Assessment of the Nature and the Rate of Coastal Erosion on the Mount Cameroon Coastal Landscape, Southwest Region, Cameroon

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Assessment of the Nature and the Rate of Coastal Erosion on the Mount CameroonCoastal Landscape, Southwest Region, CameroonAuthor(s): Mbongowo Joseph Mbuh, Raoul Étongué Mayer, and Tchawa PaulSource: Journal of Coastal Research, 28(5):1214-1224. 2012.Published By: Coastal Education and Research FoundationDOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.2112/JCOASTRES-D-10-00182.1URL: http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.2112/JCOASTRES-D-10-00182.1

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Assessment of the Nature and the Rate of Coastal Erosionon the Mount Cameroon Coastal Landscape, SouthwestRegion, Cameroon

Mbongowo Joseph Mbuh{*, Raoul Etongue Mayer{, and Tchawa Paul1

{Department of Geography Geology, and PlanningMissouri State University901 S. National AvenueSpringfield, MO 65897, [email protected]

{Department of GeographyLaurentian University935 Ramsey Lake RoadSudbury, Ontario P3E 2C6, Canada

1Department of GeographyUniversity of Yaounde IYaounde, Cameroon

ABSTRACT

Mbuh, M.J.; Mayer, R.E., and Paul, T., 2012. Assessment of the nature and the rate of coastal erosion on the MountCameroon coastal landscape, Southwest Region, Cameroon. Journal of Coastal Research, 28(5), 1214–1224. CoconutCreek (Florida), ISSN 0749-0208.

The Mount Cameroon coastline is believed to be affected by two main morphological, dynamic, environmental problems:the erosion of the Atlantic slopes of the mountains and hills, and the accumulation of sediments on the continentalplatform. Erosion affects the coastal slopes, as evidenced by the existence of erosion domes observed both on the Atlanticslopes and the coastlines. Three factors explain the deterioration of the Cameroon coastline: (1) its location with avulnerable region known as the Cameroon Line, (2) the persistent impact of climate and oceanographic conditions, and(3) the topographic nature of the region. A high percentage of this coastal area’s water infiltrates the soil, weathering thepyroclastic material. Concentrated human population in the area accelerates some of the erosional processes. In fact,human activity could be the primary cause of the degradation; nevertheless, natural-erosion processes remain prominentin the ongoing degradation of this fragile environment.

The dynamics of waves and tides alter Mount Cameroon coastal features. The intensity of those waves and tides varyfrom place to place. The Mabeta mangrove and the surrounding coastal creeks experience a high rate of sedimentation.The area between Man O’ War Bay and Mabeta experiences intense weathering because the rocks are old. The areabetween Limbe and Batoke experiences a high rate of erosion caused primarily by wave action because of the poor erosiveaction of the few rivers. The high erosion could provide sediments to stabilise the coastline; however, the sediments donot finish their progression to the sea. Therefore, coastal development depends mainly on the coastal current, fluvialdischarge, and high rainfall in Debundscha. Tectonic variability associated with landslides also represents a significantnatural hazard in this complex environment.

ADDITIONAL INDEX WORDS: Southwest region of Cameroon, coastal erosion, accumulation of sediments andsedimentation, Cameroon line, persistent effects of climate, linear erosion, marine erosion.

INTRODUCTION

Active coastal processes differ considerably from one

environment to another because of the landforms to which

they give rise and the presence of humans. The coast forms

the interface between land and water, where various

geomorphic processes and distinctive landforms exist. Rapid

and unusual landform changes along the coastline can result

from large waves and tidal energy. The impact of these

changes on human installations can be either negative or

positive. Across the tropics, people depend entirely on

coastal-based resources for their livelihood (Cooke and Poor,

1974; Gresswell, 1976; Keith and Johnson, 1979). Human

settlements in the Mount Cameroon coastal environment

have experienced an increasingly severe range of environ-

mental problems related to both exogenic and endogenic

processes in the past two decades.

The Cameroon coastline is experiencing rapid natural

processes accelerated by human activities. Within this coastal

environment, active processes require large-scale atmospheric,

hydrologic, soil cycle, and biological exchange systems and

climatic changes. These processes and changes reach a peak in

June and decrease in September and October (Battistini et al.,

1982). The wave action on this coast is diffracted by the Bioko

Island which plays a protecting role to the Coastline (Battistini,

1985; Tricart, 1972). At Limboh Point, the wave amplitude

varies from 1.91–2.8 m. The wave weathers the littoral

platform, forming solid cones and bars almost 2–3 m in height.

On this coastal landscape, the Guinea currents reach the

surface water, which plunges into the reversed Equatorial-

North currents (Hori, 1977), and this contrary sub surface

current reaches the coast near Campo (Gabche and Angwe,

1997; Giresse et al., 1996). However, due to the irregularity of

the shore, these waves are capable of shaping the beaches

DOI: 10.2112/JCOASTRES-D-10-00182.1 received 23 November 2010;accepted in revision 21 March 2011.* Current address: Ozarks Environment and Water Resource Institute,Missouri State University, 901 S. National, Springfield, MO 65897.Published Pre-print online 1 June 2011.’ Coastal Education & Research Foundation 2012

Journal of Coastal Research 28 5 1214–1224 Coconut Creek, Florida September 2012

according to the different refraction or diffraction processes.

