171 on transformational leadership, for example, talks about articulating a vision, which enthuses followers and creates considerable loyalty and trust. This sounds very similar to charisma. Therefore. while conceptually they may be distinct, much of the writing fails to make It clear that they are. Trice and Beyer (181 made the distinction between charisma and transformational leadership by suggesting that charismatic leaders often create new organizations, while transformational leaders change existing organizations.

An important source of insight into the dynamics of transformational leadership Is provided by research and theory on organizational culture 119). Organizational culture Is the 'glue' that holds the organization together as a source of Identity and distinctive competence [20). Can organizational cultures usefully be described in terms of how transactional or transformational they are 1211? The organizational culture is a learned pattern of behaviour, shared from one generation to the next 1221. It includes the values and assumptions shared by members about what Is rightý what Is good, and what is important. Most organizational scholars and observers now recognize that organizational culture has a powerful effect on the performance and long-term effectiveness of organ. izations. Empirical research has produced an impressive array of findings, demonstrating die Importance of culture to enhancing organizational performance 123-25). Kotter and lieskett 126) defined culture as a critical factor In long-term financial success.

3 ORGANIZAMONAL CULTURU

Most organizational scholars and observers recog. nize that organizational culture has a 1-4wctful offect on the performance and long-term cffcctlvcncss or organizations. It was not until the beginning or the 1980s that organizational scholars began paying scr- lous attention to the concept of culture (ice, for example. rercrences 1221 and 1271 to 1291). This Is one or the few areas, In fact. In which organizational scholars led practising managers In ldentif)ing a cru. cW factor affecting organizational performance. Organizational culture has been an area In which conceptual work and scholarship have provided gui. dance for managers as they have scarclied for ways to Improve the effectiveness of their organizations. Of course, there are many kinds or levels of culture that affect Individual and organizational behaviour. At the broadest level. a global culture. such as a world religion's culture or the culture of the Eastern hemisphere would be the highest level. Researchers such as 11ofstede 1301, Aiken and Bacharadi 1311. and Trompenaars 132) have reported marked differences between continents and countries based on certain key dimensions. For example. national differences exist among countries on the basis of universalism versus particularism. Individualism versus collectivism. neutrality versus emotionality, specificity versus diffuseness, focus an achievement versus ascription. focus on past versus present versus future, and an Internal focus versus an external focus 132).

There are many kinds or levels of culture that affect Individual and organizational behaviour. Researchers such as I lofstede 1301 and Trompcnaars 1321 have reported marked differences between continents and countries based on certain key dimensions. An organization's culture Is reflected by what is valued. the dominant leadership styles. the language and symbols, the procedures and routines, and the definitions of success that makes an organization unique 1331. Camcron and Quinn 1331 have derined four different types of organiza. tional culture. These are represented as adhocracy, clan. hierarchy, and market. They have suggested the different leadership styles or managerial styles pertaining to the respective organizational culture. When an organization Is dominated by the hierarchy culture. the leadership style sho%m Is that of organizing. controlling. monitoring. adminis. tering. coordinating. and maintaining effidency. %Vhcn an organization Is dominated by (lie market culture. the managers am good at dirmflng, producing results. negotiating. and motivating others. When the organization is dominated by the clan culture. the most effectivc leaders are parent figures, team builders, facilitators. nurturcrs. mcntors. and

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supporters. Effective leaders In organizations dominated by the adhocracy culture tend to be entrepreneurial, visionary, Innovative, creative, risk oriented, and focused on the future. Adhocracy leaders are rule breakers, for example. whereas hierarchy leaders are rule rein forcers. Clan leaders are warm and supportive, whereas market leaders are tough and demanding.

3.1 The hierarchy culture The organizational culture compatible with this form is characterized by a formalized and structured place to worL Procedures govern what people do. Effective leaders are good coordinators and organizers. Maintaining a smooth-running organ. ization is Important. The long-term concerns of the organization are stability, predictability. and efficiency. Formal rules and policies hold the organization together. Large organizations and government agencies are generally dominated by a hierarchy culture, as evidenced by large numbers of standardized procedures, multiple hierarchical levels, and an emphasis on rule reinforcement.

