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Approaching Translation. Theoretical and Practical Issues ONE: SETTING THE GROUND

Approaching Translation. Theoretical and Practical Issues

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Page 1: Approaching Translation. Theoretical and Practical Issues

Approaching Translation.Theoretical and Practical Issues

ONE: SETTING THE GROUND

Page 2: Approaching Translation. Theoretical and Practical Issues

TRANSLATION AS

PROCESS (ST into TT – carrying across)

PRODUCT: TT

CONCEPT: theorization + empirical studies

Page 3: Approaching Translation. Theoretical and Practical Issues

SCIENCE OR SECONDARY ACTIVITY?TRANSLATION STUDIES (TRANSLATION THEORY) is NOT about providing norms for the “perfect” translation

Label given by J.S.HOLMES (1972) “The Name and Nature of Translation Studies”:– Pure TS (descriptive study of translated texts + theories)– Applied TS (translator training, tools and criticism)

G. TOURY, Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond (1995)• Two tentative “laws”

growing standardization = TT less linguistic variation than ST interference: lexis and syntactical patterns of SL transported into

TT (unusual TL)

Page 4: Approaching Translation. Theoretical and Practical Issues

BAKER: translation analysis through corpus linguisticsCorpora of parallel and comparable texts

UNIVERSALS OF TRANSLATION:

Explicitation: disambiguation, addition of functional words, more specific terms, addition of conjunctions, etc. (he took her keys; a man was shot last night; they waved)

Simplification: general terms i/o specific ones, omission of modifiers, shorter sentences

Normalization: tendency to exaggerate certain features of the target language. (repetition, shorter/longer sentences)

Levelling out: reduce linguistic variation

(TT “more standard” than usual) DISAGREEMENT AMONG SCHOLARS

Page 5: Approaching Translation. Theoretical and Practical Issues

TRANSLATION ASEQUIVALENCE:

some linguistic-oriented translation theories of the 20th century

Page 6: Approaching Translation. Theoretical and Practical Issues

Word as UNIT OF TRANSLATIONvariously related to Saussure's notions of

•SIGNIFIER/SIGNIFIED•LANGUE/PAROLE

culture-bound culture + context-bound

frequent lack of one-to-one matching pairs between languages + possible differences in categorizing/describing the world,

e.g. Era circondato dai suoi nipoti.He was surrounded by his grandchildren“ “ “ grandsons“ “ “ nephews“ “ “ nephews

and nieces

Page 7: Approaching Translation. Theoretical and Practical Issues

COMPONENTIAL ANALYSIS

“A technique of semantic analysis that examines the basic meaning components of a word and allows contrast with other terms in the same semantic field” (Katan 2004: 38)

based on binary opposition BACHELOR = + human + male, - married

generally valid, but contextualized instances need to be considered (e.g., the Pope)

Co-text + context necessary to better define meaning.

Page 8: Approaching Translation. Theoretical and Practical Issues

R. JAKOBSON, “On Linguistic Aspects of Translation”, (1959)1) INTRALINGUAL T. (rewording) interpretation of verbal signs via other signs > same

language

2) INTERLINGUAL T. (translation proper) interpretation of verbal signs through other signs > other language

3) INTERSEMIOTIC T. (transmutation) interpretation of verbal signs through signs of nonverbal sign

system > > other code

PROBLEM: NO FULL EQUIVALENCE BETWEEN CODE UNITS.POETRY: untranslatable (only CREATIVE TRANSPOSITION)

Page 9: Approaching Translation. Theoretical and Practical Issues

Jakobson, “On Linguistic Aspects of Translation”

(equivalence in difference)In interlinguistic translation full equivalence between code-

units = exception, not ruleBUT

“all cognitive experience and its classification is conveyable in any existing language” (1959: 238)

GAPS in lexis can be filled (paraphrase)

non-matching syntax more complex (syntax resists innovation and circumlocution, and it's about aspects of experience that must be expressed in a language