Equally on this coast, the tides are of low amplitude with a

range varying 1.5–4.5 m, depending on area, with an average

value of approximately 2 meters. Their most dramatic effects

are observed in the extensive mangrove complex estuaries like

Rio-Del-Rey and Tiko, where the current penetrates further

(Battistini et al., 1982; Folack, 1997).

Mount Cameroon’s coastal landscape is a glaring example

of coastal change. The section of the coastal landscape

crossed by the Cameroon Line shows indications that the

area’s dynamics are associated with the instability of a weak

tectonic structure (Guilcher, 1954, 1955; Zogning, 1988)

(Figure 1). The goal of this study was to evaluate the rate of

coastal erosion on Mount Cameroon and to show how the

processes accompanying that erosion have transformed the

landscape. This study was guided by the hypothesis that the

Mount Cameroon coastal landscape is exposed to short-term,

seasonal, and controlling changes, which are linked to the

physical landscape and the coastal erosion, as opposed to

weathering, which occurs on the Batoke–Limbe–Mabeta

coastal axis. This study was designed to answer two

questions: (1) What are the environmental factors controlling

the spatial variability of erosion, and (2) What are the two

main forms of erosion on this coast?

STUDY AREA

Interest in local coastal geomorphology has been directed

primarily towards the barrier beach systems and their spatial-

temporal evolution and displacements. Most coastal geomor-

phologic studies have also been directed towards sandy

shorelines rather than towards bedrock or cliff coasts. Despite

the worldwide presence of bedrock coasts, the intent of this

study was to combine bedrock and shoreline processes leading

to the degradation of the coast. On the African coast, Tricart

(1972) and Battistini (1985), argue that morphogenic processes

have diverse origins, which are responsible for the specific

characteristics of the tropical coasts, including the Cameroo-

nian coast. Kuete and Tsalefac (1988) indicate that the

Cameroonian coast is made up of zeta form coast, sand bars,

and restingas. According to these authors, the shores are hit by

the Atlantic SW swells, transporting river-borne material, such

as silt and kaolinite, which are redirected by coastal currents

from the SE to the NW, to Cape Debundscha and beyond. Kuete

and Tsalefack (1987) also argue that coastal development on

the Cameroon coast is largely controlled by the interactions of

coastal currents and fluvial discharges, which are usually

accompanied by tectonic instability.

Kuete (2000), in another study on the Cameroon coast,

discovered that its strong dynamism was accelerated by the

seasonal reworking and reshuffling of its sandy beaches.

Accelerated erosion on this coast is intensified by human

activities in sensitive zones, which hinders development

investment. In addition, the mangrove ecosystem undergoes

a double-effect flow, which causes extreme erosion and

weathering beyond that of any other region of the continent.

Folack (1997) examined the historical evolution of the coast up

to recent times, describing the current state of erosion and

pollution and thus detailing the marine resources and coastal

ecosystems, along with the ecological differences encountered

along the Cameroonian coastal environment. This in turn, has

provided a valuable reference to determine aquatic plants and

animals. Nyugab (1978) demonstrated that the evolution of the

coastal area around Kribi depended on erosional activities,

such as sediment transport and accumulation, and that the

lithological characteristics of the margin were determined by

changes in the relative level of the sea and land, scientific

activity, and human disturbance. In addition, Kuete and

Tsalefac (1987) confirmed the constancy of tectonic activity

along the coast of Kribi and gave an account of the tectonic

origin and the various fault structures that are interposed

between the ocean and the coastal plateaux. Kuete and

Tsalefac (1987) showed the importance of tectonics on the

evolution of the coast in Cameroon and the Mount Cameroon

coast on the Cameroon Line, which is also under the influence

of tectonic activities.

In a study on the Mount Cameroon coast, Battistini et al.

(1982) pointed out that the western section of the area had a

convex slope. The convex slope corresponds to the general form

of the mountain, which comprises small cliffs composed of

basaltic flows on its sides that are less weathered, despite the

humid, tropical climate. Only the southern portion, on the

borders of Cape Nachtigal and Bimbia, has high cliffs (100–

250 m), composed primarily of old Pliocene basalt. In this

Figure 1. Mount Cameroon coastal landscape.

Coastal Erosion on Mount Cameroon 1215

Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 28, No. 5, 2012

section, the slopes are highly weathered under the plant cover

and are regenerated locally only at the base, with neotectonic

activities having a dynamic role in the degradation of the

Mount Cameroon coast. In the Idenau sector of the coast,

Battistini (1989) observed the role of neotectonics in the

evolution of the coast and referenced the absence of beaches

on the high cliffs of Cape Nachtigal, demonstrating that the

coast along the Tiko Plain comprised a coastal foreshore and

weathered marine cliffs. Zogning (1988) also examined coastal

erosion at Mount Cameroon and concluded that the erosion was

linked to several active erosional processes, including cone

erosion, which is more rapid than material flows. Zogning

(1988) indicated that the high rate of volcanic structures, such

as the Debundscha complex and the Bota land, the isolated

cones of Mukandange, the Bota hill, the botanical gardens, and

Bimbia, are all highly influenced by marine erosion.

