Published by Lecturesheet.iiuc28a9.comOrigin of the word 'Bangla'

The exact origin of the word Bangla or Bengal is unknown, though it is believed to be derived from the Dravidian-speaking tribe Bang that settled in the area around the year 1000 BCE.[1][2]

Other accounts speculate that the name is derived from Vanga (bôngo), which came from the Austric word "Bonga" meaning the Sun-god. According to Mahabharata, Purana, Harivamsha Vanga was one of the adopted sons of king Vali who founded the Vanga kingdom. The Muslim Accounts refer that "Bong", a son of Hind (son of Hām who was a son of Noah) colonized the area for the first time.[3]

Some linguists believe that the name originates from the Tibetan word, "Bans" which means wet or moist and Banga (Bengal) is a wet country crisscrossed by a thousand rivers and washed by monsoons and floods from the Himalayas. Some others believe that the name originated from the Bodo (original Asamese in North Eastern India) "Bang La" which means wide plains. This theory is extremely plausible. Another school suggests the name comes from the name of Prince Banga.

The earliest reference to "Vangala"(bôngal) has been traced in the Nesari plates (805 AD) of Rashtrakuta Govinda III which speak of Dharmapala as the king of Vangala. Shams-ud-din Ilyas Shah took the title "Shah-e-Bangalah" and united the whole region under one government for the first time.

There are many theories about the origin of the name Banga or Bangla. According to legend, Prince Banga, the son of King Bali and Queen Sudeshna of the Lunar dynasty was the first to colonise Bangla. What is probably the real root is from the name of the original people of Bangla. This also is taken from legend. One of the tribes who according to a claim emerged from the Indus Civilization after its demise had entered the plains of Bengal while others went elsewhere. They were called the Bong tribe and spoke Dravidian. We know from many ancient Aryan texts of a tribe called Banga that existed in that region.

1. ̂ (1989) "Early History, 1000 B. C.-A. D. 1202", in James Heitzman and Robert L. Worden: Bangladesh: A country study. Library of Congress.

2. ̂ History, Banglapedia 3. ̂ RIYAZU-S-SALĀTĪN: A History of Bengal, Ghulam Husain Salim, The Asiatic Society,

Calcutta, 1902.

The Advent of Islam in BengalBengal at the time of advent of Islam To understand the success of Islam in Bangladesh, it is necessary to have an appraisal of the conditions prevailing in undivided Bengal at the time of the advent of this revolutionary religion. In the early seventh century when the Prophet (s) was delivering his Message in Arabia and the Arabs felt the lion of a new life, the whole of the subcontinent including Bengal presented a picture of discord and strife in the political as well as religio-social life, there was no political unity in the land and as such strife and confusion prevailed all throughout, the existing religions, Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism failed to hold an ideal before the people and to meet their spiritual and material needs. The Buddhists suffered persecution under the domination of Brahmanical Hinduism. In the caste-ridden Hindu society the Brahmins enjoyed the monopoly of all privileges and the lower caste people lived under their bondage. Inequalities and injustices held away in the Hindu society of the time.

In the time of the great Prophet, Harshavardhan was the Emperor of Northern India (A.D.606-647) with his capital at Thaneswar and Kanouj. Southern India was divided into a number of kingdoms. Eastern Bengal was under therule of the Brahman Ratt dynasty. The rulers of these dynasties were Hindus. A Buddhist family known as the Khadga Dynasty ruled over south-eastern Bengal in the second-half of the seventh century. This was followed by another Buddhist dynasty of the Deva family which ruled in the second half of theeighth century. About this time the Kingdom of the Palas, a Buddhist family, was established in Western and Northern Bengal.

In the seventh century there were three religions in Bengal: Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. The Brahmanical Hindu religion far outnumbered the Buddhists and Jains. The Jains gradually declined. The Nirgranthas, who later on came to be known as Jainas lost much of their influence in Bengal during subsequent ages. The Buddhists who were in a flourishing condition upto the beginning of the Gupta rule in the time of the Chinese Pilgrim Fahien (5th century A.D) were still numerous at the time when Hiuen-Tsang, the Chinese pilgrim, visited Bengal in the seventh century. The Gupta Emperors were Brahmanical Hindus and there was the ascendancy of the Brahmins in the state and society. The absence of patronage by the rulers and the domination of the Brahmins accounted for the decline of Buddhism in Bengal.

Buddhism had also become divided into several sects, such as Hinayana, Mahayana Vajrayana and Sahajayana. Some of these were influenced by the Hindu beliefs and practices. The Vajrayana and Sahajayana Buddhism fell under the influence of Hindu Tantrikism. The Hindu belief in the worship of female deity found way into the Mahayana Buddhism. To then Buddha and Buddhachitta become gods, and Tara, as the mail power of Buddha, appeared as a female deity.

In the pre-Muslim period as, indicated above, the Hindus believe in idolatry. They worshipped many gods and goddesses. They made images of these gods, and goddesses, built temples for them, and adored them with elaborate rituals and ceremonies. The Brahmins, the priestly class, conducted the ceremonial worship as the sole religious functionary of the Hindus. The Brahmins held the ascendancy in the Hindu religious and social life and enjoyed the monopoly of all privileges in every field of life. Their prescriptions regulated and governed the life of all Hindus from birth to death.

The Hindus of the time divided into many castes and sub-castes. The Brahmins, Vaidyas, and Kayasthas belonged to the upper class of the Hindu society. There were a few Khatriyas in Bengal, and they were immigrants like the Senas. There were rigid barriers between different

castes and subcastes of the Hindus.

The position of women was much more inhuman and degraded. They had hardly any independent legal or social status. They could not inherit their parents and husbands and any other relatives. They were to be cremated along with their husbands or to remain in the husbands' family to serve the younger brothers of the husbands as their female-slaves. Marriageable age for bride and bridegroom, according to the social prescriptions, was in the ratio of 1:3.

On the eve of the Muslim conquest of Bengal, the Hindu demoralised. There was not only the tyranny of the Brahmins over the non-Brahmins, particularly over the lower class Hindus, and the Buddhists, but corruption and vices of all sorts prevailed in the social life. The contemporary evidences and epigraphic reveal the immoralities and sensual excesses among the Hindus in the pre-Muslim Bengal.

The second evil was the custom to dedicating young girls, popularly known as devadasi (female attendant to the deity) for service in temples. Whatever was the primary nature and object of this ancient institution, there is no doubt of its degradation in Bengal in the later days of the Hindu period. These girls well-versed in dancing and music, and other arts dedicated to the service of gods, or associated with ceremonies in temples, were often no better than common courtesans, in the institution of Devadasis the- upper class and influential Hindus got an element of enjoyment. This undermined the morality of the Hindu society and corruption and vices pervaded all the strata of their social life.

In short, the religious life in Bengal in pre-Muslim days was devoid of an ideal and spiritual impulse. Disunity, discord, strife, misbeliefs and persecution held sway in the religious field. A small class of the Brahmins enjoyed the monopoly of all the religious and social privileges and degraded the common people into the position of serfs. Inequality and injustice characterised the Hindu society of the time. The pernicious system of rigid caste division with its elaborate code of purity and untouchability and the low standard of morality caused the disintegration and degeneration of the Hindus and sapped the strength and vitality of their society. When such was the condition of the religious and social life of the Hindus, the revolutionary force of Islam appeared in Bengal.

Bengal at the time of advent of Islam The history of the arrival of Islam into Bengal may be divided into three broad categories. In fact, there are three ways by which the religion of Islam found its way into Bengal.

A) Arab Trades:

Islam entered this land with the Arab trade in the East. In the eighth and ninth centuries of the Christian era, the Arabs were the foremost sea-faring and maritime people of the world and the Arab merchants sailed across all waters to far off countries of the East. The Arab's conquest of Sind and Multan in 712 A.D. and their settlement in that region naturally stimulated further Arab trade with India and the East. In the course of this trade a few Arabs settled in Ceylon and the Malabar coast. The eastern trade of the Arabs flourished so much that the Indian Ocean and the Bay of Bengal turned into Arab lakes.

The writings of Arab geographers reveal that Arab traders had frequented the Bengal coast long before the Turkish conquest. The location bordering Bengal that finds prominence in the Arab accounts is Samandar, identified with a place in the mouth of the Meghna river near Sandip islands on the Bay of Bengal. The Arab writers also knew about Samrup and the kingdom of Ruhmi, the latter being

identified with the kingdom of Dharmapal of the Pal dynasty. It is not certain whether the Arab contacts led to any Muslim settlement in Bengal; some coins of the Caliphs have been discovered from ancient sites of Paharpur in Rajshahi and Mainamati near Comilla. On the basis of the word Thuratana in the Arakanese tradition, some scholars have concluded that the Arabs founded a Muslim Kingdom in Chittagong.

The facial resemblance's of the people of Chittagong, the mixture of Arabic words in the Chittagonian dialect, and place names in and around the port city have been put forward to prove the Arab settlement in Chittagong.

Varthema and Barbosa who visited Bengal in the early sixteen century saw many Arab and Persian merchants and Muslims in that locality. This indicates earlier Arab connection with this region before its conquest by the Muslims

In Chittagong and its adjacent areas of Eastern Bengal there were greater Arabicization than in North and West Bengal which had p assed under the Muslim possession about a century and half earlier. The Arabic words, idioms and phrases and Arabic names of persons and places of the locality speak of its intimate connection with the Arabs and such a deeper Arabicization was possible only through the settlement of the Arabs and their constant contact with the local people over a long period.

The coin of Khalifs Harun'-ur Rashid, dated 172 H/788 A.D. found at Paharpur in the Rajshahi district, and the coin of one of his successors discovered at Mainamati in the Comilla show that the Arab Muslim used to come to Bengal as traders or preachers from the eighth century. This indicates that the Muslim traders used to come to -Bengal in the pre-Muslim period. According to the local traditions, a number of subs of Arabia and Persia came to Bengal before the Muslim conquest of this country. They made Bengal the centre of their mission of preaching Islam and adopted it as their home. There are some families which trace their descent from these early sufi preachers who had settled down in different localities of Bengal. These Arab settlers introduced Islam in. Bengal and laid down the basis of the Muslim culture in this land.

