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1 BAB 1: MIKROORGANISMA CHAPTER 1: MICROORGANISM 1. Pengelasan Mikroorganisma – Ciri Penting! (Classification Of Microorganisms – Important Features!) A. Kulat (Fungi) - organisma saprofit = memperoleh nutrien daripada bahan mati/ reput (saprophyte organism = obtain nutrient from dead/decaying substance) Mukor (Mucor) B. Alga (Algae) - mengandungi klorofil untuk melakukan fotosintesis (contain chlorophyll to conduct photosynthesis) Spirogyra C. Protozoa - Amoeba sp. menggunakan pseudopodium untuk bergerak & makan (Amoeba sp. uses pseudopodium to move & eat) D. Bakteria (Bacteria) - membentuk endospora jika keadaan tidak sesuai (form into endopsore if condition if not suitable) E. Virus - paling kecil dan hanya membiak di dalam sel perumah (the smallest and only reproduce inside host cell) Covid-19

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Page 1: BAB 1: MIKROORGANISMA CHAPTER 1: MICROORGANISM

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BAB 1: MIKROORGANISMA CHAPTER 1: MICROORGANISM

1. Pengelasan Mikroorganisma – Ciri Penting!

(Classification Of Microorganisms – Important Features!)

A. Kulat (Fungi) - organisma saprofit = memperoleh nutrien daripada bahan mati/ reput (saprophyte organism = obtain nutrient from dead/decaying substance)

Mukor (Mucor)

B. Alga (Algae) - mengandungi klorofil untuk melakukan fotosintesis (contain chlorophyll to conduct photosynthesis)

Spirogyra

C. Protozoa - Amoeba sp. menggunakan pseudopodium untuk bergerak & makan (Amoeba sp. uses pseudopodium to move & eat)

D. Bakteria (Bacteria) - membentuk endospora jika keadaan tidak sesuai (form into endopsore if condition if not suitable)

E. Virus - paling kecil dan hanya membiak di dalam sel perumah (the smallest and only reproduce inside host cell)

Covid-19

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2. Faktor Mempengaruhi Pertumbuhan Mikroorganisma

(Factors Affecting the Growth of Microorganisms)

A. Kelembapan (Humidity) - Mereka gemar kepada persekitaran lembap. Terlalu kering = tidak tumbuh (They prefer moist/ humid environment. Too dry = they cannot grow)

B. Cahaya (Light) - Mereka gemar tempat gelap (kecuali alga yg perlukan cahaya matahari) (They prefer dark condition, except algae which require sun light)

C. Suhu (Temperature) - Mereka gemar suhu suam (40°C). Terlalu sejuk = jadi tidak aktif (They prefer warm temperature (40°C). Too cold = becomes inactive)

D. Nilai pH (pH value) - Mereka gemar pH neutral. pH terlalu tinggi/rendah = mereka termusnah! (They prefer neutral pH.Too high/low pH = can destroy them!)

E. Nutrien (Nutrient) - Mereka perlukan nutrien untuk tumbuh. Tiada nutrien = tidak tumbuh (They require nutrient to grow. No nutrient = cannot grow)

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3. Aplikasi Mikroorganisma Berfaedah (Application of Useful

Microorganisms)

A. Perubatan (Medicine)

Vaksin (vaccine) Antibiotik (antibiotic) Hormon (hormone)

B. Perindustrian (Industry)

Pembuatan makanan (Food production)

Minuman (Beverages)

Barangan kulit (Leather products)

C. Pertanian (Agriculture)

Pencernaan haiwan (Animal digestion)

Bakteria penitritan (Nitrifying bacteria)

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4. Peranan Mikroorganisma dalam Bioteknologi dan Kelestarian Alam Sekitar

(Role of Microorganisms in Biotechnology & Environmental Sustainability)

A. Larutan Pembersih Ekoenzim (Eco-enzyme Cleaning Solution)

- diguna untuk menggantikan pencuci kimia (used to replace chemical

detergents)

- Kos penghasilan murah (low production cost) - Hasilkan kurang sisa (produce less waste)

- Mudah menanggalkan kotoron minyak (easy to remove oily stain) - Tidak menyumbat sistem saliran (does not clog drainage system)

