China

Authoritarian States - Mao

Historical Context

• 19th century China was a pre-industrial feudal society characterized by a weak imperial government that had little control over large parts of the country.

• It was socially conservative and featured a massive uneducated underclass of peasants and only a very small educated middle class.

• It suffered from European and Japanese dominance of its resources and it’s international trade was controlled by these colonial powers.

• 20th century Chinese reformers (like Mao) were primarily driven by:

➢NATIONALISM – the desire to drive out the foreigners and make China a great power

➢ LIBERALISM – to destroy the feudal system and introduce modern economic and social reforms (like Meiji in Japan).

After the Qing Dynasty was overthrown in 1911 two groups emerged

attempting to achieve the modernization of China:

The Guomindang (Nationalists or GMD)

• The larger of the two – stronger in south

• Can be described as “bourgeois” in its interests

• Leader: Jiang Jieshi

Communist Party of China (CCP)

• Until 1927 had worked with the GMD until Jiang

turned on them – had bases in remote areas.

• More committed to improving lives of peasants

• Revolutionary party influenced by Marxism

• Leader: Mao Zedong

Conditions for Emergence of Mao

1) Impact of War

• From 1927 onwards the GMD and CCP were engaged in a bitter civil war.

• The GMD had a stronger conventional military and CCP were reduced to control in just one part of China – the Jiangxi province where they led a guerilla campaign.

• In 1934-35 the GMD had closed in and the CCP were on the brink of defeat. The CCP retreated to the remote Shaanxi province during the Long March.

• This period was important because it is when Mao established his

leadership and control of the party over rivals in the CCP. His brilliance

as a guerilla war tactician and his decision making during Long March were

key. He became the spiritual and ideological leader of movement in the

caves of Yanan.

The Japanese invasions of China was the most important factor.

a) Jiang insisted on focusing on defeating the Communists before the

Japanese – this was unpopular and allowed Mao to appear like the patriot.

b) Though Jiang continued to fight the CCP he was weakened by Japanese and was fighting on two fronts. Eventually forced to end hostilities with CCP in 1936 following the Xi’an Incident.

c) Mao was given time to consolidate his control over the CCP, recruit more fighters, and convert the peasantry through propaganda.

d) GMD did the majority of the fighting from 1936 on but Mao effectively used propaganda to depict CCP as only effective anti-Japanese force.

e) US / USSR aid in $$$ and weapons was siphoned from GMD to CCP.

2) Economic Factors / Social Division / Weakness of Political System

• The primary concern of the peasants was land reform. In all areas

controlled by the CCP the landowners were converted or purged and the

land redistributed to the people. This led to CCP popularity and enlistment

of men into the Red Army to protect these gains.

• CCP also committed to treating citizens respectfully and working to improve quality of life through education, sanitation, and health care.

• No long term allegiance to GMD in China.

As in other places we have studied the

common person was not concerned about

ideology, but were motivated by issues tied

closer to quality of life. CCP offered

tangible results.

Read pg. 132-142 in textbook

www.mrfritzsche.com

Consolidation and Maintenance of Power

• With the GMD defeated the CCP were still challenged by a foreign war, separatist regions, and citizens who’s loyalty they questioned. They needed to solidify their control over the country. How?

1) Centralized Government- Mao continued to cultivate his cult of personality. Also created a governing system that was highly centralized and heavily influenced by the People’s Liberation Army (the new name of the Red Army – aka the PLA). Like in USSR there was technically elections but in reality everything was orchestrated by the Politburo. High level of surveillance by PLA intelligence organization – but secret police not as organized in China as elsewhere.

2) Social Purges

• The CCP tried to wipe out all remnants of the Bourgoesie.

• The Agrarian Reform Law (1950) formalized the process for seizing land

from the rich and redistributing to the poor. Part of this process was the

Speak Bitterness Campaign. Peasants were encouraged to put former landlords “on trial” and vent their historic anger and frustration. Often became violent, as many as one million killed. Mao saw this as “educating the peasants into socialism”.

• This was followed by coordinated government “anti-movements” that

encouraged patriotic citizens to inform on neighbours who did not show

sufficient loyalty to the party and its ideals. People were accused of

bribery, tax evasion, corruption, waste, and conspiring with the GMD.

3) PLA occupation of separatist regions

• Sent army into three rebellious regions

(Tibet, Xinjiang, Guangdong) to impose

martial law and establish CCP rule.

*** Note – this is still going on and China

wants to finish it with Taiwan!

• There were (and continue to be) subjugation of the Tibetans (Buddhist)

and Uighurs (Muslim) mostly for religious but also ethnic reasons. Seen as

potential enemies of state.