“Languages differ essentially in what they must convey and not in what they may convey”

Page 10: Approaching Translation. Theoretical and Practical Issues

“She has brothers” (Jakobson)

If translated into a language that differentiates between dual and plural forms >

“she has either two or more that two brothers”

overtranslation/hypertranslation > is it necessary?So > “substitute messages in one language not for separate code-

units but for entire messages in some other language” (1959: 233)

Translation = two equivalent messages in two different codesHence, equivalence is impossible > emphasis on adequate

interpretation > equivalence in difference

Page 11: Approaching Translation. Theoretical and Practical Issues

Vinay and Darbelnet (1954): pursuing equivalence through comparative stylistics

One source text > many target texts = insufficient analysis of the circumstances of translation

Taxonomy of language items FR/EN, in order “to examine how the constituent parts of a system function when they render ideas expressed in the other language”

A Methodology for Translation:

Direct translation (literal translation possible)Oblique translation (changes in syntax or lexis needed)

Page 12: Approaching Translation. Theoretical and Practical Issues

DIRECT TRANSLATION

BORROWING: foreign word enters TT(muffin, wi-fi, governance, pizza, opera, mafia, etc.)CALQUE: literal rendering of lexical item or structure(politicamente corretto; realizzare; dannato)LITERAL TRANSLATION: direct transfer of ST into

grammatically and idiomatically appropriate TT; adherence (full sentence, not just single item).

(Fairly frequent in technical texts; careful not to allow the familiarity with EN to interfere with IT)

Page 13: Approaching Translation. Theoretical and Practical Issues

OBLIQUE TRANSLATION (1)

TRANSPOSITION: change in word class without changing the meaning

(Non tollereremo più i Suoi ritardi > Your being late will no longer be tolerated; this is a writer who uses

language in beautifully surprising ways >....)Sometimes inevitable, sometimes a choice

BUT: resulting text may have different effect:e.g. More verbs > more dynamic sense of progression of the text;

more nouns > more reflective, static or abstract character; Plus: agency > nominalization may delete subjects, hence

responsibility

Page 14: Approaching Translation. Theoretical and Practical Issues

OBLIQUE TRANSLATION (2)MODULATION: a variation of the form of the message through a

change in the point of view

Inevitable > I like coffee > Mi piace il caffè.Optional: It is not easy > Non è facile (è difficile)

BUT: “difficile” implies “non facile”

“non facile” does not imply “difficile” He was fired > E' stato licenziato (result)

(l'hanno licenziato) (action)

EQUIVALENCE: replacing a SL statement with a TL statement referring to same situation or expressing same idea, even without formal/semantic correspondence

Yours faithfully; the straw that broke the camel's back.

Page 15: Approaching Translation. Theoretical and Practical Issues

OBLIQUE TRANSLATION (3)

ADAPTATION: extreme limit = bridging the gapTrying to reproduce analogous situation in TT by resorting to

something that – although not strictly present in the ST – can produce the same effect in the target culture. (Nida's seal i/o lamb; film dubbing)

Not so frequent now due to globalization + new media; also frowned upon because domineering, appropriating, homogenizing otherness; potentially artificial

Page 16: Approaching Translation. Theoretical and Practical Issues

NIDA AND TABER: equivalent effect• Indebted to Chomsky's generative-transformational grammar

(deep structure made of x number of kernel sentences – simple, active, declarative – changed through transformational rules into various other forms > surface structure.