B. Serum Bakteria Lactobacillus sp. (Lactobacillus sp. Bacteria Serum)

- diguna di loji rawatan air kumbahan (used in sewage treatment plant)

- Merawat air sisa dan kumbahan (Treat wastewater and sewage)

- Menyingkirkan bau busuk (remove bad smell)

- Membantu pencernaan haiwan ternakan (help digestion in farm animals) - Membuat baja kompos & enzim (Produce compost fertiliser and enzyme)

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5. Teknik Aseptik (Aseptic Technique)

A. 3 jenis teknik (3 types of technique)

PENSTERILAN

(STERILISATION)

PENGGUNAAN ANTISEPTIK

(USE OF ANTISEPTICS)

PENGGUNAAN DISINFEKTAN

(USE OF DISINFECTANTS)

Bunuh mikroorganisma pada objek/ persekitaran (Kills microorganisms on object/ environment)

Cegah mikroorganisma pada kulit (Prevent microorganisms on skin)

Bunuh mikroorganisma pada benda bukan hidup (Kills microorganisms on non-living things)

B. Contoh teknik (Examples of techniques)

PENSTERILAN

(STERILISATION)

PENGGUNAAN ANTISEPTIK

(USE OF ANTISEPTICS)

PENGGUNAAN DISINFEKTAN

(USE OF DISINFECTANTS)

- Autoklaf (autoclave) - Sinaran (radiation) - Semburan sanitasi (sanitation fogging)

- Alkohol (alcohol) - Sabun (soap) - Ubat kuning (acriflavine)

- Peluntur (bleach) - Klorin (chlorine) - Hidrogen peroksida (hydrogen peroxide)

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6. Eksperimen kesan kepekatan antibiotik terhadap pertumbuhan bakteria

(Experiment of antiobiotic effect on bacteria growth)

A. Hipotesis (hypothesis)

Makin tinggi kepekatan antibiotik, makin besar saiz kawasan jernih/ The higher the antibiotik concentration, the larger the clear area size

B. Makna antibiotik? (definition of antibiotic?)

Bahan kimia yang diambil untuk membunuh mikroorganisma dalam benda hidup (chemical substance taken to kill microorganisms in living things)

C. Kenapa ubat antibiotik perlu dihabiskan? (Why antibiotic medicine should

be finished?)

Untuk mengelakkan mikroorganisma daripada membina rintangan terhadap antibiotik (To prevent microorganism from building resistance from antibiotic)

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BAB 2: NUTRISI DAN TEKNOLOGI MAKANAN CHAPTER 2: NUTRITION AND FOOD TECHNOLOGY

1. Konsep Pinggan Sihat Malaysia (concept of Pinggan Sihat Malaysia)

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2. Kesan Makanan Tidak Sihat (Effects of Unhealthy Food)

Makanan rapu (junk food)

Makanan segera (instant food)

A. Gula tinggi (high sugar) - kerosakan gigi (tooth decay) - kencing manis (diabetes) - obesiti (obesity)

B. Garam tinggi (high salt) - tekanan darah tinggi (high blood pressure)

C. Lemak tepu tinggi (high saturated fat) - penyakit jantung (heart disease)

D. Kafein tinggi (high caffeine) - ketagihan dan susah tidur (addiction and insomnia)

E. Pengawet tinggi (High preservatives) - kanser (cancer) - kerosakan organ (organ failure)

F. Kurang serat (low fibre) - sembelit (constipation)

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3. Kesan Kekurangan Baja NPK kepada Tumbuhan

(Effect of Low NPK Fertiliser to Plants)

Kekurangan nitrogen (Lack of nitrogen)

Kekurangan fosforus (Lack of phosphorus)

Kekurangan Kalium (Lack of potassium)

Daun atas kecil dan mudah gugur (Upper leaves are small and fall easily)

Daun atas kecil dan berwarna keunguan (Upper leaves are small and purplish)

Daun atas menguning dan hujung bergulung (Upper leaves become yellow and curling tips)

Daun bawah menguning (klorosis) (Lower leaves become yellow (chlorosis))

Daun bawah kebiruan dan hujung bergulung (Lower leaves become bluish and curling tips)

Daun bawah layu (Lower leaves wilt)