B) By Conquest

The second way by which Islam entered into Bengal was the Muslim conquest of this land in the beginning of the thirteenth century. A large body of the Muslim Turks accompanied Ikhtiyaruddin Muhammad ibn Bakhtiyar Khalji in his conquest of Bengal from the hands of the powerful Hindu King Lakshmanasena. It is known from Minhajus Siraj that the Bengal conqueror Muhammad ibn Bakhtiyar Khalji led a cavalry force of 10,000 in his Tibet expedition. This suggests that he must have left behind a large army to maintain his control over the newly acquired territories of North and West Bengal and to conquer such territories as Jajnagar, etc. Moreover, the Khalji Turks who came to Bengal as conquerors, soldiers or fortune seekers, were accompanied by their wives and children. According to Minhaj the wives and children of the soldiers, who fell in the Tibet expedition,

reviled the adventurous general Muhammad ibn Bakhtiyar Khalji, holding him responsible for the death of their husbands and fathers. The author of tabaqat-i-Nasiri stated that the Khalji chief came to Lakhnauti with their families

After the Muslim conquest of Lakhnauti, the Muslim Turks continued to pour into Bengal with every new Governor and chief. A considerable number of Ilbari Turks accompanied Balban’s Governor Mughithu'd-Din Tughral to this province. A strong force was essential for him to establish his authority in view of the opposition of the Khalji Maliks. Then, Sultan Balban, in his campaign against the rebellious governor Tughral, was accompanied by a huge force, consisting of soldiers, camp followers and traders numbering three lakhs. After suppressing Tughral, Sultan Balban left his son an, as Governor of Bengal. Bughra Khan had a following of his own and his father provided him with a sufficient force to preserve his authority in the province. When Balban's dynasty was overthrown by the Khaljis in Delhi more Ilbari Turks left for Bengal, seeking home and employment under Nasir'ud Din Bughra Khan, who had established a dynastic rule in this province. In the time of the Tughlaq Sultanate of Delhi, a number of Turks came to Bengal with the new governors and amirs. Fakhru'd-Din Mubarak Shah, who established his independent rule in East Bengal, and Haji Shamsu'd-Din, the founder of the independent sultanate in Bengal, had their own following to support them in throwing off the authority of Delhi and maintaining their sovereignty in this province.

Sultan Muhammad ibn Tughlaq, after the transfer of capital from Daulatabad to Delhi, found the city and the adjacent territories in the grip of a terrible famine. For the relief of the people of the locality, the Sultan arranged for the shifting of a number of its inhabitants to the provinces. Accordingly, many people with their families and followers trekked to Bengal where foodstuffs were plenty and cheap

The Afghans came to Bengal as hirelings in the army of the Khalji Maliks, and other generals and rulers of the Turks. The Habshi Sultan Muzaffar Shah had a few thousand Afghans in his service. Mahmud Ludi, brother of Sultan, and his family and followers took refuge with Sultan Nusrat Shah of Bengal after being ousted from Northern India by Emperor Babur. They received the grant of Jagirs and allowances and settled down in Bengal. Sultan Nusrat Shah also married a daughter of the late Sultan Ibrahim Ludi. After the loss of Northern India and, during the Karrani Afghan rule, the Afghans settled in Bengal in large numbers.

During the Mughal rule many officers and soldiers settled in Bengal. It is known from Akbarnama that Emperor Akbar liberally granted Jagirs to the officers and soldiers who served in these provinces. According to Abul Fazl, the Emperor at one time assigned several hundred Jagirs to the soldiers in Bengal. It appears from the writings of Mirza Nathan that Emperor Jahangir also followed his father's policy of making liberal grant to the Mughal Officers and Soldiers in this province. Many of the Jagir holders settled down in Bengal permanently.

Many-Persians came to Bengal during the period of Muslim rule as sufis, teachers,

officers and soldiers. There was great flow of the Persian officers, teachers, physicians and traders in this province after the Mughal conquest. It is known from the contemporary histories and accounts that a large number of Persians settled in Bengal during the period of the Mughal rule and the Nizamat of Murshidabad.

C) Spread of Islam by Sufi Preachers

The Sufi saints and preachers had a large share in the spread of Islam in Bengal. By their religious fervor, missionary zeal, exemplary character and humanitarian activities, they greatly influenced the mind of the masses and attracted them to the, faith of Islam. The Khanqahs of the sufis which were established in every nook and corner of Bengal were great centres of spiritual, humanitarian and intellectual activities and these had a significant role in the development of the Muslim society in this country. Hundreds of sufis came to Bengal in different times from the lands of Islam in Western and Central as well as Northern India. They belonged to different sufi orders, particularly the Chishtia and Suhrawardia. Though imported from outside, Bengal proved to be the most congenial for sufism. It spread throughout Bengal, even to the remotest villages, so that Khanqahs and dargahs grew up every where in the country. Sufism prospered so much in the soil of Bengal that several new mystic orders developed on the basis of the teaching of some of the distinguished Bengali sufis.

It is impossible to say who was the first Muslim saint to come to Bengal. If traditions that persist in different parts of Bangladesh are to be believed, a large number of saints came to Bengal long before the Turkish conquest. From the beginning the saints paid attention to educating the people. They also influenced the rulers in molding their policies and interfered in the politics of the country whenever they thought that policies of the rulers were going against the spirit and interest of Islam. Muslim society in Bengal was founded upon three important supporting groups--the Muslim ruling class, Muslim scholars, and the saints, Sufis and Pirs. The popular form of Islam in Bangladesh includes pirism and mullaism. Etymologically, the word "pir" means old. But it is generally used to denote the teachers who give spiritual guidance. Reverence to the pirs is not of Bangladesh origin--it was imported from Iran through northern India.

Local tradition is noticeable in the growth of mullaism or priestly influence. Mullahs are held in more reverence in the rural areas. The miracles and the piety of the Muslim saints and pirs played upon the people's imagination and led them ultimately to accept Islam.

According to local evidences, circumstantial proofs, and traditional accounts many saints and sufis are traced out to have come and preached Islam into various parts of Bengal. History recorded that a sufi named Baba Adam came to Vikrampur of the Dhaka district. Another named Muhammad Sultan Rumi is said to have come to Bengal in the middle of the eleventh century (1045 A.D.) and preached Islam in the Netrokona locality in the district of Mymensingh. The name of Sufi Makhdum Shah is associated with the preaching of Islam in Pabna district. Makhdum Shah

Mahmud Ghaznavi, better known as Rah Pir, is credited with the spread of Islam in the locality of the Burdwan district. Tradition also connects the great sufi Bayazid Bistami (died in 874 A.D.) with Bengal whose shrine is found at Nasirabad near Chittagong. Shaikh Jalal Uddin Tabrizi was the most celebrated of the early sufis of Bengal. Hailed from Tabriz in Persia, he visited Delhi, came to Bengal and settled down in Pandua and established his Khanqah there. His great spiritual personality, missionary zeal, and humanitarian services attracted the attention of the downtrodden and persecuted Buddhists, Hindus, and other people of the North Bengal who then flocked to him for deliverance and accepted Islam. Shaikh Jalal Uddin popularly known as Shah Jalal was one of the great sufi preachers of this period who is credited with the acquisition of Sylhet and the spread of Islam in this region. There are many other sufis and saints, some of them are known and some others are unknown, who immensely contributed to the spread of Islam in this region.

The name of another sufi preacher

D) Progress of Islam in Other Ways:

Apart from the missionary activities of the sufis there were other ways through which Islam made steady progress in Bengal. The largest section of the converts to Islam came from the Buddhists and lower class Hindus to whom the simplicity, equality and brotherhood of the religious and social system of Islam appealed as a deliverance from the persecution and tyranny under the Brahmanical society. There are instances which show that Islam gained a considerable number of converts through marriage in upper class Hindu families. It is the educated and enlightened Brahmins and Kayasthas, who generally came in political and social contacts with their Muslim neighbours. This naturally prepared the ground for social intimacy and matrimonial relations between the Muslims and the upper class Hindus.

According to a Hindu tradition, Shamsu'd–Din Ilyas Shah (7434342-7581357) the Bengali Sultan, married a beautiful Brahmin widow, who was known as Phulmati Begum. The sultan had several sons by this Hindu wife. It is known from the poet Muhammad Khan that his great ancestor Mahiswar married a Brahmin girl. By this marriage Mahiswar left behind illustrious family which produced some distinguished governors and generals of the time of the Ilyas Shahi –1487) and Husain Shahi (1493-1519) Sultans of Bengal. Vijayagupta, a Hindu poet of the fifteenth century, refers to a marriage of a Qadi with a Hindu woman of the upper class who was well acquainted with the Hindu sastras. The Qadi had several sons by this Hindu wife. In the local traditions there is reference of the marriage of Sonamoyi, a beautiful sister of Kedar Roy, the Brahmin Zamindar of Sripur, with Isa Khan, Zamindar of Sonargaon and the leader of the Bara Bhuiyan of Bengal. By Sonamoyi, `Isa Khan had two sons—Adam Khan and Biram Diwan, who also were married to two daughters of Kedar Roy. Shamsher Ghazir Puthi mentions that Shamsher Ghazi married a Brahmin girl.

All the instances cited above, show that the Muslims married in upper class Hindu society. Many such instances can be added to illustrate the marriage of the Muslims with the Hindu women of the upper class.

There are instances of many upper class Hindus, who were attracted by the superior ideals of Islam and accepted this faith. It is known from the Ainritkhand, a Sanskrit work, that a vedantist Brahmin called Bhojar Brahmin came to Lakhnauti in the early days of the Muslim rule. He discussed philosophy with Qazi Ruknu'd–Din Samarqandi and accepted Islam at his hands. The same book also refers to another Brahmin sage of Kamrup, Ambhavanth by name, who embraced Islam about this time. The acceptance of Islam by Jadu, son of Raja Kans,is a well-known fact of the history of Bengal. He belonged to aristocratic and influential Brahmin family. After conversion, Jadu became Jalaal Din and was elevated to the royal dignity under the name of Jalaud Din Muhammad Shah. He left behind a line of kings and princes in Bengal.