• Dissatisfied with literalism > reader's response• Functional definition of meaning: a word acquires meaning in

context + can produce different responses in different cultures

REFERENTIAL MEANING / EMOTIVE MEANING

(denotation) (connotation)

Page 17: Approaching Translation. Theoretical and Practical Issues

NIDA'S MODEL OF THE TRANSLATION PROCESS

SOURCE LANGUAGE RECEPTOR LANGUAGE TEXT TRANSLATION

ANALYSIS RESTRUCTURING

TRANSFER

EN: yes IT: sì DE: ja, doch

(see example: butter/burro; buon appetito)

Page 18: Approaching Translation. Theoretical and Practical Issues

E. NIDA: Toward a Science of Translation, 1964

Scientific approach to meaning (linguistic, referential, emotive)

“FORMAL correspondence focuses attention on the message itself, in both form and content […] One is concerned that the message in the receptor language should match as closely as possible the different elements in the source language.”

• (oriented toward ST structure)

DYNAMIC equivalence is based on 'the principle of equivalent effect' “the relationship between receptor and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and the message.”

(adaptations of grammar, lexis and cultural references)

Page 19: Approaching Translation. Theoretical and Practical Issues

Nida's notion of equivalenceFORMAL CORRESPONDENCE:TT strongly oriented towards ST syntax and lexis (accuracy +

possible footnotes/glosses)It may distort syntax + style patterns of TL, which may distort

message or create hard work for the readerDYNAMIC EQUIVALENCE: equivalent effect on receptor. Form may change, but contextual

consistency is preserved (lamb/seal)

A translation should: make sense; convey the spirit and the manner of the original; have a natural and easy form produce similar receptor's response

Page 20: Approaching Translation. Theoretical and Practical Issues

Nida's techniques to assist translators in disambiguation

HIERARCHICAL STRUCTURING: differentiate according to levels, i.e. superordinate – hyponym)

COMPONENTIAL ANALYSIS: identify features through binary opposition (+/-)

SEMANTIC STRUCTURE ANALYSIS: visual mapping of polysemous words (e.g. Spirit), according to their characteristics (human/non-human; good/bad; abstract/concrete...)

Page 21: Approaching Translation. Theoretical and Practical Issues
Page 22: Approaching Translation. Theoretical and Practical Issues

NIDA in a nutshell

Word-for-word equivalence > downsized

Receptor's response > highlighted

Criticism: can effect be measured? who is the receptor?

far-away cultures and/or remote times? receptor's response important for proselytizing >

ethics?

Page 23: Approaching Translation. Theoretical and Practical Issues

KADE (1968)

Total equivalence: fully identical pairs (technical terminology, e.g. cell migration = migrazione cellulare)

Optional equivalence: one-to-several correspondence (e.g. stufa = storage heater, stove, heater; wall = muro – parete – muraglia)

Approximate equivalence: one-to-part-to-one correspondence (e.g. nuts; nipote)

Zero equivalence: culture-specific items, or new inventions temporarily existing in one L only

(Classification originally meant for specialized languages. Hardly tenable for general L.)

Page 24: Approaching Translation. Theoretical and Practical Issues

KOLLER (1979)Germany: interest in 'science' of translationKoller (1979): difference betweenCORRESPONDENCE EQUIVALENCErelated to contrastive linguistics

(comparing two language systems)

Langue (Saussure) parole

false friends, verb tenses, signs of equivalent items in specificlexical, morphological, syntactic ST-TT pairs and their contextsinterference

knowledge of correspondences mastering equivalences

Competence in foreign language competence in translation

Page 25: Approaching Translation. Theoretical and Practical Issues

Koller's equivalence5 TYPES of equivalence:

1) DENOTATIVE E. : related to equivalence of extralinguistic content of a T (content invariance – real world)

2) CONNOTATIVE E. : related to lexical choices, esp. between near-synonyms – formality, social usage, regional variation etc.)

3) TEXT-NORMATIVE E. : related to text types and their conventions (see Reiss pp. 29-30)

4) PRAGMATIC E. : oriented toward receiver (also communicative e. or Nida's dynamic e.)

5) FORMAL E. : related to form + aesthetics of T, e.g. word play + single stylistic features of ST (expressive e. - reproduced or re-created)

Equivalences need to be hierarchically ordered according to communicative situation (how? Open to debate) > pragmatic differences between cultures.