Several other authors studying this coastline, mention that

sea erosion has been repeated on the coastal cliffs, particularly

around Mukundange, where weathering and erosion affect the

middle of the cone differently. In studying marine erosion,

Tricart (1972), Battistini et al. (1982), Zogning (1988), and

Folack (1997) concluded that the Mount Cameroon coast is

generally regressing, and erosion is high compared with areas

affected by bed erosion. In addition, there is little linear

erosion, which may be because of the great porosity of the

volcanic formations and the low drainage network on the

landscape. Therefore, the mountain has few gullies, and many

valleys remain parched.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Data Collection and AnalysisPreliminary tools for this study were topographic maps and

aerial photographs, which served as a guide for the identifica-

tion of sample-collection sites and a complete representation of

the geographic space. From these tools, the landscape was

examined to determine sampling locations in terms of

accessibility. Aerial photos taken in 1974 were analyzed and

compared with historical land marks to evaluate shoreline

retreat. Another traditional method used in this study was the

placing of erosion-reference stations on the eroding sections of

various cliffs, shores, and volcanic cones (Folack, 1997;

Gamblin, 1998; Paskoff, 1985). One year later, the erosion

references were measured to determine the rate at which

erosion was affecting the shoreline (Table 1).

As a result of the range of morphological units within

different sections of the coast, a systematic approach was used

to sample soils and count pebblest in both the seasonal drains

and the coastline (Morin, 1979). The study area was divided

into two main sections according to their orientation. Using

this subjective approach, 9 pebbles and 12 soil-sample locations

along the coastline were established for marine erosion

research. In addition, four sets of pebble and soil samples were

collected from the hinterland, within identified seasonal

drains, for linear erosion analysis (Figure 2). During soil-

sample collection, one bag of soil was collected on the shores

and a second bag of soil was collected from the valley floors at a

depth of 15–50 cm, depending on the altitude of the surround-

ing slopes.

For every location, once the soil sample was collected, 25

pebbles were randomly collected within 100 m2. Sand samples

underwent grain-size analyses, and the sediments were

categorized according to their class as defined by Association

Francaise pour la Normalisation (AFNOR) column of sieves

(Battistini, 1989; Birot, 1955), with a sifting sequence whose

mesh had a continuous logarithmic ratio of 1010. The samples

were washed, dried, and the grain size was analysed. Essential

statistical parameters, such as the quartiles, medians, average

size, the Qdphil per Krumbein (1961), standard deviation,

asymmetry coefficient, and the classification, were calculated

(Battistini, 1985; Cailleux and Tricart, 1956; Guilcher, 1954,

1959; Guilcher, Godard, and Visseaux, 1952). Sedimentation

analysis allowed us to draw conclusions about the role of

transportation on the coastal landscape.

The morphometry of the pebbles was examined, particu-

larly regarding the flattening and asymmetrical indices.

These calculations were repeated for each of the 25 pebbles

taken from each site. The pebbles all had the same

petrographic type (principally basalt) and similar dimen-

sions (lengths). With the use of a graduated ruler, the length,

width, and thickness of each pebble was measured. Subse-

quently, the weathering of each pebble was examined under

the microscope, which allowed us to come up with the five

classes of weathering, as defined by Tricart and Brochu

(1955) and as modified by Cailleux and Tricart (1956). The

Table 1. Changes in the formal position of the Cameroon coast.

Locality Length (km) Width (m)

Coastal

Situation

Period of

Change

Mabeta 2 75 Cape 1968

Mboko 3 100 Mangrove 1970

Limbe 1 3 Bay 1965

Limpo point 1 10 Cape 1964

Batoke 1 5 10 Cliff 1962

Batoke 2 28 28 Beach 1962

Ngeme 12 2 Beach 2000

Figure 2. Location of sample-collection sites.

1216 Mbuh, Mayer, and Paul


results were incorporated into an analysis of the degree of

weathering as suggested by Icole (1973) and as modified by

Tchindjang (1992). The results permitted us to identify four

types of pebbles in relation to the level or extent of

weathering on the Mount Cameroon coast: (1) SO are

pebbles with a solid mantle; (2) S1are pebbles with a unique

mantle; (3) S2 are pebbles with a double mantle; and (4) S3

are fully weathered pebbles (Table 2).

Erosion on the Batoke–Limbe–Mabeta landscape was also

characterized by soils and their permeability and rates of

infiltration. To evaluate the permeability of the soil, seven

locations were considered. For this exercise, measurements

were conducted on the hilltops. With only four soil-sampling

points on the hinterland, three additional sites were chosen

randomly to create the seven locations required for this

study (Figure 2). The seven sites were cleared of all

vegetation, and a metallic cylinder was positioned at one-

half its height (the containers each had a diameter of 7 cm

and a length of 12 cm and were open at each end);

precautions were taken to place the container into the

ground without destabilising the soil. A volume of 100 ml of

water was poured into the container, and a stopwatch was

used to determine the time the water took to completely

penetrate the surface (Gamblin, 1998). This operation was

repeated 10 times at each location, and the results were

plotted on a graph, creating a curve of time vs. absorption

(Table 3).

