Chris Benston

Geography of the Polar Regions

A comparison paper on changes of seabird phenology occurring within the Arctic and Antarctic.

I believe the phenology of seabirds is influenced by numerous variables and is subject to changes caused

by variation in environmental factors, such as the physical location and the species of the seabird. The phenology of

seabirds will vary based on if the birds live in the Arctic or the Antarctic regions, as each individual species responds

differently to climate change.

The materials and methods which will be utilized for this paper are the examination of data from previously

conducted studies in the Arctic and the Antarctic. The data for the Antarctic study relates to changes in the phenology

of seabirds and the relationship to climate change. The data set for the Arctic study examines changes in the

hydrology of high Arctic lakes caused by salt water intrusion. At first glance, the connections between these two

subjects may not be readily apparent. However, salt water intrusion is the biggest threat to Arctic seabirds residing in

proximity to the Atlantic Ocean. However, there may be other threats to the survival of seabirds within the Arctic

regions, since the distribution, migration patterns and breeding patterns of several species of these Arctic seabirds is

not widely understood it is difficult to ascertain how climate change will effect these birds.

A total of 64 marine bird species are classified as Arctic species, 20 of the 64 bird species are classified as

circumpolar. This may mean two things these birds either spend part of the year living in Arctic waters or their

breeding grounds are located in the Arctic regions. Circumpolar seabirds can be observed both breeding and living in

the Pacific and Atlantic oceans. Fourteen of these circumpolar seabird species have breeding grounds in the Atlantic

Ocean and twenty-one of these circumpolar seabird species have breeding grounds in the Pacific Ocean. The most

commonly observed Arctic seabird species in the Atlantic Ocean are the Dovekies. The Dovekies are flexible in

regards to their diets and foraging skills, as a result climate change is having little to no effect on their population

dynamics. Unlike other species of seabirds the breeding population is not declining as the climate changes, this is

partially due to their flexibility when it comes to their diets and foraging behaviors. The Common and Thick-billed

Murres are seeing fluctuations in population dynamics on a short term basis.1

1 Kuletz, K.J., and N.J. Karnovsky. "Seabirds." Arctic Report Card. 11 Nov. 2012. Web. 6 Dec. 2015

These changes in population dynamics are due to changes in the sea surface temperature(SST) and the

sea ice extent. These changes observed in population dynamics are synchronous within each basin. These observed

changes in population dynamics will alternate between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. The migration patterns of

these seabirds works to assist with the transport of nutrients to their breeding grounds. However, the seabirds may

also transport contaminates such as mercury to their breeding grounds. 1

In the past decades, a significant warming trend has been found to be occurring within the Arctic Region.

Arctic seabird behavior, phenology, diets, physiology, rates of foraging and survival are found to change in response

to these drastic warming events. The biggest issue facing Arctic seabirds in the Atlantic Ocean is the loss of habitat

caused by climate change and these warming events. As a result of the changing climate many freshwater habitats

are becoming more saline. These observed increases in salinity is caused by increased influxes of saline water

caused by the retreating glacial ice. This saline water has increased levels of salinity and higher temperatures, when

compared to the freshwater it is displacing. The increased levels of salinity in the Atlantic Ocean near Greenland is

having detrimental effects on the copepods

Additional research has shown seabirds breeding in the Arctic are subject to additional challenges caused

by climate change. Many of these challenges are not uniform and tend to be species specific. Such as with the Black

–legged Kittiwakes which spend the winters in the more southern regions of the Arctic. As a result of this the Black-

legged Kittiwakes are being exposed to increasing levels of harmful human based activities such as bycatch from

fishing nets and oil spills. The Dovekies are the most abundant species of seabirds located in the Arctic portion of the

Atlantic Ocean. This species of seabird nest on rocky slopes, upon examination of the data collected from 1963 to

