Are greek letter social organizations a factor in Undergraduates perceptions of international instructors?

Int[ J[ Intercultural Rel[ Vol[ 12\ No[ 0\ pp[ 0Ð01\ 0888Þ 0888 Elsevier Science Ltd[ All rights reserved\ Pergamon Printed in Great Britain

9036Ð0656:88:, ! see front matter

PII] S9036Ð0656"87#99912Ð5

ARE GREEK LETTER SOCIAL ORGANIZATIONS AFACTOR IN UNDERGRADUATES| PERCEPTIONS OF

INTERNATIONAL INSTRUCTORS<

DONALD L[ RUBIN\ STUART AINSWORTH\EUNSOOK CHO\ DON TURK and LAURA WINN

The University of Georgia\ U[S[A[

ABSTRACT[ The presence of international instructors on U[S[ college campuses isan integral part of the growing multicultural milieu of higher education in this nation[International instructors are often met with resistance\ often based on assertionsabout their linguistic or communicative competence[ However a series of recentstudies indicates that mainstream students| own negative stereotypes may be respon!sible for some of their dissatisfaction[ Previous research provides warrant to suspectthat members of Greek letter social organizations may be particularly prone to suchxenophobic stereotypes[ In the present study participants*39) of whom were Greek!af_liated*listened to the identical taped lecture[ Half were led to believe they werelistening to a Chinese instructor\ the others to a Euro!North American instructor[ Inrating speci_c lectures and lecturers\ Greek!af_liated students did not differ fromtheir non!af_liated peers[ Both sets of students were similarly subject to powerfulnegative stereotypes associated with the Chinese guise instructor[ Perceived languagestandardness and American!like qualities of the instructor was the best predictor ofstudents| evaluations[ Degree of Greek!af_liation appeared to be weakly associatedwith negative attitudes to international instructors in general[ However these gen!eralized attitudes did not predict situated evaluations[ These _ndings warrant theconclusions that some international instructors are unfairly subject to negative evalu!ations irrespective of their actual speech style\ and that this is a campus!wide problemand not limited to a particular segment of the university community[ Þ 0888 ElsevierScience Ltd[ All rights reserved

KEY WORDS[ International instructors\ Greek organizations\ stereotypes\ xeno!phobic\ xenophobia\ linguistic competence\ speech style\ responses to ITA\ eth!nocentrism\ language and attitude

The increasing number of international instructors on U[S[ college cam!puses is an indisputable aspect of multicultural change in higher education[

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Donald L[ Rubin\ Department

of Speech Communication\ The University of Georgia\ Athens\ GA 29591!0614\ U[S[A[ Tel[]

990 695 431 3782^ e!mail] drubinÝuga[cc[uga[edu

0

1 D[ L[ Rubin et al[

While it is di.cult to pinpoint a precise number of international instruc!tors\ two demographic trends are clear "see reviews in Mendenhall\ 0885^Smith\ Byrd\ Nelson\ Barrett\ + Constantinides\ 0881#[ First\ this com!ponent of the teaching force predominates in mathematics!intensivecourses\ courses which tend to be gate!keeper or otherwise challenging formost U[S[ undergraduates[ For example\ in recent years\ the number ofnew doctorates granted to non!citizens of the U[S[ exceeded 49) in several_elds such as physics and computer science "National Science Foundation\0889\ p[ 025#[ Second\ compared with a generation ago\ the preponderanceof international instructors is comprised of people of color who are non!native speakers of mainstream North American English "NNSMNAEs#[China\ Taiwan\ Japan\ Korea and India have been the most frequentsource of international students "and hence graduate teaching assistantsand newly minted professors# throughout the 0889s[ Nationwide\ about19) of all graduate assistants are nonresident aliens "{{Employees inColleges and Universities by Racial and Ethnic Group\|| 0885#[

