BBI 3420 BBI 3420 Critical Reading and ThinkingCritical Reading and Thinking

FACE TO FACE MEETING FACE TO FACE MEETING

PART IIPART II

Critical thinking is primarily about the Critical thinking is primarily about the evaluation of arguments.evaluation of arguments.

Definition of an argument:Definition of an argument: 1.1. a set of statements of which it is claimed a set of statements of which it is claimed

that one of those statements (the that one of those statements (the conclusionconclusion) is supported by the others (the ) is supported by the others (the premisespremises). ).

2.2. a reason or reasons offered for or against a reason or reasons offered for or against somethingsomething

ARGUMENT = CONCLUSION (assertion)ARGUMENT = CONCLUSION (assertion)

+ +

PREMISESPREMISES

Example – A Simple ArgumentExample – A Simple Argument

1.Lawyers earn a lot of money. (Premise)

2.I want to earn a lot of money. (Premise)

3.I should become a Lawyer. (Conclusion)

Identifying the conclusionIdentifying the conclusion

An argument's conclusion is what the person An argument's conclusion is what the person making the argument is ultimately trying to making the argument is ultimately trying to convince you of, i.e., the person's point. convince you of, i.e., the person's point.

To identify the conclusion of an argument To identify the conclusion of an argument 'what does the person making the argument want me to walk away thinking?'

(If the answer is 'nothing', then you're not dealing (If the answer is 'nothing', then you're not dealing with an argument.) with an argument.)

Identifying the conclusionIdentifying the conclusion

Try putting the word "Try putting the word "thereforetherefore" before each of " before each of the statements in turn. The statement that fits the statements in turn. The statement that fits best will be the conclusion.best will be the conclusion.

1.Lawyers earn a lot of money.

2.I want to earn a lot of money.

3.I should become a Lawyer.

Some Conclusion Indicator Some Conclusion Indicator Words:Words:

Look for conclusion indicator words, such as:

therefore, consequently, as a result, thus, therefore, consequently, as a result, thus, it follows that, so, which shows that, it follows that, so, which shows that, hence, accordingly hence, accordingly

Identifying the PremisesIdentifying the Premises

Every argument must also consist of at least one premise.

A premise is a statement that is meant to support the conclusion. Ideally, a premise provides a good reason for believing the conclusion.

Some Premise Indicator Words:Some Premise Indicator Words:

To identify premises, it often easiest to look for premise indicator words, words that are often used to introduce a claim as a premise such as: because, since, as, for, given that, as, judging from, seeing that

Missing Premises and Missing Premises and Conclusions:Conclusions:

People don't always come out and say what their People don't always come out and say what their point is. Similarly people may not always explicitly point is. Similarly people may not always explicitly mention all the premises they are working with. mention all the premises they are working with.

As a result, we must be prepared to identify both As a result, we must be prepared to identify both missing premises and missing conclusions (i.e., missing premises and missing conclusions (i.e., conclusions or premises that are not explicitly conclusions or premises that are not explicitly stated by the arguer, but that are implicit in what stated by the arguer, but that are implicit in what the arguer does say). the arguer does say).

““Judge a man by his questions Judge a man by his questions rather than by his answers” rather than by his answers”

- Voltaire- Voltaire

What is a good argument?

A good argument from the standpoint of critical thinking is:

The most important critical thinking standards are:

Accuracy Logical Correctness Clarity, precision, relevance, consistency, completeness and

fairness

An argument that satisfies the relevant critical thinking

standards that apply in a particular context.

An argument that satisfies the relevant critical thinking

standards that apply in a particular context.

Mobile phone use increases brain activity

Does the Claim Come from a Credible Source?

Is the source contained in a source that is Is the source contained in a source that is generally generally unreliableunreliable (e.g. gossip magazine) ?(e.g. gossip magazine) ?

Has the source been Has the source been cited correctly cited correctly or has been or has been quoted quoted out of contextout of context??

Is the issue one that Is the issue one that can be settled can be settled by expert by expert opinion?opinion?

Is the claim made by the source highly Is the claim made by the source highly improbableimprobable on its face?on its face?

Critical thinkers must ask, “Are all premises true?” and “Do the premises provide good reasons to accept

the conclusion?”