2008 a distinct trend was observed. This data showed an earlier median breeding and hatch dates for this species of

bird. The most plausible theory of why this is taking place would be the snow is melting earlier, which means earlier

availability of potential nesting sites. 1

The research shows the opposite is true for the Black-legged Kittiwakes, these species of seabirds are

showing a minor trend towards breeding later. The potential causes for this is decreases in amount of prey

availability. These decreased amounts of prey are due to the elevated sea surface temperatures (SST) and the

1

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decreased amounts of sea ice. Within the Arctic regions copepods are a key component of the food web for seabirds,

the increased inflows of saline water combined with warmer water temperatures are leading to smaller sized

copepods. These changes in the water chemistry leads to seabirds foraging on smaller species of copepods and

traveling longer distances to obtain their prey. Little to no long-term monitoring has occurred for these changes in the

population dynamics currently being seen among the Arctic seabirds, therefore is difficult to determine what effects

climate change will have on Arctic seabirds. However long-term monitoring data exists for two Arctic seabird species,

the Common and the Thick-billed Murre. These species of birds have abundant populations and are spread

throughout the entire Arctic region. The data showed that the Thick –billed Murre’s breeding colonies increased in

size when the sea surface temperature or SST increased slightly. However, the opposite is true for the Common

Murre, the data showed slight decreases in the sea surface temperature or SST is linked to increased sizes of the

breeding colonies. The data shows extreme changes in the sea surface temperature(SST) in either direction will

negatively influence the population sizes of both species. Another side effect of this decreased ice coverage caused

by glacial retreat is the increased potential for contamination.1

The decreased levels of ice coverage caused by glacial retreat has far reaching consequences for these

Arctic ecosystems. The decreased amounts of ice coverage are leading to bigger waves which can reach further

inland. As a result of this more saline water is being increasingly pushed into the deltas of freshwater rivers. Some of

the consequences of this are increased erosion among the shoreline, transformation and destruction of freshwater

ecosystems due to this intrusion of saline water. A recently conducted study showed after surveying forty miles of

shoreline an average of 6.8 meters retreating shoreline was documented. These extreme changes are caused by

many variables which include increased land exposure to storms, decreased ice coverage and increased levels of

melting permafrost which leads to increased levels of coastal erosion. The increased levels of saline water have the

ability to negatively affect freshwater ecosystems. The increased levels of salt water intrusion have the ability to alter

and influence the food web. In addition, the changes in salinity may lead to freshwater species of seabirds being

outcompeted by species of seabirds which thrive in saline environments. In extreme cases the environment may

become anoxic, which will turn the lake into a dead zone devoid of most life forms.2

11 Kuletz, K.J., and N.J. Karnovsky. "Seabirds." Arctic Report Card. 11 Nov. 2012. Web. 6 Dec. 2011

2 Struzik, Ed. "As Arctic Sea Ice Retreats, Storms Take Toll on the Land." By Ed Struzik: Yale Environment 360. 6 June 2011. Web. 8 Dec. 2015.

As with the Arctic seabird phenology in the Antarctic is being influenced by the changing climatic conditions

as well. There are numerous variables which affect the phenology seabirds in the Antarctic which do not exist within

the Arctic regions. The presence of non-flying seabirds in the Antarctic is a major factor which tends to influence the

phenology of seabirds. As with the Arctic changes in seabird phenology is tied to decreased amounts of prey. The

flying seabirds have the ability to fly longer distances in order to forage for food. However, the non-flying seabirds

have a limited range and cannot travel these longer distances in order to forge for food. This may explain

discrepancy between the data collected on the Arctic and Antarctic seabirds, since no non-flying species of seabirds

such as penguins reside in the Arctic. As with the Arctic sea ice extent (SIE) and sea temperature will affect the

phenology of seabird populations residing in the Antarctic. The lack of prey for seabirds is a major problem for these

birds, the lack of prey is tied to delays in migration and molting. For these reasons seabirds tend to delay these

activities since they require extensive amounts of energy and which means a plentiful food supply is required.