32 The market ctdture Tbe term market Is not synonymous with the marketing function or with customers In the marketplace. Rather, It refers to a type of organization. which functions as a market itselL It Is oriented towards the external environment instead of Internal affairs. It Is assumed that a clear purpose and an aggressive strategy lead to productivity and profitability. A market culture. as assessed in the organizational culture assessment indicator (OCAI) questionnaire, is a results-oriented %vork-place. Lea- ders; are hard-driving producers and competitors. They are tough and demanding. The glue that holds the organization together Is an emphasis on winning. 7be long-term concern is on competitive actions and achieving stretch goals and targets. Success is defined in terms of market share and penetration. Outpacing the competition and market leadership are Important.

commitment to employees. Iliese characteristics were evidenced by seml-autonomous work team% that received rewards on the basis of team (and not Individual) accomplishment and that hired and fired their own members, quality circles that encouraged workers to voice suggestions trgattling how to Improve their own work and the performance of the company, and an empowering cWronment for employees. Some basic assumptions In a clan culture are that the environment can best be managed through teamwork and employee dc-, -cl- opmcnt. customers are best thought of as partners. the organization Is In the business of dcmloping a humane work environment. and the major task of management Is to empower employees and to facilitate their participation. commitment. and loyalty.

77he clan culture, as assessed In the OCAI ques. tionnaire, Is typilled by a friendly place to work where people share much of themselves. It Is Eke an extended family. Leaders are thought of as mentors and. perhaps, even as parent figurm The organization Is held together by loyalty and tradition. Comn-dtment Is high. 71ie organization emphasizes the long-term benefit of Individual development with high cohesion and morale being Important. Success Is defined in terms of Internal climate and concern for people. The organization places a premium on teamwork. participation. and consensus.

3.4 Mie adhocracy culture The adhocracy culture, as assessed In the OCAI questionnaire, Is characterized by a dynamic, entre. preneurial. and c=tl-. v workplace. People stick their necks out and take risks. Effecti%v leadership Is visionary, Innovadw. and risk oriented. The glue that holds the organization together is commltment to experimentation and lnno-. -jtiorL Vic emphasis is on being at the leading edge of new knowledge. products. and/or services. Readiness for change and meeting new challcrigm arc Important. The organIzation's long-term emphasis is on rapid gro%th and acquiring new resourvcL Success means producing unique and original products and services.

3.3 Ile clan culture The clan culture is called a clan because of Its simi. larity to a family-type organization. Tbey seemed more like extended families than economic entities. instead of the rules and procedures of hicramhles or the competitive profit centres of markets. typical characteristics of clan-type firms were teamwork. employee involvement programmes, and corporate

4 SrMA71ONALSTRENGIII

The first mscamhcr %%iio formally rccognturd, the Importance of the leader. follo%cr. and situation lit the leadership process through his contingency model of leadership %%-as Fiedler 1341.77he situation may be the most ambiguous aspect of leadership. the nature or the task, the %-wotk setting. and the

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presence of formal rules and regulations are a few of the situational variables that can affect the leader. ship process. The situation can constrain or facilitate a leader's action and leaders can change different aspects of a situation in order to be more effective 1351. The concept of situational strength has been used to study the effect of various concepts of the leadership behaviour 136-38). A framework of situational strength proposed by Mischel 1391 segregated situations affecting human behaviour Into two types: strong situation and weak situation. Strong situations are those In which most actors construe the situation In the same way, most draw similar conclusions as to appropriate responses. and most are motivated and able to respond. In strong situa. tions, the situation Itself provides Incentives to make the appropriate response, and the necessary skills to respond are present In most individuals. A red traffic light Is an example of a strong situation. Mischel 1391 argued that In strong situations, but not weak situations, situational factors dominate Individual differences in determining decision maker's courses of action. Thus, the behaviour of drivers at red lights Is better predicted by the colour of the light than by the traits and dispositions of Individual drivers, even though a few drivers do run red lights. Conversely. weak situations are defined by Mischel as those In which there is ambiguity about the meaning of the situation and the appropriateness of various responses, where Incentives for any particular response are unclear. and where the ability of Individuals to respond may vary. According to Mischel 1391, individual differences play a more significant role In such situations (e. g. a yellow traffic light), since no clear directions are provided by the situation.