Critical thinkers must ask, “Are all premises true?” and “Do the premises provide good reasons to accept

the conclusion?”

Evaluating ArgumentsEvaluating Arguments

Evaluating ArgumentsEvaluating Arguments

General Guidelines

Are the Are the premises truepremises true?? relevant relevant to the conclusion? to the conclusion?

Is the Is the reasoning correctreasoning correct? Is the argument ? Is the argument deductively validdeductively valid or or

inductively stronginductively strong??

Does the arguer commit any Does the arguer commit any logical fallacieslogical fallacies??

Does the arguer express his or her points Does the arguer express his or her points clearlyclearly and and preciselyprecisely??

Are the arguer’s claims Are the arguer’s claims logically consistentlogically consistent? Do any of the arguer’s ? Do any of the arguer’s

claims claims contradictcontradict other claims made in the argument? other claims made in the argument?

Is the argument Is the argument completecomplete? Is all relevant evidence taken into account ? Is all relevant evidence taken into account

(given understandable limitations of time, space, context and so on)?(given understandable limitations of time, space, context and so on)?

Is the argument Is the argument fairfair? Is the arguer fair in his or her presentation of the ? Is the arguer fair in his or her presentation of the

evidence and treatment of opposing arguments and views?evidence and treatment of opposing arguments and views?

FallaciesFallacies

A form of reasoning that is illogical or A form of reasoning that is illogical or violates the rules of valid argumentviolates the rules of valid argument

*hasty generalization*hasty generalization

5 days of dating5 days of dating

* dicto simpliciter( sweeping generalization)* dicto simpliciter( sweeping generalization)

"Women are on average not as strong as men "Women are on average not as strong as men and less able to carry a gun. Therefore women and less able to carry a gun. Therefore women can't pull their weight in a military unit."can't pull their weight in a military unit."

Logical Fallacies Logical Fallacies

Hominem Bandwagon Circular Reasoning Either . . . or Fallacy False Analogy Hasty Generalization Non Sequitur Post Hoc Red Herring

BandwagonBandwagon

An argument saying, in effect, An argument saying, in effect, "Everyone's "Everyone's doing or saying or thinking this, so you doing or saying or thinking this, so you should, too.“should, too.“

Faulty:Faulty:Everyone else is drinking, so why Everyone else is drinking, so why shouldn't I?(The majority is not always shouldn't I?(The majority is not always right.)right.)

HominemHominem

Attacking the person who presents an issue Attacking the person who presents an issue rather than dealing logically with the issue itselfrather than dealing logically with the issue itself

Faulty:Faulty:

She is a bad politician because she smokes.She is a bad politician because she smokes.

Red HerringRed Herring

Dodging the real issue by drawing attention to Dodging the real issue by drawing attention to an irrelevant issue.an irrelevant issue.

Faulty:Faulty:

Why worry about a few terrorists when we ought Why worry about a few terrorists when we ought to be doing something about acid rain?to be doing something about acid rain?

Acid raid has nothing to do with the actions of Acid raid has nothing to do with the actions of terrorists.)terrorists.)

Evaluating ArgumentsEvaluating Arguments

When is it reasonable to accept a premise?When is it reasonable to accept a premise?

In general, it is reasonable to accept andIn general, it is reasonable to accept and unsupported claim as true when:when:

1.1. The claim does not conflict with The claim does not conflict with personal experiencespersonal experiences that that we have no good reason to doubt,we have no good reason to doubt,

2.2. the claim does not conflict with the claim does not conflict with background beliefs background beliefs that that we have no good reason to doubt, andwe have no good reason to doubt, and

3.3. The claim comes from a The claim comes from a credible sourcecredible source..

Women are better leaders than

Men!

Men are more creative than

Women!

Women are better leaders than

Men!

Men are more creative than

Women!