The erosive capacity of each section of coast was calculated

from the precipitation data using Fournier’s indices of 1960 to

calculate erosive capacity (King, 1966a or b; Tricart, 1972),

where R 5 P2/P and P2 was the highest average monthly

rainfall, P was the average annual rainfall, and R was the

erosive capacity.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Geographic Characteristics and the Rate ofSoil Infiltration

The geographic characteristics of the area provide a better

understanding of the rhythm of coastal transformations

(Dumort, 1988). The area is rugged and includes three

topographic units: low slopes, plateaux, and mangrove estuar-

ies (Figure 1). The evaluation of topographic profiles revealed

numerous abrasion features and corresponding accumulation

marks. The Limbe–Mabeta area is composed of low plateaux

and mangrove estuaries, which are found in local creeks. The

remarkable morphodynamics and ecological stability of these

mangrove swamps largely reflect the current mud input and

sedimentation conditions, which are discussed more below. On

this section of the coast, high soil influx creates instability,

followed by increases in saturation from the tidal flooding

generated by the continuous sea-level rise, which ultimately

leads to greater muddy accretion of the mangrove swamp found

at Mabeta. In contrast to the Limbe–Mabeta section, the

Batoke–Limbe section has many deep valleys with abrasive

surfaces.

An analysis of the different orientations of the coast was

essential because its exposure to the primary winds is a

fundamental climatic characteristic affecting the coast. With

the aid of topographic maps (1 : 200,000 and 1 : 50,000 scale),

the coast was classified according to its orientation. The study

of positioning was crucial because the coast of Limbe was found

to be lying on a fragile structure—a chain of volcanic centers

that is called the Cameroon Line. The key azimuthal

orientations were between 60u and 70u, 130u and 140u, 150uand 160u, and 170u and 180u, each having a frequency of

12.5%; closely followed by the directions 030uu–050u, 100u–110u,

Table 2. Morphometric analysis of pebbles in seasonal drains.

Locality

Flattening

Median Indices

Maximum

Length (mm)

Median Length

(mm)

Modal

Flattening

Stages of Weathering

S0 S1 S2 S3

Mabeta 2.2 116 50 SA 5 28 56 24 12 0

Bimbia 2.0 126 51 SA 5 38 48 32 22 8

Cassava farm 2.1 118 68 CA 5 32 60 24 0 12

Batoke 7.8 122 68 SA 5 36 60 28 12 8

Modal flattening key: SA 5 subangular; O 5 oval; R 5 rounded pebbles.

Stages of weathering: SO 5 pebbles with intact mantles; S1 5 pebbles with unique mantles; S2 5 pebbles with double mantles; S3 5 completely weathered

pebbles.

Table 3. Porosity, water, and air capacity on the Limbe central, subdivision coastal axis.

Locality P1 (gm) P2 (gm) P3 (gm) Volume (cm3) Porosity (%) Water Capacity (%) Air Capacity (%)

Batoke 122 568 300 500 89.2 35.6 54.2

Limbola 129 520 450 500 78.2 64.2 14

Botaland 125 488 398 500 76.6 54.2 22

Morton point 118 478 400 500 72 56.4 15.6

Bimbia 123 440 355 500 63.4 46.4 17

Dikolo 130 435 345 500 61 43 18

Mabeta 132 425 327 500 58.6 39 19.6

P1 5 weight of container with dry soils; P2 5 weight of container with soils immersed in water for 15–20 min; P3 5 weight of container with soils immersed in

water for 15–20 min, then drained by simple gravity for 20–30 min, V 5 quantity of soil.



160u–170u, with 10% frequency; and the rest of the directions

were found with a frequency between 2.5% and 7.5%. The

dominant type of coastal orientation was between 31u and 70u,which is the direction of the Cameroon Line, with an area

between 130u and 180u and a frequency of 40% of the total

directions (Figures 1 and 3).

The total length of the coast was 49.78 km, with the area

containing a bearing of 130u–180u, and 40.7% of the total

orientation, whereas 56.8% of the area was orientated

between 30u and 70u. The region from Batoke to Man O’

War Bay has a NW–SE orientation, with the wind hitting the

coast in a southwesterly direction from the SW oceanic

winds. The cape Bimbia–Mabeta area is affected by wind

coming from the NE, with the coastlines orientated SW–NE

(Battistini et al., 1982; Crosnier, 1964; Fraser, Hall, and

Healey, 1998). By tabulating all the relevant wind data and

considering the orientation of the coast, the results of this

study have shown that the winds are pivotal in the overall

evolution of the coast (Figures 1 and 3).

The climate of the study area was mostly hot and humid,

with an annual temperature of 29.8uC and consistent and

abundant rains that are vital in the evolution of the coast. The

study of the morphodynamic, oceanographic, and bioclimatic

conditions along the coast permitted a better understanding of

the area that is under constant threat of degradation (Crosnier,

1964). The wave action on this coast is noteworthy because,

throughout the year, the convergence zone, where northern

and southern Hadley cells meet, shifts across the equator. This

region is under the influence of either a continental wind from

the NE or coastal winds from the SW all year-round (Fraser,

Hall, and Healey, 1998). The soil in this area is highly porous,

and the severity and speed of the wind are inconsistent because

of the corresponding soils. Table 2 and Figure 4 indicate that

(a) two rain events, similar in duration and infiltration

intensity, do not generate the same effect; and (b) repetitive

storm events reduce the rate of infiltration and, therefore,

increase the surface flow by external saturation (Derruau,

1988). Also, the infiltration rate (K) changes significantly

regarding its primary water content during a rainfall.