Bunga terbantut (Flower stunted)

Bunga terhenti (Flower production stops)

Penghasilan bunga berkurang (Fewer flower production)

Akar normal (Normal roots)

Akar merosot (deteriorating roots)

Akar merosot (deteriorating roots)

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4. Kitar Nitrogen (Nitrogen cycle)

Proses terlibat (Process involved) 1 Kilat, gunung berapi, bakteria pengikatan nitrogen, baja nitrogen

(Lightning, volcano eruption, nitrogen-fixing bacteria, nitrogen fertiliser)

2 Penitritan (nitrification)

3

Penyerapan oleh tumbuhan (absorption by plant)

4

Pereputan/ perkumuhan (decomposition/ excretion)

5

Pendenitritan (denitrification)

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5. Teknologi Pengeluaran Makanan (Food Production Technology)

A. Penggunaan baka bermutu (Use of quality breeds)

B. Penggunaan teknologi moden (Use of modern technology)

C. Bimbingan kepada petani (Guidance to farmers)

D. Penyelidikan dan pembangunan (Research and development)

E. Penggunaan tanah optimum (Optimal use of land)

F. Pengurusan tanah cekap (Good land management)

Hasil lebih

banyak (Higher

yield)

Kerja lebih mudah

(Easier work)

Petani lebih moden

(Modern farmers) Teknologi baru

(New technology)

Elak pembaziran tanah

(Prevent land wastage)

Hasil tanah banyak

(Higher yield of land)

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6. Teknologi Pemprosesan Makanan (Food Processing Technology)

A. Memasak (Cooking) - bunuh bakteria dan makanan sedap (kill bacteria and tastier food)

B. Penapaian (Fermentation) - membentuk makanan baru (produce new food)

C. Pendehidratan (Dehydration) - singkirkan air supaya tahan lama (remove water so can last longer)

D. Pempasteuran (Pasteurisation) - bunuh bakteria tetapi kekal segar (kill bacteria but stay fresh)

E. Pengetinan (Canning) - makanan tahan sangat lama (food can last very long)

F. Penyejukbekuan (Freezing) - kuman tidak aktif pada suhu sejuk (germs inactive at low temperature)

G. Penyinaran (Irradiation) - sinar radioaktif bunuh bakteria (radioactive radiations kill bacteria)

H. Pembungkusan vakum (Vacuum packaging) - bakteria tidak tumbuh dalam vakum (bacteria does not grow in vacuum)

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BAB 3: KELESTARIAN ALAM SEKITAR CHAPTER 3: ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY

1. Faktor yang Melibatkan Jejak Karbon (JK) Produk (Factors which Involve

Carbon Footprint (CF) of Products)

A. Penggunaan tenaga elektrik (Use of electricity) - penggunaan tinggi meningkatkan JK (high use increases CF)

B. Air (Water) - penggunaan tinggi meningkatkan JK (high use increases CF)

C. Pengangkutan (Transport) - bahan api fosil meningkatkan JK (fossil fuel increases CF)

D. Makanan (Food) - pembungkusan meningkatkan JK (packaging increases CF)

E. Mikroplastik (Microplastic) - plastik meningkatkan JK (plastic increases CF)

F. Pembebasan gas rumah hijau (release of green house gases) - ini meningkatkan JK (this increases CF)

G. Penggunaan produk (Use of product) - penggunaan kerap meningkatkan JK (frequent use increases CF)

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2. Langkah-langkah dalam Tapak Tangan Karbon

(Efforts in Carbon Handprint)

A. Penggunaan bahan binaan dengan jejak karbon rendah (Use of building materials with low carbon footprint)

Kayu dan logam kitar semula (Recycled woods and metals)

B. Penggunaan produk yang lebih cekap dan kitar hayat lebih lama (Use of products which are more efficient and longer life cycle)

Bateri dicas semula (Rechargable batteries)

C. Penggunaan produk yang menggunakan sumber tenaga boleh diperbaharui (Use of products which use renewable energy sources)

Kereta suria (Solar car)

D. Pengurusan lestari untuk kitar semula sisa (Good management to recycle waste)

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3. BOD (Biological Oxygen Demand) dan Pencemaran Air