SOCRATIC QUESTIONINGSOCRATIC QUESTIONING

The overall purpose is to challenge accuracy The overall purpose is to challenge accuracy

and completeness of thinking in a way that acts and completeness of thinking in a way that acts

to move people towards their ultimate goalto move people towards their ultimate goal

SOCRATIC QUESTIONINGSOCRATIC QUESTIONING

Conceptual clarification questionsConceptual clarification questions

Probing assumptionsProbing assumptions

Probing rationale, reasons and evidenceProbing rationale, reasons and evidence

Questioning viewpoints and perspectivesQuestioning viewpoints and perspectives

Probe implications and consequencesProbe implications and consequences

Questions about the questionQuestions about the question

Socratic QuestioningSocratic Questioning   Read and analyse the content of the text given. Then answer the Read and analyse the content of the text given. Then answer the

questions that follow using the Socratic questioning framework to questions that follow using the Socratic questioning framework to probe the question further. Remember that there are questions probe the question further. Remember that there are questions within the questions.within the questions.

  

1.1. What is the topic of the text?What is the topic of the text?

2.2. What is the central message of the text?What is the central message of the text?

3.3. What is the purpose the text?What is the purpose the text?

4.4. What is the underlying concept?What is the underlying concept?

5.5. What is the question at issue?What is the question at issue?

6.6. What can you infer from the text?What can you infer from the text?

7.7. What evidence can you find in the text to support the issue?What evidence can you find in the text to support the issue?

8.8. What assumptions can you make?What assumptions can you make?

9.9. What conclusions can you draw from the information in the text?What conclusions can you draw from the information in the text?

10.10.What are the implications of your conclusion?What are the implications of your conclusion?

Identifying TopicIdentifying Topic

What the text is about.What the text is about. The main or central The main or central subjectsubject of the of the

communication.communication. You should not express it by a sentence. You should not express it by a sentence.

Identifying central message of text

What is the overall message the writer is communicating about the topic?

ExampleExample

““It’s not a crime to download”It’s not a crime to download”

Recognising PurposeRecognising Purpose When reading, part of the evaluation process involves When reading, part of the evaluation process involves

recognizing the writer’s recognizing the writer’s purposepurpose, or , or reasons for writingreasons for writing. . That can help you distinguish between facts and That can help you distinguish between facts and

opinions, uncover bias, and assess the overall reliability opinions, uncover bias, and assess the overall reliability of information.of information.

Readers can infer the motivations behind the text based Readers can infer the motivations behind the text based on:on:

1.1. Author’s background or affiliationAuthor’s background or affiliation

2.2. Publication in which the writing appearsPublication in which the writing appears

3.3. The information itselfThe information itself

4.4. How the information is presentedHow the information is presented

To informTo inform To persuadeTo persuade To entertainTo entertain

Remember that the purposes of writing are not Remember that the purposes of writing are not limited to the above threelimited to the above three

Combination of Purposes ??Combination of Purposes ??

e.g: provide factual information + persuade readers to accept his viewpoint and take action

Question at IssueQuestion at Issue The main or primary question the author asks and then The main or primary question the author asks and then

goes on to answer.goes on to answer.

1.1. Must contain the topicMust contain the topic

2.2. Should be the main question author is trying to Should be the main question author is trying to answeranswer

3.3. Should be a question that can be given an answerShould be a question that can be given an answer

4.4. Should be a question that can be answered in at Should be a question that can be answered in at least two different ways.least two different ways.

If the author does not directly answer the question you have chosen as the issue, more than likely you have not correctly identified the author’s issue

PROBING REASON PROBING REASON AND EVIDENCEAND EVIDENCE

FACTS VS OPINIONSFACTS VS OPINIONS

WHAT ARE FACTS?WHAT ARE FACTS?

A statement is a fact if you can answer A statement is a fact if you can answer yes to these two questions:yes to these two questions:Is it true?Is it true?Can it be proved?Can it be proved?

What is an opinion?What is an opinion?

An opinion statement can be well thought An opinion statement can be well thought out but can’t be proved true or false – it is out but can’t be proved true or false – it is always open to debate.always open to debate.

Ask yourself: Ask yourself: Does this statement tell a Does this statement tell a thought or feeling?thought or feeling?

Would the statement be true all the time?Would the statement be true all the time? Look for signal wordsLook for signal words

Opinion CautionOpinion Caution

Agreeing with a statement doesn’t make it Agreeing with a statement doesn’t make it true. For example:true. For example:

Dairy Queen ice cream tastes Dairy Queen ice cream tastes betterbetter than ice than ice cream you buy from the grocery store.cream you buy from the grocery store.