Therefore, (1) on bare soil or after a long, dry period, K 5

120 mm/h; (2) on a humid soil, with some dryness (2–5 d

without rain ), K 5 80 mm/h; and (3) on intensely humid soil (at

2–5 h after rain), K 5 46 mm/h (Petit, 1990).

The soils in the study area have a high-porosity index,

varying between 58.6% and 89.2%; a high water volume

between 35.5% and 64% (Table 1); and an air capacity within

the upper layers of the soil of between 14% and 54.2%. The soils

on the west coast are more absorbent than are those on the east

coast; therefore, there is an accelerated transformation of the

soils as a result of this permeability (Figure 4). The analysis of

the geographic characteristics of the area has shown that the

coast is under the influence of several key physical factors,

including external formations, the geologic substrata, and

oceanographic and climatic conditions (Nobuyuki, 1976).

Linear ErosionThe exposure of the Mount Cameroon coast to the effects of

the sea seems to be extremely active, disturbing not only the

shores but also and equally the volcanic formations in place

(dykes and cones). To explain the importance of erosion on this

coast, Battistini et al. (1982) suggested that a weak supply of

water from the mountain rivers has a direct effect on coastal

erosion (Figure 1). The great porosity of the volcanic formation,

along with the hydrographic difficulties of the area, causes the

linear erosion to be extraordinarily low, when considering only

the intrinsic factors of the area. However, extrinsic factors,

such as the climate, accelerate the rate of linear erosion (King,

1966a or b). Most of the gullies found in this region are dry

because of the multitude of lava that flows to the coast

(Battistini et al., 1982; Nobuyuki, 1976). The deep dissections

currently being eroded along this coast are older formations

when compared with the age of other areas (Giresse et al.,

1996). The Batoke–Limbe section of the coast is made up of a

few gullies that end abruptly at the mountain and other gullies

that end in the ocean. The gullies of this section vary from 3.3 to

6.5 m deep, with a SW–NW orientation from the western slopes

of the mountain.

The Limbe–Mabeta area is made up of a dissection of

approximately 20 valleys. These valleys are all separated from

one another by distances ranging from 0.2 km to 1.2 km, with

the exception of the Bimbia valleys, which separate the last

Figure 3. Orientation of the coastline.

Figure 4. Soil permeability per section of the coast.



valley at Dikolo, with a distance of 3.6 km. The valley depths

are 2–10 m, and their widths vary from 1.28–2.75 m, with a

NW–SW orientation for the most part (Figure 3). Most of these

valleys are dry and U-shaped, consisting of subangular,

abrasive forms (Table 2). The morphometric characteristics of

some of these gullies indicate that the rate of weathering in

both sections of the coast is homogenous. The asymmetry is

200%–300%, with a preponderance of 47%, which shows that

larger pebbles are being transported.

Analyses demonstrate that the pebbles are volcanic origin,

indicating a Hawaiian volcanic flow (Zogning, 1988). The

valleys, or the seasonal drains, also represent a consistent rate

of weathering on both sections of the coast (Table 2), with the

flattening ranging from 1.8 to 2.2 cm, which equally shows the

effect of a remarkably powerful, dynamic transport (Tchind-

jang 1992).

Homogeneity, along with the rate of weathering, is noted to

be slightly greater on the east coast, which is due to the dense

network of rivers in that area. This subsequently affects the old

volcanic formations and their chemical composition. The

opposite is observed on the west coast, where a less-dense

hydrology and a high complex of cones are formed of ancient

volcanic formations. Grain-size analysis indicates that the

dynamics of the transportation are homogenous, with medians

between 1600 m and 3100 m, and are usually composed of large

particles. The Qdphil and HE are between 0.7 and 1.09 and

between 0.6 and 0.98, respectively (Figure 5).

The sediments are well sorted, with perfect classification and

graphical representation shown in parabolic curves, indicating

a steady transportation and displacement from the continental

river (Battistini, 1985; Cailleux and Tricart, 1956; Zogning,

1988). Sand particles also support the transportation by larger

particles, with most of the particles found within the arenite

(41%–84%) and rudite (13.38%) classes. Therefore, the present

data confirm a remarkably strong transportation and natural

sedimentation rate, and the variation in the particle fraction

shows the importance of transporting larger particles, similar

to highly coarse sand and gravel (see Table 4).

Summary field observations indicate that most of the

valleys are seasonal drains, and the erosive power of the

valleys with year-round rivers does not describe the rate of

transportation and sedimentation within the seasonal

drains. Therefore, where water exists, it flows slowly, and

the precipitation is critical in increasing the erosive activity

in the area. The erosive capacity at Debunsha is 59,526.3; at

Mukundange, 14,129.9; at Mabeta, 10,279.5; and at Tole,

4253.3. This shows a remarkably high erosive role in all

sections of the coast as explained by the regularity and

intensity of the rains in the region. The high rate of gully

formation on this coast is shown by the quantity of material

eroded in different periods. Comparing the erosive capacity

per section of coast shows that Mukundange is more erosive

than Mabeta on the east, which can be explained by the

differences in topographic units for these two sections

(Figure 1). Therefore, a relationship may exist among

intensity, persistence, precipitation violence, and the erosion

of denudated soils in the linear erosion of the Mount

Cameroon coastal landscape.