This internationalization of the U[S[ higher education teaching corps hashad several consequences[ It is evident to many stakeholders*legislators\administrators\ parents\ faculty students*that recruiting globally permitsU[S[ institutions to draw from among the most elite scholars and teachers"Sullivan\ 0880#[ Other stakeholders\ however\ have not been quite sosanguine^ typically\ NNSMNAE instructors have met with at least somedegree of resistance in the classroom "Rao\ 0884#[ Often times that resist!ance surfaces publicly in letters to university newspapers\ and even inlegislative mandates "Brown\ Fishman\ + Jones\ 0880#[ Most complaintsallege poor English language pro_ciency among international instructors[As a result\ training programs for international instructors have pro!liferated "Smith et al[\ 0881#[ For the most part\ these programs havefocused on international teaching assistants "ITAs#\ who can be compelledto participate by virtue of their vulnerable status[ Initially\ ITA programsfocused on speci_c language skills such as pronunciation and vocabulary[Presently most NNSMNAE TA training programs promote a broadlyconceived instructional communication competence based on U[S[ culturalexpectations for e}ective classroom discourse "Madden + Myers\ 0883#[No doubt these opportunities for professional development for ITAsshould be regarded as a positive outcome "Mendenhall\ 0885#[

Inadequate language pro_ciency or communicative competence mayindeed be legitimate concerns in the case of some NNSMNAE instructorseven after training "Halleck + Moder\ 0884#[ Nevertheless\ evidence isaccumulating that negative judgments about NNSMNAE teaching skillsare attributable at least in part to negative stereotypes held by U[S[ students"Rubin\ 0887#[ Thus\ for example\ students| ratings of an instructors|teaching pro_ciency are more profoundly a}ected by the students| per!

ceptions of the speakers| accentedness\ rather than by actual pronunciation

2Responses to International Instructors

factors[ Students| stereotyped expectations of an instructor can be cuedby simply showing them the photograph of a person of color[ Thesestereotypes are of su.cient potency to measurably diminish students|listening performance "Rubin\ 0881^ Rubin\ Merri_eld\ Schramm\ Year!dley\ Harzog\ + Tighe\ 0885#[

Limited evidence points to more marked prejudice against internationalinstructors among students with lower academic achievement or amongthose who are not taking their courses for major credit "Fox + Gay\0883#\ and among students who perceive their instructors as dissimilar"nonhomophilous# from themselves "Rubin\ 0881#[

It is possible that negative attitudes toward international instructors arepart of a generalized increase in intolerance toward ethnolinguistic diver!sity that has been observed on U[S[ college campuses in recent years"DePalma\ 0880#[ While some studies have investigated students| èn!

eralized attitudes toward internationals as instructors and have identi_eda corps of rather negatively disposed students "Fox + Gay\ 0883^ Plakans\0886#\ none have linked those generalized attitudes with students| com!prehension and evaluations of particular instructors| in classroom per!formance[ In addition\ no previous research identi_es social ordemographic factors associated with students who are likely to holdespecially strong negative attitudes toward international faculty[

Members of Greek letter social organizations "fraternities and sororities#have been identi_ed in at least some research as one population tendingto possess certain traits which might lead them to harbor negative attitudestoward NNSMNAE instructors[ For example\ Greek!a.liated studentstend to score lower on scales of political and social liberalism\ socialconscience\ and cultural sophistication relative to their non!a.liated peers"Lottes + Kurilo}\ 0883^ Wilder\ Hoyt\ Surbeck\ Wilden\ + Carney\ 0875#[

From a group dynamics perspective\ Greek!a.liated students oftenmanifest little tolerance for peer!independence "see discussion in Hunt +Rentz\ 0883#[ That is\ they have especially strong needs for peer a.liationand approval[ The seminal research by Allport "0843# suggests that pos!sessing a strong and exclusive attachment to one|s peer group may intensifynegative feelings towards outgroup members[ Subsequent research byBrewer + Campbell "0867# supports that notion as well[ This intenseattachment to in!groups\ in turn\ has been blamed for incidences of deper!sonalization and intolerance among Greek organizations[ In this veinMartin + Hummer "0878# conclude that {{fraternities are a physical andsociocultural context that encourages the sexual coercion of women|| "p[347#[