Research has found that changes in these activities will cause seabirds to change their breeding schedules. The

biggest difference among Arctic and Antarctic seabirds were they live and breed. The Arctic seabird species tend to

live and breed in freshwater lakes. The Antarctic seabirds tend to live and breed on the continental ice shelf. These

facts may help to explain the variation among on how climate is influencing seabirds in both the Arctic and

Antarctic.3,4

As the with Arctic, the sea surface temperature is influencing seabird populations in the Antarctic. Any

changes in the sea surface temperature will lead to changes in seabird phenology. The biggest problem caused by

<http://e360.yale.edu/feature/as_arctic_sea_ice_retreats_storms_take_toll_on_the_land/2412/>.

33,4 Constable, Andrew J., Jessica Melbourne-Thomas, Stuart P. Corney, Kevin R. Arrigo, Christophe Barbraud, David K. A. Barnes, Nathaniel L. Bindoff, Philip W. Boyd, Angelika Brandt, Daniel P. Costa, Andrew T. Davidson, Hugh W. Ducklow, Louise Emmerson, Mitsuo Fukuchi, Julian Gutt, Mark A. Hindell, Eileen E. Hofmann, Graham W. Hosie, Takahiro Iida, Sarah Jacob, Nadine M. Johnston, So Kawaguchi, Nobuo Kokubun, Philippe Koubbi, Mary-Anne Lea, Azwianewi Makhado, Rob A. Massom, Klaus Meiners, Michael P. Meredith, Eugene J. Murphy, Stephen Nicol, Keith Reid, Kate Richerson, Martin J. Riddle, Stephen R. Rintoul, Walker O. Smith, Colin Southwell, Jonathon S. Stark, Michael Sumner, Kerrie M. Swadling, Kunio T. Takahashi, Phil N. Trathan, Dirk C. Welsford, Henri Weimerskirch, Karen J. Westwood, Barbara C. Wienecke, Dieter Wolf-Gladrow, Simon W. Wright, Jose C. Xavier, and Philippe Ziegler. "Climate Change and Southern Ocean Ecosystems I: How Changes in Physical Habitats Directly Affect Marine Biota." Glob Change Biol Global Change Biology 20.10 (2014): 3004-025. Web. 10 Oct. 2015Chambers, Lynda E., Peter Dann, Belinda Cannell, and Eric J. Woehler. “Climate as a Driver of Phenological Change in Southern Seabirds." Int J Biometeorol International Journal of Biometeorology 58.4 (2013): 603-12.  October, 5, 2015.

this it puts the seabirds out of sync with their sources of prey.4 Another factor which could explain the differences

among the Antarctic and Arctic seabirds is phenotype plasticity. Phenotype plasticity can be defined as when

different types of phenotypes with the same of genotype react differently based on the environmental conditions.

Phenotype plasticity is influenced by the location and variation different species of seabirds. This could explain

differences in phenology which are seen among the Arctic and Antarctic seabirds.5 However, the biggest influences

of seabird phenology are the life spans and reproductive rates of these birds. Seabirds with lower reproductive tend

to breed only in optimal conditions, as do the seabirds with a longer lifespan. And seabirds with shorter lifespans and

high reproductive rates of are known to breed in less than optimal breeding conditions. The charts seen below are a

comparison of sea birds living the in Arctic and the Antarctic. As one can see there are many species birds found in

the Arctic which are not in the Antarctic. The same can be said for the seabirds living in the Antarctic. The data

presented in these charts provides strong evidence of phenotype plasticity occurring within both the Arctic and

Antarctic regions. (see chart 1 and 2 for more information.) Charts 3 and 4 show the variables which influence the

breeding phenology of two species of Antarctic Seabirds the Emperor penguin and the Snow petrel. As one can see

the Emperor penguin populations will decrease in response to lower levels of sea ice and decreases in the air

temperature during the spring months. The data for the Snow petrels shows changes in the populations dynamics

occurring if the sea ice extent were to decrease in size. In addition, changes in the population dynamics of Snow