BOD (Biological Oxygen Demand) and Water Pollution

Eksperimen BOD (BOD experiment):

Sampel air longkang (drain water sample)

Pemerhatian (Observation)

Warna biru larutan metilena cepat luntur BOD tinggi sampel air tercemar (Blue colour decolourises faster high BOD water sample is contaminated)

Bakteria guna

banyak oksigen =

BOD meningkat

(Bacteria use a

lot of oxygen =

BOD increases)

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4. Penggunaan Mikroorganisma Efektif untuk Merawat Sumber Air Tercemar

(Use of Effective Microorganisms to Treat Polluted Water)

Bebola lumpur mengandungi tiga mikroorganisma (Mud balls contain three

microorganisms)

Bakteria asid laktik (Lactic acid bacteria) - singkir bau busuk (remove bad smell) - merencat bakteria merbahaya (inhibit harmful bacteria) - proses penguraian lebih cepat (speed up the decomposition process) Bakteria fotosintesis (Photosynthetic bacteria) - menghasilkan bahan berguna untuk hidupan akuatiik (produce useful substances for aquatic life forms) Yis (yeast) - menghasilkan bahan berguna untuk tumbuhan air (produce useful substances for aquatic plants)

Kesan rawatan (Effect of treatment)

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BAB 4: KADAR TINDAK BALAS CHAPTER 4: RATE OF REACTION

1. Konsep Kadar Tindak Balas (Concept of Rate of Reaction)

Kadar tindak balas (KTB) = perubahan bahan jadi hasil berkadar dgn masa Rate of reaction (ROR) = change of reactant to product over time

Corak graf/ graph pattern:

= Graf lebih curam/ steeper graph: KTB tinggi/ High ROR

Corak graf/ graph pattern:

Graf lebih landai/ flatter graph: KTB rendah/ Low ROR

Contoh proses KTB tinggi/ Example of high ROR processes:

Contoh proses KTB rendah/ Example of low ROR processes:

Letupan/ explosion

Pembakaran/ combustion

Fotosintesis/ photosynthesis

Pengaratan/ rusting

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2. Bagaimana Mengira Kadar Tindak Balas? (How to Calculate Rate of

Reaction?)

A. KTB pada selang masa tertentu/ ROR in certain period of time

KTB pada minit ketiga (ROR at third minute) = y2 – y1 = 35 – 25 x2 – x1 3 – 2 = 10gmin-1

B. KTB keseluruhan/ Overall ROR

*Cari y maksimum (Find max y) = y2 – y1 = 40 – 0 x2 – x1 5 – 0 = 8gmin-1

C. KTB pada masa tertentu/ t/b seketika (ROR at certain specific time):

*Bina tangen & cari kecerunannya (Build a tangent & find its gradient) = y2 – y1 = 132 – 48 x2 – x1 70 – 10 = 1.4cm3s-1

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3. Faktor Mempengaruhi Kadar Tindak Balas/ Factors Affecting Rate of

Reaction

A. Suhu (Temperature) - makin tinggi suhu, makin tinggi KTB (higher temperature, higher ROR)

B. Kepekatan (Concentration) - makin pekat, makin tinggi KTB (higher concentration, higher ROR)

C. Saiz pepejal (solid size) - makin kecil saiz, makin tinggi KTB (smaller size, higher ROR)

D. Kehadiran mangkin/ Catalyst - jika hadir, KTB meningkat (if present, ROR increases)

E. Tekanan gas (Gas pressure) - makin tinggi tekanan, making tinggi KTB (higher gas pressure, higher ROR)

Periuk tekanan guna tekanan gas tinggi

KTB meningkat (masak lebih cepat)

Pressure cooker uses high gas pressure

ROR increases (cook faster)

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4. Eksperimen Kadar Tindak Balas (Experiment of Rate of Reaction)

A. Penggunaan natrium tiosulfat (Use of sodium thiosulphate)

Semakin tinggi suhu natrium tiosulfat, semakin cepat tanda ‘X’ hilang (The higher temperature of sodium thiosulphate, the faster ‘X’ disappears) Semakin tinggi kepekatan natrium tiosulfat, semakin cepat tanda ‘X’ hilang (The higher concentration of sodium thiosulphate, the faster ‘X’ disappears)