Why is this statement an opinion?Why is this statement an opinion?o This is a personal judgment: someone else This is a personal judgment: someone else

may not agree.may not agree.o did you notice the signal word?did you notice the signal word?

Identify the fact or opinionIdentify the fact or opinion

Maryland is located in the United States

Reading is the most interesting subject in school.

The character of Cinderella should marry the prince.

Bats use echolocation when they fly to “see” where they are going

Identify the fact or opinionIdentify the fact or opinion

Maryland is located in the United States

F

Reading is the most interesting subject in school.

O

The character of Cinderella should marry the prince.

O

Bats use echolocation when they fly to “see” where they are going

F

Authors use facts to support Authors use facts to support opinionsopinions

• Ads promise that you’ll be happier if you buy Ads promise that you’ll be happier if you buy certain clothes or toys.certain clothes or toys.

• Articles try to talk you into believing an idea.Articles try to talk you into believing an idea.

• Speeches and propaganda try to persuade Speeches and propaganda try to persuade you to change your mind to do something. you to change your mind to do something.

• These are examples of persuasive writingThese are examples of persuasive writing– In persuasive writing the writer’s goal is to explain In persuasive writing the writer’s goal is to explain

why a reader should think, act, or feel the same why a reader should think, act, or feel the same way he or she does.way he or she does.

Making inferenceMaking inference

Why do you Why do you

think the cat think the cat

is in the tree?is in the tree?

Making inferenceMaking inference

We don’t know We don’t know exactly why the cat exactly why the cat is in the tree, but is in the tree, but looking at the looking at the picture, we can picture, we can guess that the dog guess that the dog chased the cat up chased the cat up the tree.the tree.

The guess that we The guess that we mad is called an mad is called an inference.inference.

Inferring from TextInferring from Text

What is an inference?What is an inference? An educated guess / a reasoned guess about what you An educated guess / a reasoned guess about what you

don’t know based on what you do know.don’t know based on what you do know. When we make an inference, we draw a conclusion by When we make an inference, we draw a conclusion by

reasoning from evidence.reasoning from evidence.

They inferred she was upset when she left the They inferred she was upset when she left the room.room.

How did they know that she was upset?How did they know that she was upset? She was hysterical.She was hysterical. There were tears in her eyes.There were tears in her eyes. She ran out and ignored the others although they She ran out and ignored the others although they

tried to calm her down. tried to calm her down.

As Agatha studied Agnes, she noticed that As Agatha studied Agnes, she noticed that her eyes appeared misty, her lips trembled her eyes appeared misty, her lips trembled slightly, and a twisted handkerchief lay in slightly, and a twisted handkerchief lay in her lap.her lap.

Inference: Agnes is upset slightly and on Agnes is upset slightly and on the verge of tearsthe verge of tears

The following questions can be powerful igniters of The following questions can be powerful igniters of both text-to-text and text-to-self/world inferences. both text-to-text and text-to-self/world inferences. Ideally, we can figure out ways to make such Ideally, we can figure out ways to make such inference-generating questions automatic:inference-generating questions automatic:

  

Who is doing the action? Why?Who is doing the action? Why? How does a part fit into the overall text?How does a part fit into the overall text? What are the effects of an event, both psychological and What are the effects of an event, both psychological and

physical?physical? What feelings does a person experience?What feelings does a person experience? What is the author’s purpose?What is the author’s purpose? What if I had been in that situation?What if I had been in that situation? How does this apply to my life or the world around me?How does this apply to my life or the world around me? What does this word mean?What does this word mean?

Easy MoneyEasy Money

Bob and Sam Collect cans. They sell the cans to Bob and Sam Collect cans. They sell the cans to a recycling center. Lately business has been so a recycling center. Lately business has been so good that they have divided their work in half. good that they have divided their work in half. Bob’s area includes a park where teams play Bob’s area includes a park where teams play baseball everyday. Sam collects cans from baseball everyday. Sam collects cans from office buildings and stores.office buildings and stores.

Many people drink canned drinks

Sam’s route includes office buildings

Bob and Sam earn more money now than when they started.

