Arctic Strategies and Policies:an overview

Dr. Lassi HeininenUniversity of Lapland, Finland

Northern Research Forum

The early-21st century Arctic• A peaceful region with high stability based on a wide

intergovernmental and regional cooperation• No conflicts, but disputes on maritime borders and

asymmetric environmental conflicts • Major challenges e.g. climate change and long-range

air and water pollution, and globalization• Legally and politically divided by national borders

and internal waters (of the Arctic states)• Major military structures (nuclear weapon systems)

and capability for national defence are still there• Importance of national interests

The early-21st century Arctic continues..

• A significant multifunctional - environmental, geoeconomic and geopolitical - change has occurred

• E.g. growing global interest toward the region and its rich natural resources

• E.g. a manifold growth in the geo-strategic importance of the region

• Among indicators of the change climate change, energy security, sovereignty (Ilulissat meeting), globalization

• This is taken as a reality, threat or challenge

The Arctic States

• The role and position of the Arctic states was changed due to the first geopolitical change – the A8+ was defined

• The five littoral states with their ministerial ad hoc meetings – the A5 was defined - and the Arctic redefined?

• A state still the most important actor in the Arctic, but ..• .. there are new actors (with their interests) and challenges as

well as threats• The states emphasize the importance of the AC but have their

own interests, agendas, priorities and policies • An example of this is that the states have recently accepted

their arctic/northern strategy/policy--- The post-Cold War period is over!?

Canada• The Northern Strategy ´Our North, Our Heritage, Our

Future´ (July 2009) (first of all) for domestic policy and audience

• Followed by ´Statement on Canada´s Arctic Foreign Policy´ (August 2010) to promote the Strategy and serve “Government´s Arctic foreign policy”

• Priority areas of the Strategy are:– Exercising Canada’s Arctic sovereignty– Promoting social & economic development– Protecting the North´s environmental heritage– Improving and devolving Northern governance

Interesting findings• The North is central to Canada´s national identity, and

said to be “first about people”, but peoples are not among the priorities

• Canada´s Arctic (maritime) sovereignty is the “...number one Arctic Foreign Policy Priority”, and sovereignty over its Arctic lands and waters is “undisputed”

• Canada will continue to be a global leader in Arctic science

• Economic develop as high priority and shall include indigenous participation in relevant processes

• The Strategy reflects a vision about, and for, the North in the context of the entire country

Kingdom of Denmark• Join draft strategy of Denmark and Greenland (May 2008) with

the twofold goal- to support and strengthen Greenland's development towards increased autonomy- to maintain the Kingdom's position as a major player in the Arctic

• Kingdom of Denmark’s Strategy for the Arctic 2011-2020 (August 2011)

• Its strategic priority is to maintain a peaceful, secure and safe Arctic- with self-sustaining growth and development - with respect for the Arctic’s fragile climate, environment and nature- in close cooperation with international partners

Interesting findings• The (first) joint strategy by Denmark and Greenland indicates

and emphasizes Greenland’s stronger self-government and its new jurisdictional position

• The final strategy also covers the Faroe Islands and aims “to strengthen the Kingdom’s status as global player in the Arctic”

• Has a world-wide, global perspective• Great emphasis on (new) industrial activities, such as

fisheries, hydropower, mining, tourism and oil exploration, and tries to attract industries to come and invest

• Identification of connection between climate change and increases accessibility for exploration

• Importance of the Ilulissat “Polar Sea Conference” • Criticism of the AC as having been “unable to play so

prominent role on sustainable development in the Arctic”

Finland

• ‘Strategy for the Arctic Region’, adopted by Finish Cabinet Committee on European Union (June 2010)

• The main substantial sectors of the Strategy: – The environment – Economic activities and know-how – Transportation and infrastructure – Indigenous peoples

• Plus, a list of means for to reach these Arctic policy goals, and a chapter on the EU and the Arctic region

Interesting findings• Comprehensive and with wide perspective• Emphasizes the Arctic as a stable and peaceful area• Recognizes the special features and risks of the fragile arctic

ecosystem; supports research as a basis for decision-making• Highest priorities of the Strategy appear to be economic

interests, such as marine traffic and infrastructure• --- Is there a contradiction?• Supports indigenous participation in international

cooperation (no ratification of ILO 169 Convention)• Emphasizes the importance of the multilateral northern

cooperation, and supports the AC as the main forum..• .. and the role (and importance) of the EU in the Arctic region