That many Brahmins and Kayasthas voluntarily accepted Islam either on religious, social or material grounds, was noticed by the contemporary poets and travellers. In his Chaitanyamangala, the poet Vrindvandas says, "In the Hindu community even the Brahmins came and voluntarily accepted Islam.

The contemporary Bengali literature reflects that if a Brahmin accepted Islam, he persuaded his relations and brethren to come to the fold of Islam. The Rasul Vijaja of Shaikh Chand mentions that three Brahmins accepted Islam and induced his relations to embrace this faith. In many cases the defeat of the Pundits, the religio–social leaders of the Indus, in religious debates with the Muslim Ulama and Sufis resulted in the conversion not only of their families including themselves, but of their followers and relations.

Conclusion:

The real cause of the progress of Islam in Bengal was its great inherent quality which fascinated the educated and enlightened Hindus. Islam offered equality, justice and a status of respectability in the society to the degraded and persecutedlow caste Hindus. It also came as a grant deliverance to the persecuted Buddhists of Bengal. The Brahmins were persecuting the Buddhists in a worst form. It is known from an inscription at Nalanda that the army of the Hindu King Jatavarman of the Verman dynasty burnt a portion of the Buddhist vihara at Sumpur. The Tibeton Buddhist monk Taranath, who visited Bengal in the sixteenth century, left on account of the Brahminical tyranny on the Buddhists in the Sena period. He observed that persecuted Buddhists welcomed the Muslims and helped Muhammad ibn Bakhtiyar Khalji in the conquest of. Bengal

The early Bengali literatures also express how the tyranny of the Brahmins drove the Buddhists and lower class Hindus to take refuge in Islam. Ramai Pandit, a poet of the fourteenth century, in his poem Niranjaner Rukshina has revealed a dark picture of the Brahminical tyranny which alienated the Buddhists and the common Hindus so much that they welcomed the Muslims as great liberators. According to

the poet, being unable to tolerate the inhumanities of the Brahmins their Gods—goddess came in the form of Muslim sufis, Saints, Ulama and religious warriors and destroyed the tyranny of the Brahmins. The Muslims thus delivered the suffering people and in this work of deliverance the prominent role was played by the sufis and `Ulama. In short, the advent of Islam ushered in a new epoch of equality, fraternity and brotherhood of men in the region now known as Bangladesh.

The Establishment of Muslim Rule in Bengal

Introduction:

There are three phases in the expansion of Muslim rule in the Sub-continent. The first phase is the conquest of Sind and Multan by Muhammad ibn Qasim, a Lieutenant of Hijjaj ibn Yusuf, the viceroy of the Eastern province of the Umayyad Khilafat. Politically, this conquest was no more than an episode, having no permanent result; but it established a lasting cultural contact between the Arab Muslims and the Western part of India. The second phase saw the repeated invasions of the Sub-continent by Amir Sabuktagin and his son Sultan Mahmud. The latter penetrated deep into the sub-continent conquering, as far East as Kanauj and as far South as Somnath in Gujiat, but he consolidated his position only in the north-western area centring round Lahore. The third phase began with the Battle of Tarain, when Prithviraj Chauhan was defeated by Sultan Muizz-ud-Din Muhamnad ibn Sam, better known in Indian history as Muhammad Ghori. He established his Indian Kingdom with Delhi as capital, where Qutbu'd-Din Aibak was appointed his

viceroy. The conquest of Bengal is a continuation of this third phase of Muslim penetration into the Sub-continent and the leader of this conquest was Malik khtyarud-Din-Muhammad ibn Bakhtyar Khalji.

After the conquest of Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji, Bengal remained under the Muslim rule for five hundred and fifty four years unto 1757 when it was crushed and ended in the tragic field of Plassey. The Muslim rule in Bengal may be divided into a few divisions:

Rulers in Bengal Periods Contemporary Delhi Emperors

Khalji Rule 1203-1227 A. C. 1. Qutubuddin Aibek2. Iltutmish (d. 1236)

Delhi Rule 1227-1341 A. C.Ilyas Shahi Dynasty 1342-1413 A. C.Raja Gonesh- Jalal Uddin Rule 1414-1441 A. C.

Ilyas Shahi Dynasty (Second Term) 1442-1487 A. C.Habshi Rule 1487-1493 A. C.Hussain Shahi Dynasty 1493-1538 A. C.

Pathan Rule (Sher Shah & Sur Dynasty 1538-1564 A. C.Karrani Dynasty 1565-1576 A. C.Mughal Rule 1576-1757 A. C.

Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji: (Khalji Rule)

Muhamad Bakhtiyar Khalji was an inhabitant of Garamsir or modern Dasht-i'-Margo in Afghanistan. He belonged to the Khalji clan of the Turkish race and was one of the many adventurers who came out of their homeland in search of a better livelihood. He first came to Ghazni, then to Delhi but failed to be enrolled in the army in both the places, because he could not procure a horse and a suit of armour, which in those days, were pre-requisite for entry into the armed force. His short stature and ugly countenance also probably went against him. He then came to Badayun, where the Sipah-Salar Malik Hisbarud-Din appointed him on a cash salary. Discontent with a meagre salary, Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji moved on to farther east and came to Awadh, where fortune favoured him as Malik Husamud-Din, the governor of the province granted him a jagir of two parganas, Bhiuli and Bhagawat at the far corner of his area in the modern Mirzapur district of Uttar Pradesh (India). This was what Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji aspired after his new assignment brought him in the border of small Hindu principalities and he made good use of his position. He began to raid the surrounding one with much profit. Every raid gave him some additional booty, which he utilised to strengthen his fighting power. The number of troops under him increased day by day. It was because many people from Ghor, Gazni, Khorasan and other places left those places because of warfare, shortage of food and flocked here in the Sub-continent in search of fortune. They came to know the name and fame of Bakhtiyar and joined his army. In the meantime, Bakhtiyar suddenly came upon a seemingly

fortified place which he occupied without difficulty, which was a Buddhist monastery and any monastery in the language of the local people was called to be Bihar, he named the place Bihar.

The King Lakshman Sena was then ruling in Bengal and he was staying in the town of Nadia, a sacred place on the bank of the river Ganges (Bhagirathi Channel). One day, the Brahmins, the astrologers and the wise men of his court represented to the king saying that in their books of old it was stated that their country would be conquered by the Turks, and that the time had come near since Muhammad Bakhtyar Khalji had already conquered Bihar. They advised the king to leave Nadia and take shelter in a distant place. On being questioned they also told the king that in their books the physical features of the conqueror was mentioned and it was that: 'When he stands upright on his two feet, and lets down his two hands, his hands will reach beyond the point of his knees in such way that his fingers will touch the calves of his legs," The king sent trustworthy persons to verify the physical - feature of Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji; who reported back to him that Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji had the same physical features as had been stated by the Brahmins. The news caused a great commotion among the people of Nadia; though the king decided not to leave the place, the Brahmins and the wise men fled towards different directions. After sometime Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji -actually marched against Nadia; he divided his army into small groups and proceeded through an unfrequented hilly region of Jharkhand. He marched so fast that when he appeared before Nadia, not more than 18 (according to another report: 17) horsemen could keep up with him. No one suspected that he was the Turkish invader but all took him to be a horse-dealer. By the time Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji reached the place, the King Lakshman Sena was seated on the table for mid-day meals; when he heard noise caused by the onslaughts of Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji, the King could sense what had happened and without delay he escaped by the back door of the palace and fled on boats towards Vikrampur (Dacca). Nadia was thus captured without difficulty. After getting hold of the booty from the palace and the city, Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji left Nadia, went to Lakhnauti (Gaur) and made it his capital. After ensuring all the administrative set-up and establishing religious institutions, he went forward to Tibet with approximately 10,000 soldiers where he was discomfited totally and the whole army was lost there. In despair he fell ill and died in the early part of 1206 A. C. Some also say that he was killed in his sick-bed by one of his own amirs, Ali Mardan Khalji.

Chart of the Khalji Rule in Bengal

1203- 1206 A. C. : Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji1206- 1208 A. C. : Malik Muhammad Shirin Khalji1208-1210 A. C. : Husamud Din Iwaz Khalji1210- 1213 A. C. : Ali Mardan Khalji1213-1227 A. C. : Sultan Ghiyathud Din Iwaz Khalji

After Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji's death his lieutenants were involved in an

internecine warfare; one of them Muhammad Shiran Khalji came to Devkot, Imprisoned Ali Mardan Khalji and himself took the leadership of the Muslims.`Ali Mardan somehow escaped from imprisonment, went to Qutubud-Din Aibak at Delhi and instigated him to occupy Lakhnauti. As a result Muhammad Shiran Khalji was ousted and Husamud-Din Khalji was put in charge of Lakhnauti. But later Husamud -Din Iwaz Khalji was replaced by 'Ali Mardan Khalji as Governor. On the death of Qutbud-Din Aibak in 1210 A.D. Mardan assumed independence and styled himself Sultan. He was a hot-tempered man, perpetrated oppressions over the people, and army and soon alienated all, the nobles and soldiers conspired against him and killed him. As a result Husamud-Din' Iwaz Khalji occupied the throne of Lakhnauti with the title of Sultan Ghyathu'd-Din Iwaz Khalji. Iwaz was a sagacious ruler; he attended to the weal of the people and executed welfare projects like building of roads, construction of dams and dykes for controlling the floods. He orgainsed a navy, keeping in view the military needs, established Masjids, Madrasahs, Khanqahs, and other religious institutions and did many developmental works. Iwaz’s sovereignty was not accepted by Iltutmish, he sent an army against him under his son Nasir Uddin who defeated and killed him. Here is the end of this rule.