Among the most successful leadership models Is a group characterized as contingency or situational models. The common theme of these models is that there Is not one best %vay to lead; effective leaders adapt to their behaviours to each unique situation 140). Situations may be defined entirely In terms of rule. Rules may specify what should and should not happen. what should be worn. and how to deal with different situations [411. It is also likely that the type of employee In the strong-situation company will have adapted to that strong situation and will not challenge the system. This Is not true of the weak situation where the Individual is prob. ably more used to. and accepting of. ambiguity and a lack of a strong company policy and Is likely to deliver an Individual response alln to their own -ways of behaving In the particular situation. The trait approach Is about how people behave in no%cL ambiguous, or what Is called 'weak-' situations. Situa. tions that are governed by clearly specified rules, demands, or organizational policies, Le. 'strong'

situations, often minimize the effects that traits lia%v on beha%riour 135).

5 ]RESEARCH MODEL

An Important source of Insight Into the d)-namlcs of transformational leadership Is provided by feseatch and theory on organizational culture 1191. Schein 1421 provided the most comprrhenslvv revim and Integradon of this literature. Schein 1421 defined culture as the basic assumptions and belick shared by members ora group or organization. Most organi. zational scholars and obscr%-crs now recognize that organizational culture has a po%vtful effect on the performance and long-term effcolveness of organizations 1331. Bass 1431 presumed that the clan culture provides more potential for transformational leadership, and the market culture for transactional leadership. As indicated by Katk and Shamir 1141 research on transformational leadership has not fully explored the mechardsms by %rhich transformational leaders exert their Influence on follo%ers and ultimately on performance. It Is thus necessary to gathcr data from manufacturing leaders to gain further insights Into transformational leadcrihip In manu- faciuring organizations. FIgure I presents a framework that represents organizational cultum leadership st)ie, and situational strength In a colic. sive structure. It consists of a four-quadrant grid organized around two factors, namcly leadership st)rIe and organizational culture. %ith die quadrants as follovwi:

quadrant 1: trartsformational leadership and adho. cracy-clan cultumn.

quadrant 11: non-tmnslonnational leadership and adhocracy-dan culture.

quadrant III: transformational leadership and h1cr- archy-markm culture. -

quadrant IV. - non-tmnsformational leadership and hicrarchy-malke culture-

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Considering the concept of situational strength within the perspective of the framework It can be assumed that a combination of transformational leadership with adhocracy-clan culture (quadrant 1) would generate a weak situational strength In the organization providing more discretion and capability to the followers to manage their tasks. The combination of non-transformational and hierarchy-market (quadrant M would generate a strong situational strength In the organization, providing strict guidelines and structure to the followers for completing their tasks.

From this model the following can be hypothesized.

1. Transformational leaders prefer to work In an adhocratic or clan-type culture.

2. Non-transformational leaders prefer to work In hierarchyý-market-type cultures.

3. Transformational leaders prefer to create working environments with a weak situational strength for their followers.

4. Non-transformational leaders prefer to create working environments with a strong situatiobal strength for their followers.

The framework depicts the organizational perspective In regard to the leadership style. culture, and the situational strength. it can be argued that there may be a certain organizational culture but different departments In the organization may have their respective cultures. Also. each Individual department may be headed by a leader who may Influence the culture and situational strength of the department. Ibis is shown In Fig. 2, which depicts the Internal leadership and cultural systems In organizations.