Iceland• ‘Iceland in the High North’ by the Icelandic MFA

(September 2009) with six highlights: – International cooperation– Security through international cooperation– Resource development and environ protection– Transportation– People and cultures– International coop on research and monitoring

• ‘Parliamentary Resolution on Iceland’s Arctic Policy’ approved by the Parliament (March 2011) with twelve principles

Interesting findings• No emphasis on sovereignty, but rather on international,

multilateral and regional cooperation • Stability and security as well as maritime safety through

international and scientific cooperation• Emphasis on the importance of resource development, incl.

renewable energy and fishing industry; less emphasis on environmental protection

• One of the principles asks “to prevent human-induced climate change and its effects”

• Visions and strong expectations of global trans-arctic shipping routes, and aviation – a potential trans-shipment hub

• Emphasis on inter coop on research and higher education• Iceland located “entirely within the Arctic region” and thus is

included the Arctic Ocean – “to side firmly against the so-called five (litoral) states meeting”

Norway• ’The Norwegian Government`s High North Strategy’ (December

2006) and its follow-up strategy ’New Building Blocks in the North’ (March 2009)

• Seven revised strategic priorities of Norway’s Strategy: – to develop knowledge about climate change and the

environment– to improve monitoring, emergency response and maritime

safety in northern waters– to promote sustainable use of off-shore petroleum and

renewable marine resources– to promote off-shore business development in the North– to further-develop the infrastructure in the North– to continue to exercise sovereignty firmly and strengthen cross-

border cooperation (with Russia) in the North– to safeguard the cultures and livelihoods of indigenous peoples

Interesting findings• Unusally comprehensive and integrated into long-term Norwegian policy in

the North – growing recognition of its importance for Norway• The follow-up strategy: the High North as one of the most important

priorities of the Norwegian Government• The term ‘the High North’ is used (stubbornly) as a broad concept• The Strategy is built on the perception that the main feature of the arctic

geopolitics is stability and peaceful cooperation, not a ‘race’• Concrete proposals for the building of a partnership with Russia in the BEAR

and a strong call for active engagement of Russian cooperation• Consequently, Norway defines the importance of regional coop and

business development in foreign and security policy in terms of comprehensive security, economic growth and knowledge-building

• The High North is a “new petroleum province” and Norway “the best steward of resources” – strong emphasis on management and utilisation of marine resources, in cooperation with Russia

• Identifies both energy and climate change as security issues• Emphasis on strengthening Norwegian state sovereignty in the High North

Russia• ‘The Fundamentals of State Policy of the Russian Federation in the Arctic in the

Period up to 2020 and Beyond’ adopted by President D. Medvedev (September 2008)

• The strategy priorities are: – active interaction of Russia with sub-Arctic states in regards to delimitation of

maritime areas on the basis of international law and mutual arrangements– creating a uniform Arctic search and rescue regime– strengthening of bilateral relationships within regional organizations (AC and

BEAC)– assistance in management and effective use of cross-polar air routes and the

NSR for international navigation– contributions to international Arctic forums through the Russia-EU partnerships– delimitation of maritime spaces in the Arctic Ocean and maintenance of a

mutually advantageous presence of Russia in the Spitsbergen archipelago– improvement of state management of the social and economic development– improvement of the quality of life for indigenous peoples– development of the Arctic resource base through improved technology– modernization and development of Russia’s Arctic infrastructure

Interesting findings• Comprehensive state policy for Russia´s Arctic zone and the entire region• Reflects the basic national interest:

– using the Arctic resources as strategic resource base providing a solution to problems of social and economic development

– maintaining the region as a “zone of peace and cooperation” as well as “the sphere of military security”

– preserving unique ecological systems– using the NSR as a national single transport communication of Russia

in the Arctic• This new Arctic state policy is keenly linked with and supported by other

federal policies and strategies• It is possible to interpret the Policy as a pragmatic means for domestic

politics and development of the Federation, esp. in terms of Russia´s infrastructural challenges

Sweden

• ‘Sweden’s Strategy for policy in the Arctic Region’ (Sveriges strategi för den arktiska regionen), adopted by the Swedish Government (May 2011)

• The three areas, which are defined as the priorities: - Climate and the environment- Economic development- The human dimension

Interesting findings• Adopted and launched at the same day, when Sweden started

its chairmanship of the AC• Shows, even emphasizes, many ties which connect, have

connected, Sweden to the Arctic• Among the three priorities economic development and

interests, such as mining, petroleum, tourism, is the most rich and multifunctional, even some sort of top, priority of the Strategy