Figure 5. Histogram indices of the median grain size and a sorting diagram for the M-Qdphi for the seasonal drainage and the HE-Qdphi of the

seasonal drainages.



Marine ErosionMarine erosion is high along the coast of Cameroon. Many

have observed an internal drift of the Mount Cameroon coast

(Battistini et al., 1982; Hori, 1977; Morin (1979); Zogning and

Kuete, 1986) and the region of Kribi (Hori, 1977; Kuete and

Tsalefac, 1987). The Mount Cameroon coast exposed to the

action of the sea seems to be highly active, affecting both the

shores and the volcanic formations formed by lava flow (dykes

and cones). The erosion of cones is rapid on the Batoke–Limbe–

Mabeta coast because volcanic cones are less resistant to

erosion. Five of these cones are situated on the shoreline

affected by marine erosion: the Botaland, Botanical Gardens,

and Bimbia cones (Figure 1). Their maritime sections corre-

spond to cliffs 50–100 m high. These cliffs have evolved from

mudflows and the undercutting of their bases by waves

(Brunet-Moret, 1970). The speed of coastal regression and the

generations of trees and housing foundations that have

collapsed testify to the frequency of the erosive phenomena.

Remarkable weathering indices are also an indicated by the

number of landslides that have occurred in recent years. Such

events have disturbed many cubic meters of heterogeneous

material from altitudes of 80–100 m and higher; such is the

case with the Bimbia landslide in February 1984 (Zogning,

1988) and the Batoke rock fall in October 2000 (Lambi and

Nwana, 1991).

Analysis of the erosion on the coastlines, as presented in this

study, reveals a higher rate of weathering in the Limbe–Idenau

section than that in the Tiko–Limbe section. The flattening

indices, as well as the other indices, point to a higher rate of

transportation on the west coast vs. that on the east (Table 5).

The modal flattening also indicates a variation in these two

sections of the coast, with the Limbe–Idenau made up mostly of

rounded surfaces, whereas the Tiko–Limbe section has angular

surfaces. The asymmetry is 200%–300% for the Tiko section of

the coast and 100%–200% for the Limbe–Idenau section of the

coast, which can be explained by the high dissection and many

rivers that transport material down the stream. The study also

shows that the east coast has no large-sized pebbles, indicating

a marine regression happening at a slower pace (Figure 6).

Erosion is regular along the cliff, except in coastal orienta-

tion, which leads to the differential erosion observed on the

west and east coasts. Large and small cliffs generally show few

differences in morphology, accompanied by irregular traces,

many projections, and the accumulation of black sands,

without the development of coastal sands. However, the

cellular structure of coastal strands has developed at Botaland,

formed from the carving of the basalt into polygonal columns

(Battistini et al., 1982). Each cellular structure corresponds to

the stumping of a column, carried away by erosion. These

structures are affected by abrasion and weathering on the

borders of the stumps, creating the cellular forms and small,

rounded domes. At the summit of some of the domes, there are

holes covered with sand and basalt pebbles, which contribute to

their weathering (Battistini, 1985).

Grain-size analysis (Table 6) shows there is homogeneity in

the different sections of the coast, and most of the sediments are

well sorted and well classified, with only a few exceptions to the

average classification, which can be explained by their

orientation (Figure 2). The particle sizes vary, with the median

size between 110 m and 1180 m. The variations in the rate of

transportation and sedimentation show the different rhythms

of their evolution. Transportation seems to be unusually strong

Table 4. Grain-size analysis and seasonal drainage.

Locality Median Qdphi (mm) HE (mm) SO (mm) SK (mm) K (Q) AS (Q) SD

Mabeta 3100 0.70 0.60 1.3 0.3 1.4 1.2 0.8

Bimbia 2500 0.77 0.6 1.6 0.6 0.5 1.2 1.01

Cassava farm 1700 1.09 0.98 2.02 0.9 0.6 1.2 0.6

Batoke 1600 1.3 1.02 2.6 1.0 0.06 1.4 0.27

Source: Labwork, Mbuh (2000).

Q 5 quartiles; HE 5 heterometry indices; SO 5 Trask’s classification; SK 5 asymmetry coefficient; K 5 angularity; AS 5 average size; SD 5 standard

deviation.

Table 5. Modality of weathering and other parameters on the Cameroonian beaches.

Locality

Flattening

Median

Indices

Maximum

Length (mm)

Median

Length (mm)

Modal Flattening Stages of Weathering

SA OR S0 S1 S2 S3

Mabeta 2.1 105 66 32 20 52 20 12 16

Dikolo 2.5 123 67 40 24 52 44 0 4

Bimbia 2.3 110 68 28 36 72 20 0 8

Morton Point 2.6 112 72 28 44 100 0 0 0

Batoke 2.2 118 65 32 28 40 20 16 24

Mile six 2.3 114 76 44 32 80 20 0 0

Limbola 2.3 128 87 32 24 68 20 4 8

Bobende 2.6 130 102 48 32 72 28 0 0

Botaland 2.4 126 95 44 32 56 28 0 0

Modal flattening key: SA 5 subangular; O 5 oval; R 5 rounded pebbles.