Delhi Rule: (Bengal under the Mamluks and the Balbans)

Lakhnauti now passed to the hands of Delhi and was administered from there as a province. This position Lakhnauti continued for about 60 years. Governors were sent from Delhi, but when after the death of Iltutmish in 1236 the Delhi Sultans became weak, the governors at Lakhnauti exercised more powers than they were entitled to; they sometimes acted as virtual independent rulers assuming lofty titles like Malik–us-Sharq (Lord of the East). Two of the governors actually assumed independence the first of them was Mughi-thu'd-Din Yuzbak, who assumed sovereignty in 1255 A.D. But his independence was extremely short–lived; soon he lost his life in his Kamrup expedition. The second governor who assumed independence was 'Mughithu'd-Din Tughral in the reign of Sultan Ghyathud-Din Balban. A strong ruler as Balban was, he did not accept the independence of Tughral rather took prompt action against him. When his two expeditions against Tughral failed, Balban personally marched to Lakhnauti in 1280 A.D. Tughral was searched out from his jungle hide out and was brutally killed along with his family relations and adherents. After placing his second son Bughra Khan on the governorship of Lakhnauti, Balban returned to Delhi. Bughra Khan soon abdicated in favour of his son who ruled unto 1300 A. D. when he died he left no heir except a few nobles one of whom named Shamsuddin Firoz Shah ruled unto 1332, and Delhi’s rule remained there until 1341 during Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq.

Ilyas Shahi Dynasty:

The era of Ilyas Shah is an epoch making event in the history of Bengal. With the

establishment of his rule, the independence of Bengal retained nearly for four hundred years uninterrupted, and this dynasty could have successfully resisted the attack of the Delhi rule. This long period of independence helped the rulers to forge national unity, solidarity and homogeneity in Bengal’s body-politic. The rulers could also take many sustainable developmental policies and it gave an increase in the Muslim population and their power. In this era, Bengali literature and culture developed tremendously under their patronage. Ilyas Shah was the first Muslim Sultan to appoint Hindu generals in his army. He extended the empire beyond imagination and when he died in 1357 A. D. he left for his son and successor a large kingdom comprising almost the whole Bengal.

Chart of the Ilyas Shahi Dynasty in Bengal

1358- 1391 A. C. : Sikander Shah1391- 1396 A. C. : Ghiyathuddin Azam Shah1396- 1406 A. C. : Sifuddin Hamza Shah1406- 1409 A. C. : Shamsuddin (Son of Hamza Shah)1409- 1414 A. C. : Shahabuddin Bayezid Shah (2nd son of H Shah)

Sikandar Shah ruled successfully for 32 years resisting all attacks of Delhi and building many religious institutions. But his last days were full of sorrow. His son Azam Shah by his second wife was forced to revolt against him by the machinations of his step-mother, the first wife of Sikandar Shah. Sikandar Shah came out to oppose his own son but as ill—luck would have it, Sikandar Shah himself fell in the battle field, Azam Shah then occupied the throne with the title of Sultan Ghiyathu'd-Din Azam Shah. Ghiyathu'd-Din Azam Shah also continued many welfare activities and maintained a good relation with the religious scholars. He was latter killed by Ganesh, Sifuddin Hamza Shah was put in the throne, who was the dethroned, his elder son was placed in the throne, was killed and lastly his younger brother of 12 years was put in the kingdom from whom Ganesh took up the power.

Raja Ganesh

It may be recalled that from the time of Shanisu'd-Dinilyas Shah, the Bengal Sultans made it their policy to associate local people with the administration and particularly to appoint Hindus in the key-positions of the state. The policy was followed in the time of `Azam Shah also, but unfortunately that proved detrimental to the existence of the Sultanate. In the time of Azam Shah one Raja Ganesh, a Hindu Zamindar was appointed to the high post, possibly in the military department. Ganesh, however, became ambitious and secretly plotted to overthrow the Sultan and to occupy the throne himself. Through the machinations of Ganesh, Ghiyathu'd-Din 'Azam Shah was killed in 1410 A.D., Ganesh now placed Saifu'd-Din Hamzah Shah, Azam Shah's son on the throne. But soon Hamzah Shah was also overthrown, and one of his slaves Shihabu'd-Din Bayazid Shah was put on the

throne. Soon Bayazid Shah was also dethroned and his son Alau'd-Din Firoz Shah was placed on the throne, and within a few months he was also ousted by Raja Ganesh. Within 4 years from 1410 to 1414' A. D. three kings were chosen by Ganesh, but as none of them served his purpose, he ousted them all. And now with the supplanting of the Ilyas Shahi dynasty, Ganesh himself occupied the throne of Bengal-with the title "banuirtiardana Deva. The 'Muslim kingdom of Bengal now passed to the hands of a Hindu king. This could not-be tolerated by the learned Muslims and particularly the Muslim saints. Raja Ganesh was extremely oppressive to the Muslim learned people, and according to one account he killed several saints and savants and thus tried to silence them. Shaikh Nur Qutbul 'Alam, the guardian saint of the capital city of Pandua (Ferozabad) invited Sultan Ibrahim Sharqi of Jaunpur to invade Bengal and to free the country from the oppression of the infidel, Raja Ganesh. Sultari Ibrahim Sharqi accepted the invitation and marched with a large army. On his approach to the capital, Raja Ganesh got alarmed, went to Shaikh Nur Qutbul Alam and requested him to ask Sultan Ibrahim Sharqi to go -back. The Shaikh replied that he could not intercede on behalf of a infidel king but if Ganesh accepted Islam, he might consider his request. Ganesh agreed but his wife did not allow him to do so. SoGanesh brought his 12 years old son Jadu to the saint andrepresented saying, "I have grown old .and I am thinking ofrenouncing the world. Please accept my son, and place him on the throne after converting him to Islam".The Shaikh now requested Sultan Ibrahim Sharqi of Jaunpur to go back because Bengal had now become a Muslim country with a Muslim king ruling over it. The Sultan of Jaunpur was very much annoyed at this attitude of the Shaikh because he came all the way from Jaunpur at his invitation, but the Sultan did not dare oppose, the aikh and most reluctantly retraced his steps.

Ganesh was silently observing the course of events; when found that the Sultan of Jaunpur had crossed the border of Bengal, he dethroned Jalalu'd--Din, reconverted him to his former religion, performed religious rites for such conversion, acceptable to the Brahmins, and himself re-occupied the throne. Ganesh soon died, and after his death Jalalu'd-Din re-occupied the throne. He chose to remain in the fold of his new faith i. e. Islam and ruled the country according to the tenets of Islam. He repaired damages done to the Muslim monuments by his father and restored the old Muslim nobles to their positions. He inscribed the Kalima in his coins, a practice which was given up by some of the previous Sultans of Bengal.

Chart of Ganesh Rule

1409- 1414 A. C. : Ganesh (Virtually he instead ruled)1414- 1431 A. C. : i) Jadu Sen, Jalaluddin ii) Mohebdra1431- 1442 A. C. : Shamsuddin Ahmad Shah

Soon Shamsuddin Ahmad Shah was dethroned by the surviving successors Ilyas Shahi dynasty and again for the second term Ilyas Shahi dynasty was established in Bengal.

Ilyas Shahi Dynasty Restored:

The following people of the Ilyas Shahi dynasty ruled Bengal for the second term according to the following chart:

Chart of second term Ilyas Shahi Dynasty

1442- 1459 A. C. : Nasir Uddin Mahmud Shah1459- 1474 A. C. : Rukunuddin Barrak Shah1474- 1482 A. C. : Shamsuddin Yusuf Shah1482 : Sikandar Shah (Second)1482- 1486 A. C. : Jalaluddin Fateh Shah

Nasir Uddin Mahmud Shah was a just and sagacious ruler. He extended the rule and administered everything at everyone’s happiness and prosperity. He died a natural death to be succeeded by his son Rukunuddin Barrak Shah who is praised by the historians ‘to be a sagacious and law-abiding sovereign in whose kingdom the soldiers and citizens alike enjoyed contentment and security.’ But he imported a huge number of Habshi slaves, some say 8,000 in number and appointed them in the army: their leaders were appointed to the higher state services. Probably he wanted to organise these Habshis as a strong support to his family, but as we will be seen presently, the Habshis proved faithless and themselves occupied the throne for sometime. Barrak Shah died and was succeeded by his son Shamsuddin Yusuf Shah who was a learned, just and sagacious ruler. He promoted the Habshis to more important positions. He was succeeded by Sikander Shah who was ousted by Fath Shah and as the habshis were opposed to this he wanted to control them which compelled the Habshis to kill him and took up the reign.

Habshi Rule:

The next seven years in the history of Bengal is known as the period of Habshis in which four/five rulers reigned one after another. But unfortunately all of these Habshi kings were killed by the next one. Of them Firoz Shah Maliki was decidedly the best and he reigned for three years.

Chart of Habshi Rule:

1486- 1487 A. C. : Sultan Shahjada Barrak1487- 1490 A. C. : Syfuddin Firoz Shah1490- 1491 A. C. : Nasir Uddin Mahmud Shah1491- 1493 A. C. : Shamsuddin Muzaffar Shah1493- 1519 A. C. : Ala Uddin Hossain Shah

Hossain Shahi Dynasty:

During the Habshi reign of Shamsuddin Muzaffar Shah, a man named Hussain Shah came to the prominence through many accomplishments. After the death of

the last Habshi ruler, he became the ruler of Bengal. He is both famous and notorious by the critics. Some praised him even to be the best of Bengal rulers while some attributed the most objectionable allegations against him. He is accused on one hand to have imported idolatry and innovations, superstitions and introduced many un-Islamic practices in the Muslim society. He took up a Hindu ascetic to be his spiritual mentor.

Others say that removed lawlessness and indiscipline from the society, kept the boundary of Bengal intact, nourished Bengali culture, extended the empire, kind-hearted and great warrior. He appointed a large number of Hindus to higher positions demonstrating a non-partisan attitude.

He ruled for 26 years and the next rulers from his family including Nusrat Shah, Aluddin Shah, Firoz Shah, and Ghyathuddin Mahmud Shah, who ruled, in all, for forty five years, were able and fit rulers.