In weighing the research on characteristics of Greek!a.liated students\however\ it is important to avoid facile stereotypes and to observe thatthe literature is quite mixed[ Some studies _nd virtually no attitude orachievement di}erences between a.liated and non!a.liated students\ and


others have even found prosocial e}ects of Greek!a.liation "Hunt +Rentz\ 0883#[ At present\ no social scienti_c studies have found that Greekletter organizations provide explicit sanctions for outgroup prejudice[ Onlyoccasional anecdotal evidence*which can be disputed by readily availablecounter examples of altruism and multicultural programming*point inthat direction[

Accordingly\ the present study replicates previous research which exam!ined the e}ect of instructor nationality on undergraduates| responses[ Asin that previous research "Rubin\ 0881# it examines the impact of an Asianversus Euro!North American instructor on undergraduates| listening com!prehension and perceptions of instructor competence[ Furthermore\ thepresent study extends that previous research by considering the e}ect of aplausible demographic factor*Greek a.liation*on di}erentialresponses to international instructors[ In addition\ this study investigatesthe degree to which students| èneralized attitudes toward internationalinstructors "e[g[\ Fox + Gay\ 0883^ Plakans\ 0886# a}ect their immediateresponses as they listen to a speci_c instructor[

METHODS

Participants

Participants were undergraduate students recruited from basic coursesin speech communication at a southeastern U[S[ university[ Their par!ticipation in this study either earned extra credit in a class\ or else was arequirement for course completion[ Complete data were obtained from090 individuals\ 42) of whom were male\ and 30) of whom reportedbelonging to a Greek organization[ The average age of the participantswas 08[81 "SD�0[22#[ On average\ they had encountered 0[5 NNSMNAEinstructors "SD�0[5#[ Twenty!seven percent reported that they had dis!enrolled from at least one class upon discovering the instructor to bea NNSMNAE[ Because of the nature of the research questions\ AsianAmericans and also international students were removed from the sample\leaving n�82 for subsequent analyses[

Stimulus Materials

Lecture Material[ All participants listened to the identical audiotapedlecture developed for use in a previous study "Rubin et al[\ 0885#[ Thelecture\ adapted from a passage selected for use in training English lan!guage skills "Spinrad\ 0889#\ was on the topic of galaxies[ It was audiotaperecorded in English by a native Dutch speaker who was instructed touse his closest approximation of mainstream North American English"MNAE#[ The reason for using a speaker with a mild Dutch accent was


to create a single vocal guise which plausibly might be attributed to aNNSMNAE\ or alternatively to a MNAE speaker[ Moreover\ pilot testingindicated that this accent was not reliably associated with any singlenationality by other members of this respondent population[ The durationsof the recorded lecture segment was approximately six minutes[

Ethnolinguistic Identity Manipulation[ While listening to the audio!taped lecture\ participants viewed a slide projection of one of two photo!graphs[ One photograph depicted a Chinese male\ the other a dark!hairedCaucasian[ The Chinese instructor was introduced as Wenshu Li fromTaipei\ Taiwan[ The Caucasian instructor was introduced as Robert Wil!son from Portland\ Oregon[ Both wore similar clothes\ were of similarsize\ and posed writing on a chalkboard in the same classroom[ In previousresearch "Rubin et al[\ 0885#\ it was found that these photographs engen!dered considerable individual di}erences in viewers| judgments of physicalattractiveness\ but that their mean ratings on that dimension did not di}ersigni_cantly[ In the present sample\ however\ the Caucasian photographwas judged on the average more attractive "M�2[67# than the Chinesephotograph "M�2[06^ t88 �1[28\ p³ [94#[ Therefore the physical attrac!tiveness scale was used as a covariate in subsequent analyses[ Analysis ofa manipulation check scale for race indicated that the Chinese photographwas in fact perceived as signi_cantly more like a {{person of color||"M�1[18# whereas the Caucasian was perceived as more like a Caucasian"M�4[33^ t86 �09[90\ p³ [990#[