• Forced into “re-education camps” where they do forced labour, learn Mandarin, renounce faith, and in some cases undergo physical and mental torture.

• In Tibet the Chinese crushed uprisings in 1959 and have the Dalai Lama has been in exile in India ever since. Heavy international criticism for this.

4) Korean War 1950-53

• The USA was a major threat to China as the CCP victory in the Civil War

had sparked the “Red Scare” in America and fear of the “domino effect”.

• US and UN forces had repelled initial North Korean invasion by Kim Il

Sung’s Communists and had pushed them back to near the border with China.

• Some Americans considered wiping out both North Korea and “Red China”. This was enough for Mao to send in the PLA.

• This was dangerous as he faced criticism at home and potential defeat abroad. Country still on shaky ground. However, it was successful, reinforced his rule and helped justify need for anti-campaigns and loyalty due to “crisis”.

Check out the interactive map: https://anzacportal.dva.gov.au/history/conflicts/korean-war/resources/korean-warstrategic-map/korean-warstrategic-map

5) The Hundred Flowers Campaign 1957

“Let a hundred flowers bloom; let a hundred schools of thought contend”.

• Contrary to the rest of his rule, Mao launched a campaign inviting people

to voice their opinions and concerns about CCP rule.

• A year later he ended the campaign and had most of the people who criticized the regime locked up, sent to re-education camps, or executed.

Why???? – some arguments….

1) Genuinely wanted to liberalize, but scope of complaints caught him by surprise.

2) Concerned about criticism in light of Khruschev’s denunciation of Stalin in USSR

3) Was a trick to get critics out in the open so they were easy pickings.

Read pg. 145-159 in textbook

6) The Laogai

• This was the Chinese version of the gulag/concentration camp.

• One difference is there is more of a focus on “re-education” and

“thought correction”. Forced labour still important, but many more

People left Laogai than did the Gulag.

• In some areas families had to accept boarders in their home for a “cultural exchange” – but they were really spies.

• Laogai used extensively during the Cultural Revolution (more later).

Aims and Results of Mao’s Domestic Policies

Economy

• Very similar to Stalin’s plan. Collectivization of agriculture would lead to massive surpluses that would be exported to raise money for industrialization. Five Year plans would set goals for increases in key areas like steel. China was to become modern industrial power in a very short time – which is why the plan was called:

The Great Leap Forward

1958-62

• Mao believed that China’s massive population could achieve anything though collective will if organized and inspired. Wanted to mobilize nation.

Successes

• There was mass enthusiasm for the project. Good example – “backyard furnaces” where people tried to produce steel for the effort (see textbook and video).

• Less opposition to collectivization project than in USSR (fear or patriotism?).

Failures

• Agricultural production actually fell – enthusiasm doesn’t replace access to technology/fertilizers etc – peasants didn’t have large scale farming expertise.

• Steel production didn’t increase, steel from backyard furnaces was poor quality and useless, people wasted their time focusing on this.

• Millions died in a significant famine as a result. State didn’t respond quickly to crisis because officials fudged harvest stats to avoid punishment.

Results

• Economically a disaster – goals not met, suffering of people.

• Surprisingly there was little direct criticism of Mao - why?• Fear as a legacy of Hundred Flowers campaign

• The effectiveness of Mao’s cult of personality

• Remnants of confucianist attitudes amongst peasantry (always obey).

• Either way – Mao decided to take a strategic step back from leadership. Tapped loyal party members Deng Xiaoping and Liu Shaoqi to solve problem which they did by introducing a Chinese version of the NEP• Reducing quotas to the state, allowing some private ownership and accumulation of wealth.

The Cultural Revolution 1966-76

• Mao reasserted his authority in 1966 in a masterful campaign drawing on his God like status and the rebellious nature of Chinese youth. Mao purged the party and the country of his opponents in order to “save China” from revisionists and save the revolution.

• Along with his right hand man, Lin Biao (head of the PLA) he created the “Little Red Book” a series of quotations by Mao on many subjects. Everyone carried a copy to demonstrate their loyalty. Frequently quoted. Like the bible.

• The young were encouraged to seize their country back from the corruption of the older generation and build a better future by destroying the “Four Olds”:

• Old Thoughts / Old Habits / Old Culture / Old Customs

• Young people joined the Red Guards, similar to the Brown shirts in Germany and the Black Shirts in Italy. Would use violence and intimidation to destroy everything they associated with the Four Olds.

• The police did nothing – started to get out of hand as regular people were terrorized and power corrupted the Red Guards.

• Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping were subjected to “struggle sessions”, Shaoqi died in captivity, Xiaoping was imprisoned.