Chart of Hossain Shahi Rule:

1493- 1519 A. C. : Ala Uddin Hossain Shah1519- 1532 A. C. : Nasiruddin Nusrat Shah1532- 1538 A. C. : Ghyathuddin Mahmud Shah1532 A. C. : Alauddin Firoz Shah

Afghan rule

The last Sultan of the dynasty, who continued to rule from Gaur, had to contend with rising Afghan activity on his northwestern border. Eventually, the Afghans broke through and sacked the capital in 1538 where they remained for several decades until the arrival of the Mughals.

Sher Shah Suri established the Sur dynasty in Bengal. After the battle of Chausa he declared himself independent Sultan of Bengal and Bihar. Sher Shah was the only Muslim Sultan of Bengal to establish an empire in northern India. The Afghan rule in Bengal remained for 44 years. Their most impressive achievement was Sher Shah's construction of the Grand Trunk Road connecting Sonargaon, Delhi and Peshawar.

The Sur dynasty was followed by the Karrani dynasty. Sulaiman Karrani annexed Orissa to the Muslim sultanate permanently. Daud Shah Karrani declared independence from Akbar which led to four years of bloody war between the Mughals and the Afghans. The Mughal onslaught against the Afghan Sultan ended with the battle of Rajmahal in 1576, led by Khan Jahan. However, the Afghans and the local landlords (Barn Bhuyans) led by Isa Khan resisted the Moghul invasion.

Mugnai period/Rule:

Bengal came once more under the suzerainty of Delhi as the Mughals conquered it in 1576. Not far from Sonargaon, Dhaka rose from the mists of obscurity as a

Mughal provincial capital. But it remained remote and thus a difficult to govern region--especially the section east of the Brahmaputra River--outside the mainstream of Mughal politics. The Bengali ethnic and linguistic identity further crystallized during this period, since the whole of Bengal was united under an able and long-lasting administration. Furthermore its inhabitants were given sufficient autonomy to cultivate their own customs and literature.

In 1612, during Emperor Jahangir's reign, the defeat of Sylhet completed the Mughal conquest of Bengal, except for Chittagong. At this time the capital was established at Dhaka. Chittagong was later annexed in order to stifle Arakanese raids from the east. A well-known Dhaka landmark, Lalbagh Fort, was built during Aurangzeb's sovereignty.

History repeated itself as the frontier Bengal province broke off from a Delhi-based empire around the time Aurangzeb's death in 1707. Murshid Quli Khan ended Dhaka's century of grandeur as he shifted the capital to Murshidabad ushering in a series of independent Bengal Nawabs. Nawab Alivardi Khan showed military skill during his wars with the Marathas. He completely routed the Marathas, from Bengal. He crushed an uprising of the Afghans in Bihar and made the British pay 150,000 Tk for blocking Mughal and Armenian trade ships.

Conclusion:

The Independence Movement of The Muslim in Bengal: After 1757 to 1947

Introduction:

In 1757 the Muslims had not lost to the English only their kingdom, but also they lost everything. Those who were earlier the kings and rulers were reduced to subject-people and peasant class after that unfortunate event. The Hindus submitted to the English whole-heartedly and took unhesitantly everything the English offered, whereas the Muslims took up the weapons and responsibility to resistance. The Muslims remained defiant in the face of all brutality by the English in order to regain their freedom and prestige whereas the Hindus worked as favor-seekers and remained completely loyal. The struggle for independence by the Muslims stated almost immediately after the tragedy of Plassey and continued until they could earn the much-coveted freedom in 1947.

Different Independence Movements:

The Muslims launched different independence movements just after the tragedy of Plassey and continued till the achievement of that freedom. The following are just sketches of those movements:

Battle of Boxer: 1

The Battle of Buxar was fought in October 1764 between the forces under the command of the British East India Company, and the combined armies of Mir Kasim, the Nawab of Bengal; Shuja-ud-Daula, the Nawab of Awadh; and Shah Alam II, the Mughal Emperor. The battle fought at Buxar (currently in Bihar state, India), a town located on the bank of the Ganges river, was a decisive battle won by the forces of the British East India Company.

The battle and booty: British troops engaged in the fighting numbered 7,072 comprising 857 Europeans, 5,297 sepoys and 918 Indian cavalry. Estimates of the native forces vary from 40,000 to 60,000. Lack of co-ordination among the three disparate allies, each with a different axe to grind, was responsible for their decisive debacle.

British losses are said to have been 847 killed and wounded, while the three Indian allies accounted for 2,000 dead; many more were wounded. The victors captured 133 pieces of artillery and over 1 million rupees of cash.

Treaty of Allahabad: Suja-ud-Daula, the prime victim, signed the Treaty of Allahabad that secured Diwani Rights for the Company to administer the collection and management of the revenues of almost 100,000,000 acres (400,000 km2) of real estate which currently form parts of the Indian states of West Bengal, Orissa,

1 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Buxar

Bihar, Jharkhand, Uttar Pradesh , as well as of Bangladesh. He was also forced to pay a war indemnity of 5 million rupees. However, all his pre-war possessions were returned except for the districts of Karra and Allahabad.

Shah Alam II became a pensioner with a monthly stipend of 450,000 rupees towards upkeep of horses, sepoys, peons, burcandazes and household expenses. Mir Kasim, who was not a general, was quietly replaced. He also received a small share of the total land revenue, initially fixed at 2 million rupees.

The Battle of Buxar heralded the establishment of the rule of the East India Company in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent. While the Battle of Plassey secured a foothold for the British East India Company in the rich province of Bengal, the Battle of Buxar is really the battle that made them the dominant force in India.

Fakir Movement:

Fakir Movement started/got momentum when the East Indian Company was granted Diwani in 1765 by the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II and as a result the Company inflicted oppressively exorbitant taxes on the Muslim peasants, and it continued until it was weakened in 1833 or 1834. In the sub-continental Islamic terminology, a Fakir is religious saint who would devote himself to disseminating religious knowledge and depend on people's benevolence for his livelihood.

The objectives of Fakir Movement were to relieve the poor peasants, especially Muslims, of the tyranny and oppression of the British East India Company and the oppressive Zamindars and their over-taxation under its suzerainty and shelter. The second alleged objective of this movement was to loot the treasures of the East India Company and the Zamindars and distribute those among the poor. But it was found latter on that the zamindars propagated those false stories to avert paying any revenue to the Company.

Among the pioneers/leaders of the Fakir Movement, Mognu Shah, Maju Shah, Tipu Pagla, and Gojonfor TurkShah are famous and notable. In 1784 Maju Shah attacked different places of Mymensing, Sherpur, Pargona and allegedly looted the properties of the Zamindars. The Company's soldiers resisted that attack which compelled the Fakirs to retreat.

After two years, Fakir Movement again ensued in 1786 in Mymensingh. Armed soldiers of the Company came to the rescue of the Zamiondars this time, and the Fakirs were defeated and their movement subsided for long since then.

Fakir-sannyasi raids got intensified in 1776 in the districts of Bogra, Rajshahi, Dinajpur and Chittagong. During the period between 1777 and 1781 the fakir-sannyasi raids mainly continued in Bogra, Rajshahi, Rangpur, Chittagong, Sylhet and Mymensingh areas. The activities of the rebels took a serious turn in Alapsingh pargana of Mymensingh in 1782. After a severe battle at Pukhuria

Majnu Shah receded into the Madhupur jungle with his followers. In 1785 he proceeded towards Mahasthangarh and was defeated in a battle. In the following year Majnu Shah planned simultaneous attack in eastern Bengal under himself and in North Bengal area under his lieutenant Musa Shah. In a battle against the company army under Lieutenant Brenan in Kaleswar area (8 December 1786) Majnu Shah lost a large number of his followers. After 1786 Majnu Shah is not seen to lead any expedition. It appears that he himself was wounded in the battle at Kaleswar and died sometime in late 1787 or early 1788 AD. (Banglapedia)

After the death of Majnu Shah his able lieutenants like Musa Shah, Cherag Ali Shah, Paragal Shah, Sobhan Shah, Madar Baksh, Jari Shah, Karim Shah, Kripanath, Rowshan Shah, Anup Narayan and Sri Nibash continued the revolt till the closing of the year 1800 and even upto 1812 AD. But after the death of Majnu Shah the movement was gradually losing its direction and dynamics. In the late 1790s, the rebels fell out and all parts of Bengal came under firm British control. [Muazzam Hussain Khan] (Banglapedia)

In 1826 a Fakir called Tipu Pagol organized a huge army comprising the peasants-subjects. He was a great sufi-saint. Tpu's mother was a charismatic woman who would inspire the people to revolt against the British-Zamindar injustices. In 1825 Tipu called upon people to stop paying tax to the Zamindars. Resultantly a battle ensued between the Zamindars' soldiers and those of Tipu where the former was completely discomfited. Thus the Company came to the rescue of the Zamindars and they confiscated Tipu and his mother.

Faraizi Movement:

1st Phase:

The first half of the 19th century witnessed a movement known as Faraizi Movement in East Bengal. The founder of this movement was Haji Shariatullah. At this time the condition of the Bengali Muslims in the Sub-continent was very miserable. The British policy of distrust and oppression towards the Muslims rendered them economically and educationally crippled; and the oppression of the Zamindars made their lives unbearable. The Muslims were also barred to perform their religious duties. The Hindu Zamindars forbade cow-sacrifice and Azan pronouncements. They compelled the Muslims to pay tax for growing beard, imposed extortion during Hindu religious festivals, forced them to wear dhuti and grow mustache in stead of beard. It was part of the blue print to efface Islamic custom-culture from the Muslim society. Haji Shariatullah came forward with the mission to save the Muslims and their culture from this formidable attack.

He was born on 1784 Pargana of Faridpur. When he was 18, Haji Shariatullah went to Mecca on the Pilgrimage. He returned to his country after 20 years and studied all the known branches of religious science. He also came in touch with

the reform movement of Abdul Wahab Nazdi and attracted to the puritan vision of this Movement. After coming back, he started his reform movement known as the Faraizi movement. His movement basically targeted the most depressed class of the Muslims. He asked them to give up un-Islamic customs and practices and to act upon the fundamental commandments of the religion called Faraiz or basic duties. Hence his followers came to be known as Faraizi. He forbade Tazia on the occasion of Muharram and singing and dancing at the time of wedding ceremonies. His movement was also directed against the oppression of the Zamindars. He declared the country Dar-ul-Harab, as Eid and Friday prayers could not be offered there.