Measurement Instruments

Listening Comprehension[ Listening comprehension was measured by acloze test\ wherein participants were presented with a typed verbatimtranscript of the lecture[ Excepting in the _rst and last sentences\ approxi!mately every seventh word was deleted[ An identically sized blank spacewas substituted for the deleted words[ Participants were given credit onlyfor exact words recalled[

Speech Evaluation Instrument[ Zahn + Hopper|s "0874# Speech Evalu!ation Instrument "SEI# was used to measure perceptions of the instructor[The instrument consists of seven!interval semantic di}erential items com!prising three composite subscales[ The superiority subscale consists ofsuch items as {{disadvantaged:advantaged\|| {{lower class:upper class\|| and{{unintelligent:intelligent[|| Internal consistency reliability "Cronbach|salpha# for this subscale was [60[ The interpersonal attractiveness subscaleconsists of such items as {{nice:awful\|| {{unlikeable:likeable|| and {{incon!siderate:considerate[|| Internal consistency for the attractiveness subscalewas [72[ The dynamism subscale consists of such items as {{enthusi!


astic:hesitant\|| {{masculine:feminine|| and {{unsure:con_dent[|| Internalconsistency reliability for the dynamism subscale was [67[

Perceived Teaching Ability[ A composite teaching ability scale wascomposed of three items] {{e}ective:ine}ective teacher\|| {{quali_ed:unquali_ed|| and {{incompetent:competent teacher[|| The reliability of thisscale was [58[

Perceived Lecture Quality[ A composite lecture quality scale was com!posed of three items] {{boring:interesting\|| {{confusing:clear|| and {{easy:hard to understand[|| The reliability of the lecture quality scale was [67[

Attitudes Toward International Instructors[ To measure generalizedattitudes toward international instructors\ we employed Plakan|s "0886#adaptation of Fox + Gay|s "l883# Questionnaire on International TeachingAssistants "QUITA#[ The original QUITA consisted of 26 Likert!typeitems\ and was developed primarily through Q!sort technique[ Plakans"0886# reduced the instrument to 10 items re~ecting "0# openness towardother cultures\ "1# belief that international instructors can be e}ectiveteachers\ and "2# acceptance of personal responsibility for facilitatingcommunication between international instructors and ones self[ Theinternal consistency reliability of this instrument was [71[

Procedures

The experiment was administered in large group settings[ Participantswere randomly assigned to either the Asian or the Euro!American instruc!tor condition[ They _lled out the cloze test immediately after listening tothe lecture[ At the end of the instruments was a series of questions askingparticipants about their status in school\ their exposure to internationalinstructors\ and their a.liation to various campus organizations\ includingGreek letter social organizations[

Analysis

The primary dependent variables were the cloze test of listening com!prehension^ the three speaker rating scales*superiority\ interpersonalattractiveness\ and dynamism^ the rating of instructional competence^ andthe rating of lecture quality[ These were each submitted to separate 1×1analyses of covariance "ANCOVAs# with participants nested in com!binations of Greek!a.liation "a.liated or non!a.liated# and instructorethnolinguistic identity "Chinese\ Euro!American#[ The covariate was per!ceived physical attractiveness[

A second set of analyses used regression to predict each of those depen!


dent variables[ The predictors in each case were "0# perceived accent\ "1#perceived physical attractiveness\ "2# amount of exposure to internationalinstructors\ "3# generalized attitudes toward international instructors\ "4#perceived race\ and "5# perceived nationality[

RESULTS

Results of six ANCOVAs are summarized in Table 0[ They indicatethat students| perceptions of the instructors| physical attractiveness wasa potent variable "covariate# for judgements of superiority "h1 � [073#\interpersonal attractiveness "h1 � [098#\ dynamism "h1 � [073#\ lecturequality\ "h1 � [944# and teaching competence "h1 � [042#[ In each case thepositive regression coe.cient indicated that the relation was a direct one[