Petrels were observed if any of the following changes occurred decreases in the air temperature or the southern

oscillation index.6,76,7 This proves the variables influencing seabird phenology tends to vary greatly both in the Artic

and the Antarctic regions. The final set of charts you are seeing are the comparison of conductivity measurements

taken from a high Arctic lake from the years 1968 and 2006. (See charts number 5 and 6.) The data presented in

44 Chambers, Lynda E., Peter Dann, Belinda Cannell, and Eric J. Woehler. “Climate as a Driver of Phenological Change in Southern Seabirds." Int J Biometeorol International Journal of Biometeorology 58.4 (2013): 603-12. October, 5, 2015.

55 Grémillet, David, and Anne Charmantier. "Shifts in Phenotypic Plasticity Constrain the Value of Seabirds as Ecological Indicators of Marine Ecosystems." Ecological Applications 20.6 (2010): 1498-503.  October 5, 2015.6,76 Jenouvrier, Stephanie, Christophe Barbraud, and Henri Weimerskirch. "Long-Term Contrasted Responses To Climate Of Two Antarctic Seabird Species." Ecology 86.11 (2005): 2889-903. October, 5, 2015.

7 Jenouvrier, S., H. Weimerskirch, C. Barbraud, Y.-H. Park, and B. Cazelles. "Evidence of a Shift in the Cyclicity of Antarctic Seabird Dynamics Linked to Climate." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 272.1566 (2005): 887-95.  October 5, 2015.

these charts indicates certain layers of the lake are becoming more saline while other layers are becoming less

saline. It is impossible to get a baseline by comparing the 1968 and 2006 sets of data since many of the variables

which were examined in 2006 were not examined in 1968.8 Based on the data in this paper we can conclude that

climate change is having adverse effects on seabird populations both in the Arctic and Antarctic regions. However,

since changes in seabird phenology is highly variable and influenced by species and location it is impossible to

determine how each species will react to climate change. Before any conclusions on how climate change is

influencing the phenology of seabirds on global scale can be made further research is necessary and a long-term

monitoring program should be established before coming to any conclusions.

Antarctic Seabirds

Adelie Penguins

African Penguins

Antarctic Petrel

Antarctic petrel

Antarctic Prion

Antarctic prion

Antarctic Seabirds

Antarctic shag

Antarctic Skua

Antarctic tern

Black -bellied Storm Petrel

Black-browned Albatross

Blue Petrel88 Holm, Trine Marianne, Karin A. Koinig, Tom Andersen, Espen Donali, Anne Hormes, Dag Klaveness, and Roland Psenner. "Rapid Physicochemical Changes in the High Arctic Lake Kongressvatn Caused by Recent Climate Change." Aquatic Sciences Aquat Sci (2011): 385-95. Print.

Broad -billed prion

Brown Skua

Brush-tailed Penguin

Cape Petrels

Chin-strap Penguin

Common diving Petrel

Diving Petrel

Emperor Penguin

Fairy Prion

Fiordland Penguin

Fulmar prion

Galapagos Penguins

Gentoo Penguin

Gray backed- Storm Petrel

Gray Duck

Gray headed Albatross

Gray petrel

Great Shearwater

Great -winged petrel

Grey-headed albatross

Humboldt Penguin

Imperial Shag

Kelp Gulls

Kerguelen petrel

Kerguelen pintail

Kerguelen shag

Kerguelen tern

King Penguin

Lesser-shealth bill

Light-mantled sooty albatross

Little Penguin

Little Shearwater

Mottled petrel

Narrow-billed Prion

Northern Giant Petrel

Rockhopper Penguin

Royal Penguin

Royal Albatross

Snow petrel

Snowy-sheathbill

Soft-plumaged petrel

Sooty Albatross

Sooty Shearwater

South Georgia diving petrel

Southern Fulmars

Southern Giant Petrel

South-polar Skua

Speckled Teal

Wandering albatross

White -capped Albatross

White -chinned petrel

White- faced Storm Petrel

White faced Albatross

White-capped albatross

White-headed petrel

Wilson's Storm Petrel

Yellow nose Albatross

Yellow-billed Pintail

Yellow-eyed Penguins

Yellow-nosed albatrossChart 1

9 McGonigal, David, and Lynn Woodworth. The Complete Encyclopedia Antarctica and the Arctic. Willowdale, Ont.: Firefly, 2001. Print