Stages of weathering: SO 5 pebbles with intact mantles; S1 5 pebbles with unique mantles; S2 5 pebbles with double mantles; S3 5 completely weathered

pebbles.



on both sections of the coast, with some slight variations linked

to obstacles that reduce the wave speed (Figures 6a and b).

This variation was particularly observed in curves 1, 2, 3, and

9, 10, 12 (Mabeta, Dikolo, Bimbia, and Ngeme, Botaland, Down

Beach, on the Tiko–Limbe and Limbe–Idenau coasts, respec-

tively), on the east and west coasts, respectively. The curves on

the east (Tiko) side are less regressed than those on the west

(Limbe–Idenau) coast. The median, heterometry indices, and

the other analysed parameters show that the sediments on the

east coast are well classified with sigmoidal, hyperbolic, and

degraded hyperbolic curves (Figure 7a).

In contrast to the east coast, the west (Limbe–Idenau) coast

sediments are exceptionally well classified and within the

averages. The logarithmic curves show a hyperbolic tendency,

indicating immensely long transportation by a powerful fluid

reaching optimal evolution (Figure 7b). The degraded parabol-

ic curves show that sediments are still being transported and

deposited by continental rivers, whereas the hyperbolic curves

indicate that after evolution has taken place, the sediments

have no further role, confirming higher dynamics on the west

coast vs. that of the east coast. The region has a hot and humid

environment, which hastens weathering. Decomposition is

rapid, resulting in the formation of clay. By comparing the

sections, the weathering is more intense on the east coast than

on the west coast (Zogning, 1988).

Marine regression is also enhanced on the east coast beaches

because the ancient volcanic formations are less resistant to

weathering and the littoral drift provides only a small volume

Figure 6. Histogram indices of the median grain size and a sorting diagram for the M-Qdphi for the beaches and the HE-Qdphi of the beaches.

Table 6. Grain-size analysis for the Cameroonian beaches.

Locality Median Qdphil (mm) HE (mm) SO (mm) SK (mm) K (Q) AS (Q) SD

Mabeta 430 0.51 0.51 1.4 1.3 0.68 1.18 0.8

Dikolo 150 0.74 0.52 1.6 2.7 0.1 2.4 1.08

Bimbia 370 0.95 0.7 1.8 1.9 0.8 1.1 0.9

Morton Point 118 0.3 0.25 1.2 0.1 0.06 3.04 0.4

Batoke 730 0.57 0.54 1.4 1.02 1.00 0.6 0.3

Mile Six 82 0.3 0.3 1.1 2.04 0.4 3.5 0.3

Limbola 1180 1.2 0.8 2.2 1.07 0.5 1.2 0.4

Bobende 580 0.55 0.55 1.4 1.1 1.8 0.7 0.7

Ngeme 86 0.24 0.18 1.1 1.9 0.09 3.5 0.3

Bota 1 110 0.17 0.15 0.9 5.1 0.04 3.1 0.3

Bota 2 840 1.5 1 2.8 1.4 0.3 1.3 0.8

Down beach 148 0.55 0.55 1.4 2.2 0.17 2.7 0.7

Q 5 quartiles; HE 5 heterometry indices; SO 5 Trask’s classification; SK 5 asymmetry coefficient; K5 angularity; AS 5 average size; SD 5 standard

deviation.



of material, as is the case with Batoke, Mile Six, and Botaland.

The low volume of material on the Mabete–Limbe section of the

coast is because the area is an estuarine complex, comprising

extensive mangrove and colonized flats cut by a dense network

of tidal channels. The vegetated wetlands accumulate little

sediment because the incoming, suspended soil is extremely

fine and the duration of the tidal flooding is short. The slopes in

this section have high accretion rates, and some of the soil is

deposited on channel bars in the inner bay, whereas the rest is

exported by seaward-flowing plumes. Apart from the erosive

processes, the Mount Cameroon coast is also affected by

catastrophic floods, which usually occur during exceptional

high tides and can last about 3 days. Such situations affect the

mangrove creeks at Dockyard, Mabeta, and Mboke. The erosive

phenomena of the Mount Cameroon coast and that of the whole

Cameroonian coast do not seem incompatible (Battistini et al.,

1982; Geze, 1939; Monod, 1925). Marine erosion is a phenom-

enon that affects the entire Gulf of Guinea, linked to a slow

increase in sea level (1.2–1.5 mm/y per Paskoff [1985]; and 1–

2 mm/y per Battistini [1989]). To explain the importance of this

phenomenon on this coast, Battistini et al. (1982) suggested

that the few rivers bring an inadequate supply of sediment

down from the mountains, which, in turn, results in poor fluvial

erosion. They (Battistini et al., 1982) also suggested that the

small amount of material transported by littoral drift is

distributed at the obstacle of Cape Nachtigal, which could be

one reason for the slow east coast regression.