The movement infused new life into the lives of the Muslims of Bengal. It wrought great agitation among them, especially the peasants who were imbued with his doctrines. But a few groups from among the opportunists and favor-seekers Muslims along with the British and Hindu Zamindars opposed this movement. Despite all these, the movement got tremendous popularity and took root in different parts of Bengal.

He was also attracted to the Jihadi Movement of Syed Ahmad Shaheed of Rai Bareilly and would send to the latter Mujahid, money from zakat, Fitrah and sources.

Thus, he sowed the seeds of independence in Bengal. He died in 1840.

2 nd Phase:

His son Muhammad Mohsin, known as Dadhu Mian, succeeded Haji Shariatullah. He was born on 1819. In 1831 he went to Makkah for performing Hajj and came back after five years. He then joined his father's movement. Dadhu Mian popularized and strengthened the movement by organizing it in a systematic way. He acquired great influence amongst the Muslim peasants and craftsmen of Bakerganj, Dhaka, Faridpur and Pabna districts. He organised resistance to Hindu landlords and money lenders, boycotting the payment of taxes for the decoration of the image of Durgah and interest charges. He also formed an armed force of cudgel bearers to attack the zamindars and their followers and then went one stage further by attempting to form a parallel Muslim government within East Bengal. District Commissioners called khalifas were appointed to each village, their role being to raise funds, carry out propaganda, and settle disputes between villagers who were expressly forbidden from taking their cases to the British courts without permission.

The British made persistent attempts to prosecute Miyan for crimes ranging from theft to murder, but all such allegations foundered from a lack of witnesses prepared to give evidence – though he was placed under arrest during the Mutiny.

He asked his followers to settle in lands managed by the government. During the revolt of 1857, he was put under arrest for organizing the peasants of Faridpur districts against the British government. He died in 1860.

Shaheed Titu Mir: 2

Titu Mir (1782-1831) a peasant leader who resisted the oppression of the local zamindars and European indigo planters on the peasantry with ultimate object of liberating the country from British domination. He was a leader of the tariqah-i-muhammadiya in Bengal and his movement initially aimed at socio-religious reforms, elimination of the practice of shirk (pantheism) and bidat (innovation) in the Muslim society and at inspiring the Muslims to follow Islamic principles in their day to day life.

The real name of Titu Mir was Sayyid Mir Nisar Ali. He was born on 14 Magh 1188 BS (1782 AD) at village Chandpur (controversially Haiderpur) under Bashirhat sub-division of the district of 24 Parganas in West Bengal. His father was Sayyid Mir Hasan Ali and his mother's name was Abida Rokaiya Khatoon. Titu's family claimed descent from Hazrat Ali (R). His predecessor Sayyid Shahadat Ali came to Bengal from Arabia to preach Islam. Sayyid Abdullah, son of Shahadat Ali, was appointed the chief qazi of Jafarpur by the emperor of Delhi and was invested with the title of Meer Insaaf. Henceforth the descendants of Shahadat Ali used both the hereditary titles 'Sayyid' and 'Mir'.

Titu Mir had his early education in the village maktab and then entered into a local madrasah. He was a hafiz, excelled in three languages- Bangla, Arabic and Persian and developed keen interest in Arabic and Persian literature. He was well versed in Islamic theology, jurisprudence, philosophy, tasawwaf (Islamic mysticism) and mantiq. While a student in the madrasah Titu Mir grew up into a good gymnast and a renowned pahlwan (wrestler).

Titu Mir went on a pilgrimage to Makka in 1822 AD and came in close contact with the great Islamic reformer and revolutionary leader Sayyid Ahmad of Bareilly who inspired him to free his fellow countrymen from un-Islamic practices and foreign domination. On his return from Makka in 1827 Titu Mir started preaching among the Muslims in the districts of 24 Parganas and Nadia. He advised them to refrain from practising shirk and bidaat and inspired them, especially the weavers and peasants, to follow the Islamic way of life. But soon he was in conflict with the Hindu zamindar Krishnadeva Rai of Purha for his sectarian attitude towards the Muslims and imposing illegal taxes on them. Titu Mir happened to be in conflict with other landlords like Kaliprasanna Mukhopadhyay of Gobardanga, Rajnarayan of Taragonia, Gauri Prasad Chowdhury of Nagpur and Devanath Rai of Gobra-govindpur for their oppression on the peasantry.

To face the situation and to give protection to the peasants Titu Mir formed a Mujahid force and trained them in lathi and other indigenous arms. His disciple and nephew Ghulam Masum was made commander of the force. The increasing strength of Titu Mir alarmed the zamindars who however attempted to take united stand and to involve the English in their fight against him. Being

2 http://www.banglapedia.org/HT/T_0183.HTM

instigated by the zamindar of Gobardanga, Davis, the English kuthial (factor) of Mollahati, advanced with his force against Titu Mir, but was beaten back. The zamindar of Gobra-govindpur was killed in a conflict with Titu Mir. Alexander, the collector of Barasat, advanced against Titu with the daroga of Bashirhat and sustained a severe defeat in the hands of Titu Mir. By this time Titu Mir filed a complaint to the government of East India Company against the oppression of the zamindars, but to no result.

Titu Mir built a strong fort with bamboo poles at Narkelbaria in October 1831, recruited mujahids and gave them military training. The number of Mujahids rose to nearly five thousand. Having completed his military preparation Titu Mir declared himself Badshah (king) and urged upon the people to participate in jihad against the British. He soon established his control over the districts of 24 Parganas, Nadia and Faridpur. Titu Mir demanded tax from the zamindars of Taki and Gobardanga who implored protection of the English. An English contingent was sent from Calcutta. But the combined forces sustained severe defeat in the hands of the mujahids. Subsequently Lord William Bentinck sent a regular army against Titu Mir under Lieutenant Colonel Stewart consisting of 100 cavalry, 300 native infantry and artillery with two cannons.

The English launched attack on the mujahids on 14 November 1831. The mujahids with traditional arms failed to resist the English army equipped with modern arms and took shelter inside the bamboo fort. The English opened fire and totally destroyed the fort. There was heavy casualty on the side of the mujahids. Titu Mir along with many of his followers fell in the battle (19 November 1831). 350 mujahids including their commander Ghulam Masum were captured. Ghulam Masum was sentenced to death and other 140 captives were sentenced to imprisonment on different terms. [Muazzam Hussain Khan]

In fact, Titu Mir did not want to engage in war with the British. It was instigated by the Hindu landlords and self-interested groups. It is reported that when Lieutenant Colonel Stewart arrived Narkelbaria in the night of 13 November 1831 and seized the whole village Titu Mir and his followers erected a fort with bamboos around the hujrah of Titu Mir for his protection which is known as 'Bamboo Fort of Titu Mir'. Colonel Stewart wanted to meet with Titu Mir. He brought a Hindu translator with him named Ram Chandra Bondhopadhay. Reaching the door of Titu's Hujrah, he found a man with pure white dress and pagri who was very much obsessed in meditation. Stewart became overwhelmed and asked Ram Chandra, 'Is it Titu Mir? He does not seem to be a revel'. At this, Ram Chandra said that, He is rebel Titu Mir. He claimed himself to be Sultan. Today he changed his guise because of arrival to deceive you.' Stewart said, 'I want to talk with him.' Ram Chandra said to Titu, ' You waged war against the British, now pretends innocent. If are a true Sultan then wage war now against the British.' Titu retorted, 'We have not waged war against the British, we only protested against the oppressive of the Zamindars, and tried to bring the Muslims back to their pure monotheistic religion.' But

Ram Chandra reported to Stewart that Titu said that he would not come to any negotiation, he wanted battle, he did not fear the arms and ammunition of the British, and he would devour every one of the British, he claimed himself to be the Sultan, and he would not recognize the British.(Shaheed Titu Mir, Abdul Gafur Siddiquee, pp. 95-96)

Thus the war was instigated and what happened in the battle field in known to all.

Syed Ahmad Shaheed:

Syed Ahmad of Rai Bareilly (b.1786 d.1831), also called Syed Ahmad Shaheed, was a martyr from Rae Bareli, India. and founder of the "The Way of the Prophet Muhammad" (Tariqah-i Muhhamdiyah), a revolutionary Islamic movement. Syed Ahmad Shah was from a family of Hasni Syeds, distantly related to the family of Shah Waliullah. Syed Ahmad Barelvi, or Syed Ahmad Shaheed, as he became known, was born near Lucknow, in the town of Rae Bareli (Bareli) in 1786. There is a popular story about him that before his birth his mother saw in the dream that a sheet of paper written with her blood was hoisting in the air. It was interpreted in the way that her child which would be born soon would be a well-known personality in the history.

His father died while he was still young and after attempting to find employment in Delhi, Syed Ahmed decided he needed further education. In 1806, Syed Ahmed enrolled in the famous Madrassa (Islamic religious school) of Shah Walliullah in Delhi. Syed Ahmad was amongst the generation of Muslims who were dismayed at the end of the Islamic Mughal Empire.

He was fond of wrestling from his early life. His childhood passion was to participate in the Jihad. Sometimes he would form two artificial camps of Muslim soldiers and enemy soldiers from among his friends or local people, and then would fight each other, and at the victory of the Muslim camp he would shout at the top of his voice. Later on, his launching and forming a Jihadi movement was the manifestation of this latent desire in him.

At the age of 18, Syed Ahmad arrived Lucknow to get jobs. Shortly after four months he abandoned the idea and came to be a student of Shah Abdul Aziz. He studied under him the major sciences of Islam, and Islamic spiritualism. But it was soon obvious that Syed Ahmed was not destined to be a great scholar, despite his piety. The latent desire in him for the restoration and re-establishment of the Islamic administration/Khilafat again stirred his thought, which was further inspired by Shah Abdul Aziz's declaration that British rule made the subcontinent Dar-ul-Harb, an area not under Islamic control. This implied that non-Muslim rule should be resisted and fought. Initially, however, it had to be resisted secretly so as not to attract British attention and hostility. Such a movement still required a leader and people who would be willing to fight for the cause.