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rig. 2 Leadership and cultural systems %ithin organizations

6 RESEARCH WMIODOLOGY

The sample selected for this research was a total of 339 followers consisting of leadcr-subordinate dyads at middle and lower levels or management for 76 Ica. dcrs from rive manufacturing companies In Pakistan. The organizations used In the testing Included three large heavy-w0ght vehicle manufacturing orgatilta. tions, one medium-urcight vehicle manufacturing organization. and one discrete parts manufacturing Industry. Three organizations of the sample were located In the western parts of Pakistan and two organizations were located In the eastern liarts of Pakistan. Three of die organizations arc government owned, whereas the other two arc privately owned. The large heavy-%%eight vehicles manufacturing organization has In the range of 300-500 employees with 15-25 leaders, the mcclium-w0ght vehicles manufacturing organization has 100-150 employees with 10-15 leaders, and the discrete parts manufac. turing Industry has 30-M employees urith 5-8 Ica. ders. To manage the study within die time frame of the research work. It was decided to select a sample size of rive manufacturing organizations Including small to large manufacturing "c organizations based on a convcnience sampling strategy 14 4 1.

In all the rive organizations. employees concerned with manufacturing, from the shop flcmr to the top management %-ere asked to complete a question. nairc based on the work of Podsakoff et aL jel. (For more Information on the questionnaire contact S. DanIQlboro. ac. uL) Transformational leadership characteristics were measured using the 23-Itern questionnaire based an the measures of transforma. tional leadership utilized by Podsakoff et aL 181 for their research on transformational leadcrWp. The measure Includes six transformational leadershlp behavlours: articulating a vision. providing an appropriate model. fostering the acceptance of group goals. high performance expectadons. Indivi. dualized support. and intellectual stimulation. A seven-point scale ranging from I (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree) %%-as used. Ali the 339 respon. dents completed the questionnalm The rmponscs %ere then clustered for each of the 76 leaden and the me-an calculated. The Podsakoff et aL 181 trans. formational leadership questionnaire %%-As useful In segregating the sample of 76 leaders Into transfor. mational and non- transformational leaders. The variables used In the questionnaire %%Tm primarily transformational %mriables; hence even a low &core meant that the leader had some qualities of a transformational leader. llowever, In the context of this rescarch. as It was dedded to focus on high transformational behaviour, all leaders having a score of not less than 4.0 (mcin. 4.0) were considered as transformational leaders and the test

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Individual dtpartmental systems

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Tmnsformatlonal lesdershlp and organliallonal cul(urs 947

of the sample was considered to be non-transforma. tional. Out of the sample of 76 leaders, thus 37 leaders were considered to be transformational. The leaders who had a score between 3.0 and 4.0 could be considered to be transformational on the basis of certain criteria, but In this research It was decided to consider only those leaders as transfor. mational who had a score over 4.0.

The 76 leaders were then asked to complete two questionnaires. (For more Information on the questionnaire contact S. Dani@lboro. acuk. ) One dealt with the Issues of situational strength, focusing on the aspects of discretion that leaders provided to their followers, whereas the other was the OCAI questionnaire developed by Cameron and Quinn. The OCAI questionnaire was used to obtain an insight into the organizational culture based on the OCAI typology, namely adhocracy, clan, hierarchical, and market. The respondents were asked to complete the OCAI questionnaire to depict their perception of the culture In their organizations. The questionnaire measuring situation strength consisted of six questions, which looked at the level of discretion provided by the leaders to their followers to take decisions, monitoring of followers, having a clear standard of praise and punishment. setting of clear goals, and level of discipline In the working environment. A rive-point scale ranging from I (does not emphasize) to 5 (strongly emphasim) was used. Leaders having a score of more than 18.0 (mean score, 18.0) were termed to perceive the situations that they work In as having a strong situational strength. Leaders having a score of less than 18.0 were termed to perceive the situations that they work in as having a weak situational strength. For leaders with scores of 18 and 19, the score for the question on discretion ruled whether they were in the strong or weak category. Where the question on discretion generated a high score on emphasizing discretion given to followers, the situation was termed as weak and, where there was no discretion given to followers, the situation was termed as strong.