The instructors| attributed nationality was also a powerful factor[ Ita}ected cloze test scores "h1 � [952# as well as ratings of superiority"h1 � [097#\ interpersonal attractiveness "h1 � [986#\ lecture quality"h1 � [985#\ and teaching competence "h1 � [094#[ Inspection of cell meansindicates that in each case\ the Euro!American instructor engendered morepositive reactions than the Chinese instructor[

Greek a.liation did not exert any statistically signi_cant e}ects\ nordid any interaction e}ects emerge[

The results of the regression analyses are summarized in Table 1[ Asit shows\ perceived language standardness was an active predictor[ Itcontributed signi_cantly to ratings of superiority\ lecture quality\ andteaching competence[ In each case the direction of the beta weights indi!cates a directly proportional relation[ Perceived nationality of the instruc!tor "{{American|| versus {{foreign||# was a signi_cant predictor of listeningcomprehension\ dynamism\ and interpersonal attractiveness\ as well asrated lecture quality and teaching competence[ Perceived race of theinstructor "{{Caucasian|| versus {{person of color||# explained signi_cantvariance in rated lecture quality[ Perceived physical attractiveness was apredictor for rated superiority\ and dynamism[ Neither experience withinternational instructors nor generalized attitudes toward internationalinstructors predicted any of the criterion variables in this data set[

A t!test was run to determine whether Greek a.liation impacted upongeneralized attitudes toward international instructors "the QUITA instru!ment#[ The mean score for non!a.liated students "M�71[08# was notstatistically di}erent than for their Greek!a.liated peers "M�67[45#[ Toprobe this _nding of no signi_cant di}erence\ a post!hoc analysis wasconducted wherein Greek!a.liated students were further categorizedaccording to whether they resided in fraternity or sorority houses\ or innon!Greek housing[ The presumption here was that residence in Greekhousing could serve as a stand!in for especially high levels of identi_cationwith Greek organization values[ A test of trend among weighted means

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TABLE 1

Summary of ANCOVA Results for Six Dependent Variables

Source of variation Cloze test Superiority IP attractive Dynamism Lecture quality Teaching competence

Phys attract: F1,91 1.13 19.66*** 10.78** 19.66*** 5.13* 15.93***Beta weight .12 .440 .340 .452 .2391 .397

Nationality F1,91 6.13* 13.40*** 10.60** 1.96 10.01** 12.80**MAmerican 84.60 54.05 43.77 20.00 7.52 12.13MChinese 78.48 52.00 39.81 20.27 5.38 10.30

Affiliation: F1,91 1.29 2.84 .012 1.96 .140 2.61Mnon-Greek 81.98 51.85 42.33 19.79 6.67 11.11Mgreek 79.44 53.18 42.00 20.69 6.67 11.80

Instruc×Affil: F1,91 0.02 0.64 0.22 0.03 1.28 2.08Error: MS 154.03 52.10 61.05 30.53 14.98 11.20

* P ³ .05** P ³ .01*** P ³ .001


TABLE 2

Summary of Stepwise Regressions of Six Criterion Variables

Criterion Beta- R2

Variable Predictor variable(s) weight change F-to-Enter

Superiority Perceived language standardness .459 .210 24.33***Perceived physical attractiveness .199 .036 14.79***

IP attractive Perceived American-like .263 .069 6.75*Dynamism Perceived American-like .467 .217 25.20***

Perceived physical attractiveness .258 .060 17.25***Lecture quality Perceived language standardness .435 .190 21.30***

Perceived Caucasian .196 .038 13.29***Perceived American-like .216 .038 10.75**

Teaching competence Perceived language standardness .384 .148 15.75***Perceived American-like .245 .048 10.99**

Cloze Perceived American-like .230 .053 5.06*

* P ³ .05** P ³ .01*** P ³ .001

yielded a signi_cant linear trend "F0\026 �5[51\ p³ [94#\ and no quadratictrend[ Inspection of cell means indicates an inverse monotonic relationbetween degree of Greek a.liation and QUITA scores "MnonGreek �71[08^MGreek:nonresidents �68[45^ MGreek:residents �64[69#[ This e}fect accounted foronly about 4) of the variance in QUITA scores\ however "h1 � [935#[