After five years he went back to his own locality, married there, and got three daughters. But nothing could suppress him from his target of establishing

Islamic Khilafat. He then joined a Pathan military force led by Amir Khan, mainly as a fighter, but with the added duty of leading the troops in prayer! During this time, Syed Ahmed learnt about European weaponry, including the use of artillery. Historical proofs suggest that he was encouraged by Shah Abdul Aziz to launch such type of program. This is why on his return to Delhi, Syed Ahmed was greeted very warmly by Shah Abdul Aziz, and many of the graduates and students of Shah Abdul Aziz were instructed to become disciples of Syed Ahmad.

In 1821, Syed Ahmed left for hajj to Mecca but instead of the shorter journey from the west coast, he went via Calcutta, and held large meetings all along the way. After spending one and half years in Arabia, he returned to Delhi in May 1823 with much more enthusiasm and clearer conception of the basics of Islam, including Jihad. He soon founded the Jihad Movement, which was aimed at nothing less than the rejuvenation and restoration of sole Muslim power. The Punjab was under Sikh rule at this time and the Muslims were being brutalized there. In the other hand, the Muslims had not only lost their power, prestige, and personality, but also they became immerged into idolatrous beliefs and practices borrowed from the powerful Hindus. The true nature of Islamic monotheism was almost lost. Thus Syed Ahmed convinced his followers of the need to declare jihad against the Sikhs and to liberate Punjab and the North West Frontier area from Sikh rule, restore it under Muslim rule, and to bring the Muslims back to their original political and puritan monotheistic positions.

Activism: Syed Ahmed visited towns around the Punjab and the United Provinces to whip up support and was joined by notable Muslim leaders. The initial force of a few hundred men led by Syed Ahmed could not reach the area directly from Delhi for obvious reasons and so had to proceed through the long and difficult route through Rajasthan, Sindh and Balochistan until they reached Kabul. Apart from the obvious need to avoid the Sikh forces at this stage, Syed Ahmed also collected support and troops along the way. In many areas the population was more enthusiastic than their rulers: the Mirs of Sindh were reluctant to fight with the Sikhs as was Bahawalpur, while Afghanistan was torn by internal differences. In spite of this, many men from these areas joined Syed Ahmed's forces.

Military campaigns: In 1826, the mujahideen, or Muslim army, launched its armed conflict. Attacks were made on Sikh forces in Okara. By the end of 1830, Peshawar was captured by the forces of the Jihad. This success encouraged other Pathan tribes to join Syed Ahmed. The Sikhs were now seriously concerned by this threat. They tried to spread dissent amongst the tribes supporting Syed Ahmed. This time Syed Ahmad encountered treachery and had to fight against three forces at the same time: the Sikhs, treacherous Pathan tribal leaders, and the owner of the fort Hund 'Khade Kha' who would always instigate the local Pathans against the Mujahedeen.

Syed Ahmed set up his headquarters at Naushera in December 1826 and initial

skirmishes with the Sikh forces left the Muslim mujahideen with the advantage. Syed Ahmed was however accepted by all the communities as the Imam or supreme Islamic leader. The Muslim mujahideen swelled to eighty thousand men and taxes were collected from the local population to keep the force equipped. The Sikhs started preparing for war and also began a diplomatic campaign aimed at the tribal chiefs. They succeeded in winning over the chief of Peshawar at the time, Yar Muhammad Khan. Yar Muhammad deserted on the battlefield after having tried to assassinate Syed Ahmed by poisoning him. Syed Ahmed survived the assassination attempt but was forced to move his headquarters to Panjtar, near Kashmir. After a complete victory, Peshawar was again safe for Syed Ahmed's army. In an effort at reconciliation with some Pathan tribes, Syed Ahmed appointed the brother of Yar Muhammad as governor of the Peshawar valley. Sultan Muhammad Khan, however, was to prove as treacherous as his brother, Yar Muhammad. Most of the people of this area were uneducated, thus revolted a few days after against the reform movement of Syed Ahmad, being instigated by Sultan Muhammad Khan, and made ambush against the preachers Mujahadeen of Syed Ahmad, which hurt him immensely and gave him untold pains and agony. He now realized that his strength was being spent fighting against fellow Muslims, and so his headquarters were moved to Balakot.

The Sikhs got this information, and thought that Syed lost most of his force, and thus would be easily defeated. There were two roads to Balakot, one was replete with wild and mountainous jungles dangerously risky for any non-locals, while the other was trough a road between two mountains via a bridge. Both roads were guarded by the armies of Syed Ahmad. But being bribed by handsome amount of money, some treacherous showed the Sikhs the hilly road, who then surrounded the Mujaheed of Syed Ahmad in secret, and made ambush on them. Nearly six hundred men of his force were killed, including Syed Ahmed himself and his chief officer, Shah Ismail were effictively defeated by the forces of Sardar Sher Singh.

But this tragedy could not demolish the spirit of independence movement on the part of the Muslims which had been proved by the Sepoy Mutiny (or Independence Movement of 1857) contemporary to that of Syed Ahmad Shaheed.

War of Independence or Sepoy Mutiny of 1857:

Introduction:

The Indian war of Independence of 1857 (Azadi Movement) began as a mutiny of sepoys of British East India Company's army on 10 May 1857, in the town of Meerut, and soon erupted into other mutinies and civilian rebellions largely in the upper Gangetic plain and central India, with the major hostilities confined to present-day Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, northern Madhya Pradesh, and the Delhi region. The movement posed a considerable threat to Company power in that region, and it was contained only with the fall of Gwalior on 20 June 1858. The movement is also known as India's First War of Independence, the Great Rebellion, the Indian Mutiny, the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the Revolt of 1857, the Uprising of 1857 and the Sepoy Mutiny.

By 1845, the British Empire had expanded from Bengal to Sindh, and all that remained free was Punjab. The Sikhs were ruling over Punjab and after the Second Sikh War in 1848, the British gained control over the Indus. The Koh-i-Noor diamond that Ranjit Singh had worn in his headdress now became a part of the crown jewels at Westminster.

The War of Independence broke out in January and March 1857. The British army had recruited local Indians in their forces. These soldiers were issued cartridges greased with fat from tabooed animals. The soldiers refused to use these cartridges. In 1857, starting with an uprising in Meerut, soldiers in the British Army in Bengal launched a full-scale mutiny against the British. This mutiny spread swiftly across the Sub-continent. Initially, the Indian soldiers were able to push back the British forces. The British army was driven out of Delhi and the Indian soldiers took control of the city. Bahadur Shah Zafar, the last Mughal King, was compelled to lead the freedom fighters. In Bahadur Shah Zafar, the rebels found a symbol of freedom, but a mere symbol was all he was. Wanting to spend his days writing poetry, the man was in no way even a remnant of the glory of his forefathers. He proclaimed himself the Emperor of the whole of India. The civilians, citizens and other dignitaries took oath of allegiance to the Emperor. The Emperor issued his own coin and appointed his sons to key posts.

The initial success of the freedom fighters gave a boost to the War of Independence. The Indian army captured the important towns of Haryana, Bihar and Mahdya Pardesh. However, the British forces at Meerut and Ambala put up a resolute resistance to the royal army and held them back for several months. The British proved to be a formidable foe with their superior weapons and better strategy. The freedom fighters badly lacked in adequate resources and their planning proved to be extremely brittle. The royal forces were finally defeated. The British army entered Delhi and the Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar went into hiding.

The British quickly regained control of Delhi. They ransacked and destroyed the

city. They took revenge in the most gruesome manner by killing innocent people indiscriminately. A wide scale massacre of the inhabitants of Delhi was carried out to avenge the killings of the British soldiers. The Mughal emperor was captured from his sanctuary, the tomb of Emperor Humayun. The emperor's sons were slaughtered in cold blood. Their bodies were beheaded and their heads were presented to the aging emperor in prison. Bahadur Shah was imprisoned in Rangoon, Myanmar, where he breathed his last.

After the War of Independence in 1857, the British government assumed sovereignty over the lands of the British East India Company. The British control over the Sub-continent grew in the next 50 years and culminated in the British Raj. Queen Victoria's Indian realm continued to expand, until Hunza, the remote kingdom bordering China, fell into British hands in 1891, bringing the expansion to its zenith.

The British delineated the frontier separating British India from Afghanistan in 1893. The resulting Durand Line cut straight through the tribal area of the Pathans. The British left the tribal areas to govern themselves under the supervision of British political agents.

The British thus became masters of India, where for nearly 800 years Muslims had ruled. However, their attitude towards the Muslims was that of antipathy. According to Hunter, a prominent historian, "The Muslims of India are, and have been for many years, a source of chronic danger to the British power in India". The British attributed the war of 1857 to the Muslims alone. As a result, property belonging to Muslims was confiscated and they were denied employment opportunities everywhere in the army, revenue department, and judiciary.

The British administrators deliberately followed a discriminatory policy against the Muslims, even in filling minor jobs. Advertisements inviting applications for government jobs specifically mentioned that Muslims would not be appointed. Hunter admits that the exclusion of the Muslims was so complete that in the government offices of Calcutta they could not accept a post higher than that of a porter, messenger, filler of inkpots and mender of pens.

By a series of revenue and financial measures, the British smashed the political and social position of the Muslims. In the province of Bombay, the government appointed "Inam Commission" to inquire into the land grants of the Muslim times. The Commission took away 20,000 estates from the Muslims and thus ruined many families and institutions of the community.

The Company's commercial policy eliminated the Muslims from internal and foreign trade. When the Europeans came to the Sub-continent, the Muslim merchants lost much of their commerce with foreign countries. But they maintained their hold on internal trade and their commercial activities extended to the Persian Gulf and the coastal territories of the Arabian Sea. During the Company's rule, the Muslim traders were pushed out of this area as well by the competition of the Company's traders who enjoyed many special concessions.