B. Marmar dan asid (Marble and acid)

Semakin kecil saiz batu marmar, semakin cepat 30ml gas terkumpul (The smaller the marble size, the faster 30ml gas collected)

Jika mangkin (kuprum (II) sulfat hadir, semakin cepat 30ml gas terkumpul (If catalyst copper (II) sulphate is present, the faster 30ml gas collected)

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5. Aplikasi Kadar Tindak Balas (Application of Rate of Reaction)

A. Peti sejuk (Refrigerator)

- Suhu rendah KTB rendah (Low temperature low ROR) - Tindak balas mikroorganisma jadi rendah makanan lambat mereput boleh disimpan lama (Microorganisms reaction is low food is slow to spoil can be stored longer time)

B. Proses Haber (Haber process)

Nitrogen + Hidrogen Ammonia (Nitrogen + Ammonia Hydrogen)

Faktor tindak balas/ Reaction factors: - Suhu tinggi/ High temperature (450°C – 550°C) - Tekanan tinggi/ High pressure (200 atm) - Kehadiran mangkin/ catalyst presence (serbuk ferum/ ferum powder)

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BAB 5: SEBATIAN KARBON CHAPTER 5: CARBON COMPOUND

1. Kitar karbon (Carbon cycle)

A. Proses menambahkan gas CO2 di udara/ Processes which increase CO2 gas in atmosphere:

- Pereputan (decomposition) - Respirasi (respiration) - Pembakaran (Combustion) B. Proses mengurangkan gas CO2 di udara/ Processes which reduce CO2 gas in atmosphere: - Fotosintesis (photosynthesis)

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2. Hidrokarbon Tepu dan Tak Tepu (Saturated and Unsaturated Hydrocarbon)

HIDROKARBON TEPU (SATURATED HYDROCARBON) - ALKANA (ALKANE)

HIDROKARBON TIDAK TEPU (UNSATURATED HYDROCARBON) – ALKENA (ALKENE)

Ada ikatan tunggal dlm rantai karbon (has single bond in carbon chain)

Ada ikatan ganda dua dlm rantai karbon (has double bond)

Contoh (example):

Metana (methane)

Etana (ethane)

Etena (ethene)

Propana (propane)

Propena (propene)

Butana (butane)

Butena (butene)

Sbg sumber tenaga boleh

diperbaharui (drpd sisa makanan)

As resource of renewable energy

(from food waste)

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3. Proses Melibatkan Alkohol (Processes Involving Alcohol)

A. Penapaian (Fermentation)

- Air kapur jadi keruh (limewater turns cloudy) - Etanol terhasil (ethanol is produced)

B. Pembakaran (Combustion)

- Etanol terbakar dengan nyalaan biru tanpa asap (etanol burns in smokeless blue flame) - Air kapur jadi keruh (limewater turns cloudy)

C. Pengesteran (Esterification)

- dua lapisan cecair terbentuk (two layers of liquid are formed) - bau wangi ester terhasil (fragrant easter is formed)

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4. Lemak Tepu & Tak Tepu (Saturated & Unsaturated Fat)

LEMAK TEPU (SATURATED FAT)

UNSATURATED FAT (LEMAK TAK TEPU)

Haiwan/ animal Sumber/ Source

Tumbuhan/ plant

Pepejal/ Solid

Keadaan dlm suhu bilik/

Condition in room temperature

Cecair/ liquid

Tinggi/ High Takat lebur/ Melting point

Rendah/ low

Maksimum/ Maximum Bilangan atom hidrogen/ number of

hydrogen atom

Belum maksimum/ not yet maximum

Tidak boleh/ Cannot Boleh tambah hidrogen?/ Can

add H?

Boleh/ Can

TINGGI/ HIGH 3 risiko – risiko batu karang hempedu (gallstones) - risiko jaundis (jaundice) - risiko aterosklerosis (salur darah tersumbat) penyakit jantung (heart attack)

Aras kolesterol/ Cholesterol level?