Arctic SeabirdsArctic RedpollArctic SeabirdsArctic TernAtlantic PuffinsBlacked -legged KittiwakeCommon GuillemotsCommon MurreCommon RedpollGlaucous GullHorned PuffinsIvory GullLapland BuntingLong-tailed SkuaNorthern FulmarNorthern GannetsRazor GillsRed -Throated DiversRed-necked PhalaropeSnow BuntingThick -billed Murres

Tufted Puffins

Chart 2

1010

1010 McGonigal, David, and Lynn Woodworth. The Complete Encyclopedia Antarctica and the Arctic. Willowdale, Ont.: Firefly, 2001. Print.

-0.8

-0.6

-0.4

-0.2

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

The breeding of Emperior Penguins and The Associated Envi-ronmental Variables

Emperor Penguin N(number of breeding pairs)Emperor Penguin BS (Breeding Success)Emperor Penguin So ( Survival during the first year at sea)Emperor Penguin Pb( Proportion of breeders)Emperor Penguin Pb+6 (Proportion of birds attempting to bird for first time)

Chart 36

66 Jenouvrier, Stephanie, Christophe Barbraud, and Henri Weimerskirch. "Long-Term Contrasted Responses To Climate Of Two Antarctic Seabird Species." Ecology 86.11 (2005): 2889-903. October, 5, 2015

Sea Ice Conce

ntration(SIC)

Summer

Autumn

Winter

Spring

Sea Ice Exte

nt(SIE)

Summer

Autumn

Winter

Spring

Air Temperature (T

)

Summer

Autumn

Winter

Spring

SOI(Southern O

scilla

tion Index)

-1

-0.8

-0.6

-0.4

-0.2

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

The Breeding of Snow Petrels and The Associated Environmental Variables

Snow Petrel N(number of breeding pairs)Snow Petrel BS (Breeding Success)Snow Petrel So ( Survival during the first year at sea)Snow Petrel Pb( Proportion of breeders)Snow Petrel Pb+6 (Proportion of birds attempting to bird for first time)

Chart 46

66 Jenouvrier, Stephanie, Christophe Barbraud, and Henri Weimerskirch. "Long-Term Contrasted Responses To Climate Of Two Antarctic Seabird Species." Ecology 86.11 (2005): 2889-903. October, 5, 2015

Mixolimnion Monimolimnion Kongressvatn springs

Outflow0

200400600800

100012001400160018002000

Conductivity(us cm-1 25 at Degrees Celsius 1968)

Chart 58

Epilimnion

Mixolim

nion

Monimolim

nion

Outflow 1

Outflow 2

Outflow 3

Inflow 1

Inflow 2

Inflow 3

Kongressvatn sp

ring

Linnedalen sp

ring 1

Linnedalen sp

ring 2

Linnedalen sp

ring 3

0200400600800

100012001400160018002000

Conductivity(us cm-1 25 at Degrees Celsius 2006)

Chart 68

88 Holm, Trine Marianne, Karin A. Koinig, Tom Andersen, Espen Donali, Anne Hormes, Dag Klaveness, and Roland Psenner. "Rapid Physicochemical Changes in the High Arctic Lake Kongressvatn Caused by Recent Climate Change." Aquatic Sciences Aquat Sci (2011): 385-95. Print.

88 Holm, Trine Marianne, Karin A. Koinig, Tom Andersen, Espen Donali, Anne Hormes, Dag Klaveness, and Roland Psenner. "Rapid Physicochemical Changes in the High Arctic Lake Kongressvatn Caused by Recent Climate Change." Aquatic Sciences Aquat Sci (2011): 385-95. Print.