The newly introduced English system of education had many drawbacks for the Muslims, mainly because it made no provisions for religious education. As a result, they stayed away from it. Thus, within a few years of loss of political power, the Muslims lost all avenues of employment, were dispossessed of their estates and deprived of the benefits of education. A highly cultured community turned into a backward and poor people. In their place British-educated Hindus began to occupy positions in governments offices formerly held by the Muslims.

Brief History of the Creation of Bangladesh from that of Pakistan

Creation of Pakistan

As the independence movement throughout British-controlled India began in the late nineteenth century gained momentum during the twentieth century, Bengali politicians played an active role in Mohandas Gandhi's Congress Party and Mohammad Ali Jinnah's Muslim League, exposing the opposing forces of ethnic and religious nationalism. By exploiting the latter, the British probably intended to distract the independence movement, for example by partitioning Bengal in 1905 along religious lines. The split only lasted for seven years. At first the Muslim League sought only to ensure minority rights in the future nation. In 1940 the Muslim League passed the Lahore Resolution which envisaged one or more Muslim majority states in South Asia. Non-negotiable was the inclusion of the Muslim parts of Punjab and Bengal in these proposed states. The stakes grew as a new Viceroy Lord Mountbatten was appointed expressly for the purpose of effecting a graceful British exit. Communal violence in Noakhali and Calcutta sparked a surge in support for the Muslim League, which won a majority of Bengal's Muslim seats in the 1946 election. Accusations have been made that Hindu and Muslim nationalist instigators were involved in the latter incident. At the last moment Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy and Sarat Chandra Bose came up with the idea of an independent and unified Bengal state, which was endorsed by Jinnah. This idea was vetoed by the Indian National Congress.

British India was partitioned and the independent states of India and Pakistan were created in 1947; the region of Bengal was divided along religious lines. The predominantly Muslim eastern half of Bengal became the East Bengal (later renamed East Pakistan) state of Pakistan and the predominantly Hindu western part became the Indian state of West Bengal.

Pakistan's history from 1947 to 1971 was marked by political instability and economic difficulties. In 1956 a constitution was at last adopted, making the country an "Islamic republic within the Commonwealth". The nascent democratic institutions foundered in the face of military intervention in 1958, and the government imposed martial law between 1958 and 1962, and again between 1969 and 1971.

Almost from the advent of independent Pakistan in 1947, frictions developed between East and West Pakistan, which were separated by more than 1,000 miles of Indian territory. East Pakistanis felt exploited by the West Pakistan-dominated central government. Linguistic, cultural, and ethnic differences also contributed to the estrangement of East from West Pakistan.

When Mohammad Ali Jinnah died in September 1948, Khwaja Nazimuddin became the Governor General of Pakistan while Nurul Amin was appointed the Chief Minister of East Bengal. Nurul Amin continued as the Chief Minister of East Bengal until 2 April 1954. The abolition of the Zamindari system in East Bengal (1950) and the Language Movement were two most important events during his tenure.

The Bengali Language Movement

The question as to what would be the state language of Pakistan was raised immediately after its creation. The central leaders and the Urdu-speaking intellectuals of Pakistan declared that Urdu would be the state language of Pakistan, just as Hindi was the state language of India. However, Bengalis strongly resisted attempts to impose Urdu as the sole official language of Pakistan, and the students and intellectuals of East Pakistan, demanded that Bengali (Bangla) be made one of the state languages, arguing that it was in any case the native language of the majority (54% native speakers as opposed to 7% native Urdu speakers) in the whole of Pakistan.

The Bengali Language Movement began in 1948 and reached its climax in a demonstration on 21 February 1952 at which several demonstrators were killed by police. After a lot of controversy over the language issue, the final demand from East Pakistan was that Bangla must be the official language and the medium of instruction in East Pakistan, and that for the central government it would be one of the state languages along with Urdu. The first movement on this issue was mobilised by Tamaddun Majlish headed by Professor Abul Kashem. Gradually many

other non-communal and progressive organisations joined the movement, which finally turned into a mass movement, and ended in the adoption of Bengali as one of the state languages of Pakistan.

Politics: 1954 - 1970

The first election for East Bengal Provincial Assembly was held between 8 March and 12 March 1954. The Awami Muslim League, Krishak-Sramik Party and Nezam-e-Islam formed the United Front, on the basis of 21-points agenda.

Notable pledges contained in the 21-points were:

making Bengali one of the main state languages autonomy for the province reforms in education independence of the judiciary making the legislative assembly effective

The United Front won 215 out of 237 Muslim seats in the election. The ruling Muslim League got only nine seats. Khilafat-E-Rabbani Party got one, while the independents got twelve seats. Later, seven independent members joined the United Front while one joined the Muslim League.

There were numerous reasons for the debacle of the Muslim League. Above all, the Muslim League regime angered all sections of the people of Bengal by opposing the demand for recognition of Bangla as one of the state languages and by ordering the massacre of 1952.

The United Front got the opportunity to form the provincial government after winning absolute majority in the 1954 election. Of the 222 United Front seats, the Awami Muslim League had won 142, Krishak-Sramik Party 48, Nezam-i-Islam 19, and Ganatantri Dal 13.

The major leaders of the United Front were Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy and Maulana Abdul Hamid Khan Bhasani of Awami Muslim League and A. K. Fazlul Huq of Krishak-Sramik Party. Suhrawardy and Bhasani did not take part in the election and Fazlul Huq was invited to form the government. But a rift surfaced at the very outset on the question of formation of the cabinet. The unity and solidarity among the component parties of the United Front soon evaporated. Finally, on 15 May, Fazlul Huq arrived at an understanding with the Awami Muslim League and formed a 14-member cabinet with five members from that party.

But this cabinet lasted for only fourteen days. The Muslim League could not concede defeat in the elections in good grace. So, they resorted to conspiracies to dismiss the United Front government. In the third week of May, there were bloody riots between Bengali and non-Bengali workers in different mills and factories of East Bengal. The United Front government was blamed for failing to control the law and order situation in the province.

Fazlul Huq was then quoted in an interview taken by The New York Times correspondent John P Callaghan and published in a distorted form that he wanted the independence of East Bengal. Finally, on 29 May 1954, the United Front government was dismissed by the central government and Governor's rule was imposed in the province, which lasted till 2 June 1955.

Curiously enough within two months of his sacking, Fazlul Huq was appointed the central Home Minister. As Home Minister, Fazlul Huq utilised his influence to bring his party to power in East Bengal. Naturally, the United Front broke up. The Muslim members of the United Front split into two groups. In 1955 the Awami Muslim League adopted the path of secularism and non-communalism, erased the word 'Muslim' from its nomenclature and adopted the name "Awami League".

Great differences began developing between the two wings of Pakistan. While the west had a minority share of Pakistan's total population, it had the largest share of revenue allocation,

industrial development, agricultural reforms and civil development projects. Pakistan's military and civil services were dominated by the fair-skinned, Persian-cultured Punjabis and Afghans. Only one regiment in the Pakistani Army was Bengali. And many Bengali Pakistanis could not share the natural enthusiasm for the Kashmir issue, which they felt was leaving East Pakistan more vulnerable and threatened as a result.

Independence

After the Awami League won all the East Pakistan seats of the Pakistan's National Assembly in the 1970-71 elections, West Pakistan opened talks with the East on constitutional questions about the division of power between the central government and the provinces, as well as the formation of a national government headed by the Awami League.

The talks proved unsuccessful, however, and on March 1, 1971, Pakistani President Yahya Khan indefinitely postponed the pending National Assembly session, precipitating massive civil disobedience in East Pakistan.

On March 4, a group of students, lead by Abdur Rob, of Dhaka University raised the new (proposed) flag of Bangla.

On March 7, there was a historical public gathering in Paltan Maidan to hear the guideline for the revolution and independence from Shaikh Mujib, the frontier leader of movement that time. Although he avoided the direct speech of independence as the talks were still underway, he influenced the mob to prepare for the separation war. The speech is still considered a key moment in the war of liberation, and is remembered for the phrase, "Ebarer Shongram Muktir Shongram, Ebarer Shongram Shadhinotar Shongram...." ("This revolution is for victory, this revolution is for freedom....")

After the military crackdown by the Pakistan army began on the night of March 25, 1971 Sheikh Mujib Mujibur Rahman was arrested and the political leaders dispersed, mostly fleeing to neighbouring India where they organized a provisional government afterwards. The people were at a loss. At this crucial moment with a sudden forced political vacuum, the Eighth East Bengal Regiment under the leadership of Major Ziaur Rahman revolted against the Pakistan Army and took up the Bangladesh flag as its mainstay on the night of March 26 - March 27, 1971. Major Zia declared, on behalf of the Great Leader Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, the independence of Bangladesh. The Bangladesh Government was formed in Meherpur, adjacent to Indian border. There the war plan was sketched.

A war force was established named "Muktibahini". M. A. G. Osmani was assigned as the Chief of the force. The land sketched into 11 sectors under 11 sector commanders. Major Ziaur Rahman was the sector commander of Chittagong-Comilla region. The training and most of the arms-ammunitions were arranged by the Meherpur government which was supported by India.

As fighting grew between the Pakistan Army and the Bengali Mukti Bahini ("freedom fighters"), an estimated ten million Bengalis, mainly Hindus, sought refuge in the Indian states of Assam, Tripura and West Bengal.

The crisis in East Pakistan produced new strains in Pakistan's troubled relations with India. The two nations had fought a war in 1965, mainly in the west, but the refugee pressure in India in the fall of 1971 produced new tensions in the east. Indian sympathies lay with East Pakistan, and on December 3, 1971, India intervened on the side of the Bangladeshis. On December 16, 1971, Pakistani forces surrendered, and Bangla-Desh ("Country of Bangla") was finally established the following day. The new country changed its name to Bangladesh on January 11, 1972 and became a parliamentary democracy under a constitution. Shortly thereafter on March 19 Bangladesh signed a friendship treaty with India.