This coastal landscape is predominantly affected by

human-caused demographic problems and socioeconomic

development, which have resulted in pollution, particularly

on beaches; coastal erosion, affecting both the coastline; and

broken, fragile volcanic cones. The natural processes of high

precipitation rates increase the infiltration and weathering

and cause the frequent catastrophic landslides and floods

that affect the region. Humans, however, have reinforced

those natural processes in their acquisition of land. Acceler-

ated erosion has been caused by deforestation, by an

anarchical exploitation of sand and gravel quarries, and by

an anarchical development of tourist sites. Thus, deforesta-

tion; peasant and industrial agricultural activities, particu-

larly in the tea estates; and accelerated urbanization and

hydrodynamics are responsible for high rates of discharge

and ocean accumulation.

CONCLUSIONS

Morphoclimatic information shows that this coast is being

continuously degraded, as explained by the high rate of

infiltration, characterized by abundant rains and oceanograph-

ic factors and the dynamics of the water masses, which

influence the transgression and progression of the coastline.

The dynamics of the water masses also influence the

transgression and progression of the coastline, with the effects

of transgression shown by the rates of redress, which are

customary on this coastline. This coast is made up of both older

and newer volcanic rocks, and the soils are singularly porous

and affected by tectonic manifestations, which play a signifi-

cant role in the fragility of the coast.

The effect of transgression is shown by the rate of redress,

which is high along the coastline. In addition, the current

dynamic landscape includes the regularity of precipitation

during the rainy season, which disturbs the vegetal cover and

exacerbates the breakdown of the natural environment

through weathering. Regardless of the interannual variability

of the precipitation, high rates of rainfall are typical in the

region and are accompanied by winds: Localized tornadoes

occur and are accompanied by waves that undermine the

shoreline. Thus, the rainy season remains a key period of high

coastal erosion, marked by seasonal morphoclimatic crises

(Cailleux and Tricart, 1965). This study also determined that

one of the climatic characteristics of the area is its typical high

thermal value, which contributes to the elaboration of dendritic

products on the base rocks. Although calculating the effects of

thermoclasty is difficult, they are made manifest on the rock

pans and the exfoliated network of fissures, which grow in balls

by liberating sand grains (Battistini, 1989).

This study shows that the suppression of the vegetal cover

reinforces the morphogenic action of raindrops, which results

in the development of gullies and valleys, which promote linear

erosion on the coastal slopes. In addition, the fundamental,

physical transformative processes on the coast—marine and

linear erosion, weathering and landslides, and people and their

activities—have accelerated the erosion that is already

influenced by geographic characteristics of the milieu. Linear

Figure 7. (a) Grain-size analysis curves for the east coast of Cameroon.

(b) Grain-size analysis curves for the west coast of Cameroon.



erosion and sedimentation are particularly pronounced on this

coast, as shown by the pebble particle-size analysis, with

differentiation per unit of coastal dynamics, and is observed in

the regression curves (Figures 7a and b). The rates of

transportation, marine erosion, weathering, and linear erosion

each have a different rhythm. Changes in the formal position of

the coast (Table 1) shows that the regression is also occurring

in the mangrove estuaries of Mabeta and Mboko, which are the

only areas on the east coast where erosion was observed. That

erosion is caused by tornadic and human activities, which have

accelerated the rate of mangrove destruction (Folack, 1997).

This coast, from Cape Debunscha to Tiko, has undergone

severe erosion through harbour installation, shore use, and road

building along the shoreline, which interfere with the beach–

dune dynamics and have profoundly modified the coastal

morphology and the littoral dynamics. Urgent measures are

required to tackle the problems identified and their ramifica-

tions, measures that lead to a reduction in the current rate of

shoreline transformation. This is only a preliminary study of the

problems and further analysis is needed on (1) the management

of curvaceous cones and cliffs and the evaluation of bank erosion

of cones and cliffs, (2) the potentialities of the mangrove and its

role in the recycling of coastal resources that depend on the

mangrove for survival, and (3) the role of hedges in the evolution

of the coast so as to understand their effect on the coast and to

compare areas of the coast with and without the hedges.

The rapid growth of population, coastal activities, settle-

ment, deforestation, agriculture, and the industrial sector

within the Mount Cameroon coastal landscape have, however,

increased the rate of degradation processes in this area. The

industrial sector in this region has also largely contributed to

an increase in industrial wastes that are being discharged

without prior treatment into the watershed and lagoons that

are linked with the Gulf of Guinea, thus threatening the

marine life and people’s health (UNESCO, 1998). In fact, the

rapid population growth, along with the industrial, adminis-

trative, and commercial activities, has forced the people who

are the principal stakeholders in the degradation to encroach

on fragile zones, such as the shores and the scoriaceous cones

(Lambi, 1991 and Folack, 1998). In their search for the means

of survival, humans have rendered the region environmentally

unstable.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This research was carried out with financial support from

the Cameroon Ministry of Higher Education; the Oceano-

graphic Research Centre at Limbe provided additional

support for field measurements. Dr. Tchindjang Mesmin, in

the Geomorphology laboratory in the Department of Geogra-

phy at the University of Yaounde-I, is also appreciated for his

assistance in field-sample analysis and interpretation of

results. Special thanks also go to Dr. Jean Folack of the

Limbe Oceanographic Centre.

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Documents

Assessment of the Nature and the Rate of Coastal Erosion on the Mount Cameroon Coastal Landscape, Southwest Region, Cameroon