Rendah/ low – bagus utk kesihatan/

good for health

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5. Buah Kelapa Sawit (Oil Palm Fruit)

A. Struktur buah/ Fruit structure

Sabut (mesocarp) Minyak paling banyak (has most oil)

Isirung (kernel) Minyak paling berkualiti (high quality oil)

Tempurung (endocarp) Tiada minyak (no oil)

B. Nutrisi Dalam Minyak Sawit/ Nutrition In Palm Oil

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6. Proses Pengekstrakan Minyak Sawit / Extraction Process of Palm Oil

A. Pensterilan (Sterilisation) - guna stim utk bunuh mikroorganisma & melembutkan buah (use steam to kill microbes & tenderise fruit)

B. Penanggalan (Separation) - buah dileraikan drpd tandan (fruit is separated from the bunch)

C. Pencernaan (Digestion) - buah dicerna utk asingkan sabut & tempurung (digest to separate mesocarp & endocarp)

D. Perah & turas (extract & filter) - sabut minyak sawit (PO) (mesocarp palm oil (PO)) - isirung minyak isirung sawit (PKO) (kernel palm kernel oil (PKO))

E. Penulenan (Purification) - PO disalurkan melalui carbon utk melunturkan warnanya (PO is channelled through carbon to remove its colour)

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7. Sabun (Soap)

A. Komponen sabun (Soap component):

Kepala (head) Hidrofilik – larut air (hydrophilic – water-soluble)

Ekor (tail) Hidrofobik – larut lemak/minyak (hydrophobic – fat/oil-solube)

B. Tindakan pencucian sabun/ Soap cleaning action:

1. Kepala larut dalam air (Head dissolves in water)

2. Ekor larut dalam kotoran gris (Tail dissolves in grease stain)

3. Tindakan pencucian menyingkirkan kotoran (Washing action removes stain)

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BAB 6: ELEKTROKIMIA CHAPTER 6: ELECTROCHEMISTRY

1. Elektrolisis sebatian ion leburan (Electrolysis of molten ionic compound)

3 fakta penting/ 3 main facts:

1. Sebatian ion leburan mengandungi dua ion (Molten ionic compound contains two ions) 2. Ion-ion tertarik kepada terminal dengan cas berbeza (Ions are attracted to terminals with different charges)

3. Lampu menyala kerana arus mengalir dalam konduktor (Bulb lights up because current flows in the conductor)

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2. Elektrolisis sebatian ion akueus (Electrolysis of aqueous ionic compound)

Contoh: Elektrolisis larutan kuprum (II) sulfat

(Example: Electrolysis of copper (II) sulphate solution)

3 fakta penting/ 3 main facts:

1. Sebatian ion akueus mengandungi empat ion (Aqueous ionic compound contains four ions) 2. Ion pada kedudukan lebih rendah dalam siri elektrokimia akan dipilih untuk dinyahcas (Ions at lower position in electrochemical series will be chosen to be discharged)

3. Pemerhatian/ Observation: Anod – gas terhasil/ anode – gas released Katod – gas atau logam terhasil / cathode – gas or metal produced

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3. Elektrolisis sebatian ion akueus pekat (Electrolysis of concentrated

aqueous ionic compound)

Contoh: Elektrolisis larutan ferum (II) klorida pekat

(Example: Electrolysis of concentrated iron (II) chloride solution)

2 fakta penting/ 2 main facts:

1. Apa yang dinyahcas di anod? / What is discharged at anode? Ion klorida, kerana ion klorida lebih pekat Chloride ion, because chloride ion is more concentrated 2. Apa yang dinyahcas di katod? / What is discharged at cathode? Ion hidrogen, kerana kedudukan H+ lebih rendah dalam siri Hydrogen ion, because H+ is at lower position in the series

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4. Elektrolisis jika larutan mengandungi ion logam yang sama dengan logam

terminal

(Electrolysis when solution has similar metal ion with the terminals)

Permerhatian/ Observation:

Anod/ anode: - terminal membebaskan ion logam ke dalam larutan dan menjadi nipis (terminal releases metal ions into the solution and becomes thinner)

Katod/ cathode: - terminal menerima ion logam daripada larutan dan menjadi tebal (terminal releases metal ions into the solution and becomes thicker)

Larutan/ solution: - warna tidak berubah/ colour does not change

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5. Sel kimia (Chemical cell)