• The Cultural Revolution was carried out by The Gang of Four, which included Mao’s wife. Mao took a hands off approach.

• Mao redirected their energy with the “Up to the Mountains and Down to the Villages” campaign of 1967-72. To get the youth out of the cities he required them to live for a time with the peasants to learn about their lives and teach them about Maoism.

Society – Women/Religion/Culture

• Very similar to what happened in the USSR.

• Women were officially equal and had more freedoms in the PRC. Many

entered the industrial work force. However, attitudes did not change much.

Women still seen as responsible for the home and children. Few were influential

members of the CCP. Sons were still preferred by families.

• Religion was attacked as a part of the Four Olds but also because it was seen as competition for loyalty and power, especially Buddhism and Islam in separatist regions.

• “Patriotic Churches” were allowed to remain open if they “did not endanger the security of the state”. They had to become puppets of regime and have clergy appointed. Most churches rejected this, especially the Vatican.

• Full control over all the arts, seen as pointless unless it contributed to propaganda or glorification of the proletariat. Artists targeted a lot in Cultural Revolution.

Read pg. 160-179 in textbook

Youth

• Chinese youth obligated to join the “Young Pioneers”

Youth group. School teachers and curriculum

controlled.

• Heavy censorship, no

Independent media

**Internet restricted today

(Great Firewall of China)

Mao’s Foreign Policy

• After Stalin’s death Mao had a very poor relationship with the USSR.

• USSR saw PRC as a “junior partner”. Did not believe Mao’s peasant based revolution was true to Marxism.

• Chinese resented Soviet attitude. Began to see themselves as the leader of the Communist world.

• USSR made China pay for all weapons and materials that they loaned during Korean War. Soviets did little to help during this time.

The Sino-Soviet Split

Mao:• criticized “De-Stalinization” as an attack on his own style of leadership

and cult of personality.

• criticized “Peaceful Co-existence” as weak and against Marxist doctrine

of spreading communism by force.

• sent aid to Albania, a Stalinist state rebelling against the Soviet sphere.

• As a result USSR cut relations and Khrushchev refused to give support

to Mao for an invasion of Taiwan (he didn’t want to risk war with the

USA). This infuriated Mao.

• criticized Khrushchev’s handling of the Cuban Crisis.

In return:

• Khrushchev claimed that Mao was

“Trotskyist” in his interpretation of

Communism and that he was a war

mongerer (an “Asian Hitler”)

• In 1962, the Soviets stayed neutral in

the Sino-Indian War over territory in

Tibet. Mao learned that Soviets had

sent Mig fighters to India.

• Soviets heavily criticized the Great

Leap Forward and the Cultural

Revolution.

• Soviets refused to assist the Chinese in

developing nuclear weapons. (PRC

achieved this in 1964 anyways).

Sino-Soviet Border War 1969

• USSR-PRC both claimed to be leaders of the Communist world.

They had become bitter rivals.

• In 1969 both countries amassed troops on their borders and several

skirmishes occurred.

Third World & Vietnam

• China began to challenge the USSR in the support of Communist

revolutions in the Third World.

• The two sides also competed over who would claim North Vietnam as a

satellite.

• Both sides sent arms and aid but North Vietnam turned to Moscow. China

invaded North Vietnam in 1979 as a result.

Sino-American Relations

• Very poor until the 1970s, USA did not even recognize the PRC

as the legitimate China. No diplomatic links.

Détente in the 1970s

WHY?

For China

• The USSR had become the main threat, better relations with the USA was strategic.

• China also feared a resurgent Japan – USA could reign in that threat.

• They hoped for concessions on trade and UN membership.

For USA

• President Nixon wanted to play the “China Card”. Use better relations to pressure USSR.

• He wanted the PRC to help negotiate a settlement with North Vietnam.

• Nixon felt it was safer to have normal relations with a nuclear state. Wanted to “make history”.

Results

• Secret negotiations between Chinese and American Sec. of State. Henry Kissinger on normalizing relations.

• American ping pong team invited to compete in China in 1971 = “ping pong diplomacy”.

• In 1972 Nixon becomes first US President to visit PRC.

• US ended trade embargo and ended resistance to the PRC taking China’s seat in the UN. Chinese economic links with the west begin.

• Soviets were more willing to negotiate on arms control and in other areas.

• PRC relations with North Vietnam deteriorated – threat made it more likely that North would negotiate with the USA.

• Sino-Japanese relations improved.

• Was a political victory at home for Nixon.

• Mao had set the stage for China’s reintegration with the world economy that would be pressed forward by Deng Xiaoping, his successor.

• Overall, Mao’s policies fairly successful, China had taken a very independent course in foreign relations, completely freed China of imperial control.