35 34 23 Wcak, 26 Strong, 12 Strong 8 Wcak

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2 5 I Strong, I Wcak 3 Strong, 2 Weak

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7 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

After analysing the questionnaires, the data were inserted into the research model (Fig. 3). It can be clearly seen that the preference of transformational leaders Is to create a working environment with a weak situational strength for their followers. It can also be Inferred that non-transformational leaders would generally prefer to create working environ. ments with a strong situational strength for their followers. It can also be seen that the results did not provide a complete correlation between type of

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Fig. 3 The research modd Incorporating the tesults

leadership and situational strengft- GS per cent of the transformational leaders showed a preference for a weak situational strengd-4 whereas 3S per cent showed a preference for strong situational strength. Studying each %-ariable affecting the situational strength and the leader's preference could rectify the discrepancy In these results. Similarly, 74 per cent of the non-transformational leaders showed a preference for a strong situational strength. whereas 26 per cent showed a preference for a weak situa. tional strength.

7he results from the OCAI questionnaire shm%ed some discrepancy between die hypothesized research model and the actual data. Vie hypothesis that transformational leaders prefer to work In adho. cratic or clan-type culture has been supported by die data: 94.5 per cent of the transformadonal leaders showed a preference for a clan culture. whereas only 5.5 per cent showed a preference for a hierarchy- market culture. The discrepancy artses In die preference of non-transformational leadcm 'Ilie hypotlicsts that non-transformational leaders prefer to work In h1crarchy-markct-t)Tc cultures Is not supported. A detalled analysis regarding the cultural preference of non-transformational leaders Is required to ascertain %%iiethcr the leaders in this sample have not been able to draw out the differences between clan and hierarchy as the liler. archy culture Is next after clan In the evolution or organizational culture. 71ils hypothesis could be supported If based on the limious hypothesis regarding situational strength. Since non- transformational leaders sho%vd a preference ror strong situational strength and since the hierarchy- market cultures are associated %ith strong situational strength. It can be interred thM non- transformational leaders would show a preference for %%viking In hlcrarchy_m: ukct-t)jv cultuics.

In the context of tills rrscarch. the systellis model of leadership and culture propo" In Fig. 2

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is also important as the respondents who were termed as leaders were not only the top management but also were project directors, general managers, deputy general managers, officers in charge of manufacturing units, managers, and foremen. The respondents were termed as leaders in the context of this research by virtue of being in charge of a working group and had people reporting to them. Hence, the systems model is important as it depicts that, even though a leader (top management) has a certain preference for organizational culture and situational strength, a leader (as defined in the context of this research) of a section in the organization may have his or her own preference for culture and situational strength. This may lead to the leader in the section either changing their preference in order to align with the organizational preference (top management) or maintaining the difference but finding a way to align with the organizational goals. The top management, however, if not satisfied with the difference in the preferences between the section and the organization, either may replace the leader with one who maintains their preference or would initiate to transform the leadership style of the section leader.

The research model is particularly useful for deciding whether it would be possible to transform leadership style without changing cultural and situational strength preferences. As shown in Fig. 4, it can be hypothesized that, if the leader is in quadrant III and would like to maintain his or her transformational style of leadership, he or she should change the preference for culture to adhocracy-clan. if the leader is in quadrant II and would like to maintain his or her non-transformational leadership style, he

or she should change the preference for ctflture to hierarchy-market.

The study has been successful in examining transformational leadership with the concepts of

Weak

Situational strength

St rong Situational strength

IV

Transformational usdership NOR- Tnmsformadonal

Adhocracy

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I Hlemrrh. p, Marke

Fig. 4 The alignment model of leadership

situational strength and organizational culture. The importance of the study stems from the assumption that transformational leadership behaviour can influence to a great degree how followers work and are given freedom to work in organizations. 111his is useful when the human resource departments of manufacturing companies study issues of motivation, Job satisfaction. employee momle, and employee training. Knowing that the leadership is transformational can make it easier for change and innovation In organizations as It can be Inferred that transformational leaders will thus try to create weak situations where employem are given discretion and freedom to take decisions In their work. hence increasing employee morale and confidence. Also, the clan culture associated with weak situations promotes team working and Innovation. One of the major limitations for generalizing these results is that all the companies selected for the study were based in Pakistan. and this may bring out some differences in the results if they are studied as an effect of national cultures. The proposed alignment model needs further testing and would benefit by testing it within different national cultures. This would provide more support and would help to generalize it.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors would like to thank the Engineering and Physical Sciences and Research Council. UK. and The Ministry of Education. Goverrunent of Pakistan. for the support they have rendered for this project.