Bibliography

Holm, Trine Marianne, Karin A. Koinig, Tom Andersen, Espen Donali, Anne Hormes, Dag Klaveness, and Roland

Psenner. "Rapid Physicochemical Changes in the High Arctic Lake Kongressvatn Caused by Recent Climate Change." Aquatic

Sciences Aquat Sci (2011): 385-95. Print.

Jenouvrier, Stephanie, Christophe Barbraud, and Henri Weimerskirch. "Long-Term Contrasted Responses to Climate of Two

Antarctic Seabird Species." Ecology 86.11 (2005): 2889-903. October, 5, 2015

McGonigal, David, and Lynn Woodworth. The Complete Encyclopedia Antarctica and the Arctic. Willowdale, Ont.: Firefly, 2001.

Print.

Jenouvrier, S., H. Weimerskirch, C. Barbraud, Y.-H. Park, and B. Cazelles. "Evidence of a Shift in the Cyclicity of Antarctic Seabird Dynamics Linked to Climate." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 272.1566 (2005): 887-95. October 5, 2015. Grémillet, David, and Anne Charmantier. "Shifts in Phenotypic Plasticity Constrain the Value of Seabirds as Ecological Indicators

of Marine Ecosystems." Ecological Applications 20.6 (2010): 1498-503. October 5, 2015.

Chambers, Lynda E., Peter Dann, Belinda Cannell, and Eric J. Woehler. “Climate as a Driver of Phenological Change in

Southern Seabirds." Int J Biometeorol International Journal of Biometeorology 58.4 (2013): 603-12. October, 5, 2015.

Constable, Andrew J., Jessica Melbourne-Thomas, Stuart P. Corney, Kevin R. Arrigo, Christophe Barbraud, David K. A. Barnes, Nathaniel L. Bindoff, Philip W. Boyd, Angelika Brandt, Daniel P. Costa, Andrew T. Davidson, Hugh W. Ducklow, Louise Emmerson, Mitsuo Fukuchi, Julian Gutt, Mark A. Hindell, Eileen E. Hofmann, Graham W. Hosie, Takahiro Iida, Sarah Jacob, Nadine M. Johnston, So Kawaguchi, Nobuo Kokubun, Philippe Koubbi, Mary-Anne Lea, Azwianewi Makhado, Rob A. Massom, Klaus Meiners, Michael P. Meredith, Eugene J. Murphy, Stephen Nicol, Keith Reid, Kate Richerson, Martin J. Riddle, Stephen R. Rintoul, Walker O. Smith, Colin Southwell, Jonathon S. Stark, Michael Sumner, Kerrie M. Swadling, Kunio T. Takahashi, Phil N. Trathan, Dirk C. Welsford, Henri Weimerskirch, Karen J. Westwood, Barbara C. Wienecke, Dieter Wolf-Gladrow, Simon W. Wright, Jose C. Xavier, and Philippe Ziegler. "Climate Change and Southern Ocean Ecosystems I: How Changes in Physical Habitats Directly Affect Marine Biota." Glob Change Biol Global Change Biology 20.10 (2014): 3004-025. Web. 10 Oct. 2015Chambers, Lynda E., Peter Dann, Belinda Cannell, and Eric J. Woehler. “Climate as a Driver of Phenological Change in Southern Seabirds." Int J Biometeorol International Journal of Biometeorology 58.4 (2013): 603-12. October, 5, 2015.

Struzik, Ed. "As Arctic Sea Ice Retreats, Storms Take Toll on the Land." By Ed Struzik: Yale Environment 360. 6 June 2011.

Web. 8 Dec. 2015. <http://e360.yale.edu/feature/as_arctic_sea_ice_retreats_storms_take_toll_on_the_land/2412/>.

Kuletz, K.J., and N.J. Karnovsky. "Seabirds." Arctic Report Card. 11 Nov. 2012. Web. 6 Dec. 2015