Poin utama (Main points):

Terminal negatif/ Negative terminal

Terminal positif/ Positive terminal

Magnesium - kerana kedudukan dalam siri lebih tinggi (magnesium - because of higher position in series)

Kuprum - kerana kedudukan dalam siri lebih rendah (copper - because of lower position in series)

Membebaskan ion & elektron (release ion and electron)

Menerima ion dan elektron (receive ion and electron)

Terminal semakin nipis (terminal becomes thinner)

Terminal semakin tebal (terminal becomes thinner)

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BAB 7: CAHAYA DAN OPTIK CHAPTER 7: LIGHT AND OPTICS

1. Gambar rajah sinar – kanta cembung (objek antara F dan pusat optik)

(Ray diagram – convex lens (object is between F and optical centre)

Ciri-ciri imej (Characteristics of image): - Dibesarkan (magnified) - Tegak (upright) - Maya (virtual) Aplikasi (application): Kanta pembesar (magnifying glass)

Mikroskop (microscope)

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2. Gambar rajah sinar – kanta cembung (objek pada F)

(Ray diagram – convex lens (object is at F)

Ciri-ciri imej (Characteristics of image): - Dibesarkan di infiniti (magnified at infinity) - Tegak(inverted) - Maya (virtual

Aplikasi (application): - Teleskop (telescope)

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3. Gambar rajah sinar – kanta cembung (objek antara F dan 2F)

(Ray diagram – convex lens (object is between F and 2F)

Ciri-ciri imej (Characteristics of image): - Dibesarkan (magnified) - Songsang (inverted) - Nyata (real)

Aplikasi (application):

Projektor slaid dan pawagam (Slide and cinema projector)

Mikroskop/ microscope:

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4. Gambar rajah sinar – kanta cembung (objek pada 2F)

(Ray diagram – convex lens (object is at 2F)

Ciri-ciri imej (Characteristics of image): - Sama saiz dengan objek (same size with object) - Songsang (inverted) - Nyata (real) Aplikasi (application): - Mesin fotostat (Photocopy machine)

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5. Gambar rajah sinar – kanta cembung (objek lebih jauh daripada 2F)

(Ray diagram – convex lens (object is further than 2F)

Ciri-ciri imej (Characteristics of image): - Dikecilkan (smaller image) - Songsang (inverted) - Nyata (real)

Aplikasi (application):

Kamera telefon pintar/ Smartphone camera:

Teleskop/ Telescope:

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6. Gambar rajah sinar – kanta cekung (objek berada dimana-mana

kedudukan)

(Ray diagram – concave lens (object can be at any position)

Ciri-ciri imej (Characteristics of image): - Dikecilkan (smaller image) - Tegak(upright) - Maya (virtual) Aplikasi (application): - cermin mata kanta cekung (concave lens glasses)

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7. Mikroskop dan Teleskop (Microscope and Telescope)

A. Mikroskop (microscope)

Ciri imej akhir (characteristics of final image): - Dibesarkan (magnified) - Songsang (inverted) - Maya (virtual)

Kuasa pembesaran (magnification power): Kuasa kanta objek x kuasa kanta mata (objective lens power x eye piece power)

B. Teleskop (telescope)

Ciri imej akhir (characteristics of final image): - Dibesarkan (magnified) - Songsang (inverted) - Maya (virtual) Panjang penyelarasan (length of adjustment): Panjang fokus kanta objek x panjang fokus kanta mata (Focal length of objective lens x focal length of eye piece)

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BAB 8: DAYA DAN TEKANAN CHAPTER 8: FORCE AND PRESSURE

1. Prinsip Pascal (Pascal’s Principle)

Tekanan yang dikenakan dalam sistem bendalir tertutup akan dipindahkan secara seragam pada semua arah

Pressure exerted in a closed fluid system is transferred uniformly in all direction

Aplikasi/ application:

Kerusi rawatan gigi (dental chair)

Jek hidraulik (hydraulic jack)

Sistem brek kereta (Car brake system)

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2. Pengiraan Prinsip Pascal (Pascal’s Principle Calculation)

Jek hidraulik mengenakan daya 2N untuk mengangkat kereta seberat 20,000N.