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Leaders Responses for situational Strength for Phase-11 Appendix N

LeadersNo. Q1 Q2 Q3 704- T-05 Q6 Total Score Leader Type 1 5 5 5 5 5 4 14 NT 2 5 5 5 4 4 5 28 NT 3 2 3 3 4 4 3 19 T 4 3 4 5 3 1 2 18 T 5 5 4 5 5 4 4 27 NT 6 3 3 3 4 5 4 22 NT 7 3 4 5 3 4 5 24 T 8 5 4 4 3 2 2 20 NT 9 5 4 4 3 3 4 23 NT 10 5 3 3 4 4 4 23 NT 11 5 4 4 3 2 3 21 1 12 4 4 3 2 2 2 17 T 13 3 2 4 3 2 3 17 NT 14 4 3 2 3 2 3 17 T 15 5 4 5 2 1 is T 16 5 4 5 2 2 3 21 T 17 5 4 5 5 4 4 27 NT 18 5 4 4 2 1 1 17 NT 19 4 4 5 3 3 4 23 NT 20 4 4 5 3 3 2 21 T 21 4 4 3 2 2 1 16 T 22 4 4 4 4 4 5 25 NT 23 2 5 2 3 2 19 T 24 4 5 4 3 2 1 19 T 25 4 3 2 1 1 1 12 NT 26 5 4 3 2 1 1 Is T 27 5 4 21 2 1 1 Is T 28 5 4 3 2 2 2 Is T 29 4 4 5 3 4 3 23 NT 30 3 3 2 5 5 5 23 NT 31 4 4 3 2 4 4 21 NT 32 4 4 31 2 21 3 Is -f- 33 4 4 4 2 2 2 Is T 34 3 3 3 4 4 4 21 NT 35 5 4 4 3 3 2 21 T 36 4 3 4 3 2 2 Is hlfý 37 5 5 5 3 2 2 22 T 38 4 4 3 4 3 3 21 NT 39 3 4 5 2 2 2 Is -T-

40 5 4 4 2 2 2 19 T 41 4 4 3 4 4 2 21 T- 42 3 2 3 3 2 1 14 NT 43 3 4 4 3 2 2 Is T- 44 4 4 2 2 2 2 16 NT 46 5 5 5 3 3 2 2,1 NT 46 3 4 4 3 3 2 19 NT 47 3 4 4 3 3 4 21 NT 48 5 3 4 3 2 1 Is T 49 5 4 5 2 3 2 21 NT so 4 3 3 4 4 4 72 NT 51 4 5 5 4 4 5 27

Key: T=Transformational Leader NT=Non Transformational Leader N1

Leaders Responses for situational Strength for Phase-11 Appendix-N

62 3 5 4 5 4 5 26 T

53 4 5 5 5 5 4 28 T

54 4 4 5 3 3 3 22 NT

55 4 4 5 2 2 2 19 NT

56 4 4 21 2 3 3 Is T 57 4 3 4 3 2 4 20 NT 58 3 4 4 3 2 2 Is T

59 3 3 4 4 4 4 22 NT 60 4 4 5 3 3 3 22 NT

61 5 4 5 5 4 3 26 NT

62 4 4 4 2 2 3 19 NT

63 5 4 3 4 4 4 24 NT

64 4 4 3 2 2 16 T

65 5 4 3 21 1 2 17 T

66 4 3 3 2 4 5 21 NT

67 4 4 3 2 3 2 Is NT

68 4 3 3 2 2 2 16 T 69 4 4 3 12 21 3 Is T 70 5 5 4 2 21 2 20 T 71 4 4 4 2 3 1 Is T 72 5 5 4 4 3 3 24 NT 73 4 5 5 4 3 2 23 T 74 4 4 4 2 2 2_ 1 le T 75 3 4 2 4 4 4 21 NT 76 4 3 2 3 2 2 le NT

Key: T=Transformational Leader NT=Non Transformational Leader N2

Documents

Behavioural aspects of transformational leadership in manufacturing organisations