DISCUSSION

The increasing numbers of NNSMNAE instructors on U[S[ collegecampuses are confronted by resistance on the part of at least some under!graduates[ Previous research had suggested that some complaints aboutinternational instructors| language and communication skills may beattributable to student stereotypes\ as much as to actual behaviors ofthe instructors[ Findings in the present study largely con_rms that view[Perceptions of the instructors| status\ of their friendliness\ of their teachingcompetence\ and of lecture quality were susceptible to negative stereotypesbased on the instructors| attributed nationality[ Even listening com!prehension "cloze# scores were subject to stereotyped expectations[ Theseexpectations were cued simply by presenting a photograph and an ethn!olinguistic label to students[ These results indicating the potency of themanipulated nationality variable were mirrored in the regression analyses[Here\ individual listener di}erences in perceived {{American!ness|| of theinstructor accounted for signi_cant variance in each of the outcome vari!


ables save one[ Similar e}ects in previous research had found that thesestereotyping e}ects were detectible when the speech stimulus was StandardAmerican English delivered by a female voice "Rubin\ 0881#[ The presentstudy adds generalizability to those _ndings by utilizing a male\ slightlyaccented voice[

It was anticipated that members of Greek letter organizations mightharbor especially negative stereotypes toward NNSMNAE instructors[That is because some previous research "Lottes + Kurilo}\ 0883# associatesGreek!a.liation with socially and politically conservative attitudes "e[g[\xenophobia# and with exclusionary in!group allegiances[ The _ndings herecon_rmed only marginally more negative attitudes\ corresponding withstudents| degree of Greek a.liation\ toward international instructors ingeneral[ However in no case did the results indicate di}erences betweenGreek!a.liates and non!a.liates in evaluating the speci_c instructors orlectures used in this study[ That is to say\ the stereotyping e}ect we foundheld equally for both groups of students[

Generalized attitudes toward international instructors in general\ ifslightly related to degree of Greek a.liation among students\ exerted nodetectable e}ects on more speci_c rating tasks[ This counter!intuitive_nding cautions us to consider that student evaluations of instructors maybe highly contextualized*dependent on such factors as the subject matterof the course:lecture\ the degree of volition in the students| choice to takethe class\ and the like "Oppenheim\ 0885#[ A similar result was found in a_eld study at a northwestern university\ wherein a survey of graduatingseniors yielded poor ratings of international instructors in general\ butthese were not substantiated by end!of!course teacher evaluations "Grove+ Freisem\ 0886#[

It is not surprising that the instructors| physical attractiveness*in theeyes of their students*a}ected those students| judgements veryprofoundly[ Perceived physical attractiveness is a confounding factor inmany interpersonal rating tasks "Eagly\ Ashmore\ Makhijani\ + Longo\0880#[ What may be interesting in the case of multicultural interaction inthe classroom\ however\ is to consider di}ering cultural norms for beauty[There are surely cases in which nonmainstream instructors function underdi}erent standards of physical attractiveness than their mainstream stud!ents[

The _ndings regarding the other powerful predictor of ratings in thisstudy*perceived language standardness*point to the great variabilitywith which native speakers perceive and evaluate NNSMNAE speech[After all\ each participant in this study listened to the same speech sample\one which was only mildly accented[ Each participant\ however\ indi!vidually represented to himself or herself the degree of language stan!dardness of that sample[ They constructed the propriety of the instructors|language to comport with their estimations of his status\ dynamism\ or


competence as a teacher[ This _nding suggests that students| complaintsof poor language and communication skills among their instructors need tobe thoroughly assessed[ The instructional setting\ especially in challengingacademic areas\ is one arena in which listeners are prone to distort[

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Documents

Are greek letter social organizations a factor in Undergraduates perceptions of international instructors?