Jika luas omboh B ialah 10m2, kirakan luas omboh A.

Hydraulik jack applies 2N of force to lift a 20,000N car. If the area of piston B is

10m2, calculate the area of piston A

Tekanan A = Tekanan B Daya omboh A = Daya omboh B Luas omboh A Luas omboh B 2N = 20,000N Luas A 10m2 Luas A = 0.001 m2

Pressure A = Pressure B Piston A force = Piston B force Area A Area B 2N = 20,000N Area A 10m2 Area A = 0.001 m2

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3. Prinsip Bernoulli (Bernoulli’s Principle)

Kawasan luas/ wide area Aliran perlahan tekanan tinggi (Slow flow higher pressure)

Kawasan sempit/ narrow area Aliran pantas tekanan rendah (Fast flow lower pressure)

Dalam bendalir yang mengalir, kawasan sempit akan menyebabkan aliran lebih pantas dan menghasilkan tekanan bendalir lebih rendah In flowing fluid, narrow area will cause faster flow and generates lower fluid pressure

Aplikasi/ application – Bentuk aerofoil sayap/ aerofoil-shaped wing

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BAB 9: TEKNOLOGI ANGKASA LEPAS CHAPTER 9: SPACE TECHNOLOGY

1. Jenis-jenis orbit satelit (Types of satellite orbits)

“Semakin tinggi altitud, semakin satelit bergerak perlahan”

“The higher the altitude, the slower the satellite”

HEO Orbit Tinggi Bumi/ High Earth Orbit - ketinggian melebihi 35 780km/ height is more than 35 780km

MEO Orbit Sederhana Bumi/ Medium Earth Orbit - ketinggian 2000 – 35 780km/ height 2000 – 35 780km

LEO Orbit Rendah Bumi/ Low Earth Orbit - ketinggian 180 – 2000km/ height 180 – 2000km

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2. Jenis-jenis orbit satelit II (Types of satellite orbits II)

GSO Orbit Geosegerak/ Geosynchronous Orbit - HEO pada satah yg condong terhadap khatulistiwa (HEO which is at slanted plane with the equator)

GEO Orbit Geopegun/ Geostationary Orbit - HEO pada satah khatulistiwa (HEO at the equator)

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3. Perigi dan apogi orbit elips (Perigee and apogee of elliptical orbit)

Orbit pindah Hohmann (Hohmann transfer orbit): Orbit elips yang digunakan untuk memindahkan kenderaan pelancar di antara dua orbit bulatan Elliptical orbit used to transfer the launching vehincle between two circular orbits

Perigi (Perigee):

- paling dekat (nearest)

- paling pantas (fastest)

Apogi (Apogee):

- paling jauh (furthest)

- paling perlahan (slowest)

Enjin dibakar

di perigi

(engine is

turned on at

perigee)

Enjin dibakar

di apogi

(engine is

turned on at

apogee)

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4. Kesan Perkembangan Pesat dalam Teknologi Angkasa Lepas (The Effects of

Fast Development of Space Technologies)

A. Kesan positif (Positive Effects)

Penyelidikan dan pembangunan lebih pesat (advanced research and development)

Semangat setiakawan negara (Boost friendship between countries)

B. Kesan negatif (Negative Effects)

Bahan buangan angkasa makin bertambah (Increasing space junk)

Persaingan negara yang boleh menyebabkan peperangan (Space race that can lead to war)

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5. Sistem Penentu Sejagat (Global Positioning System)

Sistem navigasi yang memberi maklumat mengenai lokasi dan masa kepada pengguna dalam semua keadaan cuaca A navigation system that provides information of location and time to users in all weather condition

Segmen GPS/ Segments of GPS:

Segmen kawalan (control segment)

- terdiri daripada stesen utama dan pengawasan (consist of main station and minotoring station)

Segmen angkasa (space segment)

- terdiri daripada rangkaian satelit (consist of network of satellites) - satelit pada ketinggian orbit 20,000km (satellite is atorbit height 20,000km) - orbit satelit ialah orbit separuh segerak Bumi (orbit is semi-synchronous Earth orbit)

Segmen pengguna (user segment)

- diguna dalam telefon pintar (smart phone) - lokasi pengguna dalam format DMS & DD