• Also climate and the environment, and ‘resilience’• The Strategy also clearly states that multilateral cooperation

in, and dealing with, the Arctic is the main priority for Sweden- this is much along the tradition of Sweden’s foreign policy

The United States• The US ’Arctic Region Policy’ by the President Bush’s

Administration (January 2009)

• Interpreted objectives of the United States’ Arctic Policy:– National security and homeland security interests in the Arctic– International governance, largely through the AC– Boundary issues including extended continental shelf– Promotion of international scientific cooperation – Maritime transportation (incl. maritime safety and

environmental protection)– Economic development, particularly energy– Environmental protection and conservation

Interesting findings• Strong emphasis of national and homeland security and borders,

for “to project sea power throughout the region”• Supports and proposes the US ratification of the Law of the Sea

Convention• High priority to international governance in the context of the AC,

as well as continued cooperation with other countries• High priority to scientific research, esp. international scientific

cooperation, and the White House takes the responsibility• The US shall continue to cooperate on Arctic issues through the UN

and its agencies as well as int. treaties (e.g. UNFCCC)• the USA is identified as “an Arctic nation, with varied and

compelling interests in that region”

European Union

• The European Union’s ‘Commission’s Communication on the Arctic Region’ was launched in November 2008

• It was followed by the European Council’s Conclusions on Arctic issues (March and December 2009)

• The main policy objectives of the Communication are:– Protecting and preserving the Arctic environment and its

population– Promoting sustainable use of resources– Contributing to enhanced Arctic multilateral governance

Interesting findings• The main message is that the Union has growing interest in

the High North and would like to become (again) present in, and implement its interests within, the region

• Indications that the EU is going to create its own arctic policy, and this is done via this ‘emerging’ policy

• The three main policy objectives indicate that the EU would like to emphasize its ‘soft’ values and policy in the region

• These can be interpreted to represent EU’s new geopolitical discourse with an aim to enter the North for to control

• The ND policy plays a weak role in the Communication• The EU is seen as “inextricably linked to the Arctic region”:

this is perceived as weakening the Union – there is real need for strengthening the Union’s position and presence there

The Arctic / the North defined by each strategy

– Canada: “Own North” is Canada’s far North, and “Canada’s North is about people”

– Denmark: “The Arctic in recent years become a central location on the world map”

– Finland: Can be defined by several ways (e.g. the Arctic Circle)

– Iceland: The country is located “on the periphery of the Arctic in the center of the North Atlantic Ocean”

– Norway: Means more or less the Barents Sea region, and “the High North has been placed firmly on the map of Europe”

– Russia: Is defined as consisting of the five littoral states of the Arctic Ocean

– Sweden: There are several definitions of the Arctic– USA: The Arctic is with ”a matrix of issues”

Self-identification and (re)definition as an Arctic / Northern country / state

– Canada: “the global leader in Arctic science; “The North is central to the Canadian national identity”

– Denmark: “to strengthen the Kingdom’s status as global player in the Arctic”

– Finland: as an “Arctic country is a natural actor in the Arctic region”

– Iceland: “the only country located entirely within the Arctic region”

– Norway: “the High North is gradually becoming more synonymous with the Arctic”…“a Norwegian perspective”

– Russia: to “maintain the role of a leading Arctic power”– Sweden: “there are many connections to tie Sweden to the

Arctic” – USA: an “Arctic nation”

Arctic states: main priorities / objectives

Sov/S Econ/ Trans Envir Gov Peo/ ScienCan x x+x x x xDen x x+x x x/xFin /x x+x x x x /x xIce /x x x x x+x x x Nor x x+x x x+x /x xRus x x+x x x+x /x xSwe x x x x/xUSA x x x x x x

(Heininen, Arctic Strategies and Policies: Inventory and Comparative Study, 2011)

Arctic states: summary of the priorities

- Sovereignty and national defence: Five littoral states- Comprehensive security: Finland, Iceland, Sweden- Economic development: All the strategies- Regional development and infra: Most of the strategies- Transportation: Finland, Iceland, Russia, USA

-- Aviation: Iceland and Russia - Environment: Almost all the strategies- Governance: All the strategies

-- Safety/Rescue: Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia

– Peoples/Indigenous peoples: Most of the strategies– Science/Scientific coop: Most of the strategies

Reflection/response to the change(s)

• Canada: yes• Kingdom of Denmark: yes and no (self-governing)• Finland: yes• Iceland: yes• Norway: not really (Russia)• Russia: no (pragmatic means for domestic policy)• Sweden: yes• USA: yes-- Global perspective: Denmark and Finland