Bob’s route includes a park

Easy MoneyEasy Money

Bob and Sam Collect cans. They sell the cans to Bob and Sam Collect cans. They sell the cans to a recycling center. Lately business has been so a recycling center. Lately business has been so good that they have divided their work in half. good that they have divided their work in half. Bob’s area includes a park where teams play Bob’s area includes a park where teams play baseball everyday. Sam collects cans from baseball everyday. Sam collects cans from office buildings and stores.office buildings and stores.

Many people drink canned drinks Inference

Sam’s route includes office buildings Fact

Bob and Sam earn more money now than when they started.

Inference

Bob’s route includes a park Fact

What evidence can you find in What evidence can you find in the text to support the issue?the text to support the issue?

Look for details within the textLook for details within the text Include: Example of the sentence, lines & Include: Example of the sentence, lines &

paragraphparagraph

PROBING PROBING ASSUMPTIONSASSUMPTIONS

AssumptionsAssumptions

An assumption, is an unstated reason. It is An assumption, is an unstated reason. It is something that must be true for an something that must be true for an argument to work, but which is not argument to work, but which is not explicitly stated in the argument.explicitly stated in the argument.

Part of your belief system. Something you Part of your belief system. Something you don't question. Your mind takes for don't question. Your mind takes for granted that your assumption is true granted that your assumption is true

         You will be happy with your Internet access if you sign

up with Ampac. They are the world’s largest ISP with over

12 million subscribers.

What is being assumed? What is being assumed?  Is biggest always the best?Is biggest always the best? Just because Ampac is the largest ISP in the world, Just because Ampac is the largest ISP in the world,

does it mean that they will provide the best Internet does it mean that they will provide the best Internet service?  service? 

The argument holds together only because this assumption was made. Should you accept it?

A woman gets home, screeches her car into the A woman gets home, screeches her car into the driveway, runs into the house, slams the door driveway, runs into the house, slams the door and shouts at the top of her lungs, "Honey, pack and shouts at the top of her lungs, "Honey, pack your bags! I won the Lottery!“your bags! I won the Lottery!“

The husband says, "Wow, I can't believe it!! The husband says, "Wow, I can't believe it!! What should I pack, beach stuff or mountain What should I pack, beach stuff or mountain stuff?“stuff?“

"It doesn't matter", the wife yells back, "just get "It doesn't matter", the wife yells back, "just get the HECK out!"the HECK out!"

Winning the LotteryWinning the Lottery

Assumptions vs InferenceAssumptions vs Inference

Situation: Sara has got an F for her July test.

Inference: Sara failed her English test.Assumption: Sara did not study for her test

Don’t Quote!Don’t Quote!

When answering a question that asks you When answering a question that asks you to identify an assumption, unlike when to identify an assumption, unlike when answering other questions, you should answering other questions, you should never give a quote from the text; by never give a quote from the text; by definition, assumptions are unstated.definition, assumptions are unstated.

ConclusionConclusion

Logical or reasonable if they are based on Logical or reasonable if they are based on solidly on the information or evidence solidly on the information or evidence gatheredgathered

How do you find the conclusion?How do you find the conclusion?1.1. LocationLocation

2.2. Logical indicator wordsLogical indicator words

LocationLocation

When the city reconstructs our street next When the city reconstructs our street next year, it should not widen it. I live on a hill year, it should not widen it. I live on a hill and my current driveway is very steep and my current driveway is very steep where it connects with the street. If the city where it connects with the street. If the city widens the street, my driveway will be so widens the street, my driveway will be so steep that I will scrape my tailpipe and steep that I will scrape my tailpipe and bumper on the asphalt, ruining my car and bumper on the asphalt, ruining my car and gouging the new street. Keep the street gouging the new street. Keep the street that same width!that same width!

Logical Indicator of WordsLogical Indicator of Words

““The current office holder has been in the The current office holder has been in the Ministry for many years and holds a high Ministry for many years and holds a high office in the Party; therefore you should office in the Party; therefore you should vote for him”.vote for him”.

therefore therefore is the conclusionis the conclusion

Let’s look at the assignmentLet’s look at the assignment