Anatomy and Physiology

Unit 1 - Organization

I. Course Overview A. Semester 2 Policy

handout. B. System approach -

Form (anatomy) and function (physiology).

1. Greek and Latin inclusion.

a. The various disciplines of science are named with words of various Greek and Latin origin.

1) Biology - The study of Life. Including Zoology and Botany.

2) Morphology - The study of form and structure. (could be life or non)

a) Anatomy - generally referring to organisms

i. Macroanatomy - macro = large (see with naked eye)

ii. Histology = study of tissues

iii. cytology = study of cells

3) Physiology - The study of function

4) Others: Biochemistry, psychology, pathology (study of disease) Genetics (beginnings i.e., Genesis).

b. System-specific word lists.

2. Function and Form are interrelated.

3. The body systems: skeletal, muscular, nervous, digestive, respiratory, circulatory (including immune), urinary, reproductive (or urogenital), endocrine, integumentary.

See Table 1-2, page 9 Organ Systems

 a. We will look

at most if not all of these "systems" but may combine a few and call it one "system".

II. The Plan of the Human Body

A. Structural organization

1. Cells: specialization

2. Tissues.- Four typesa. Epithelial -

covers and protects surfaces

b. Connective - joins various parts and provides support.

c. Muscular - allows movement

d. Nervous - responds to stimuli and cordinates bodily activity.

3. Organs and organ systems

4. OrganismB. Anatomical

reference systems1. Direction

a. anterior (ventral)/posterior(dorsal)

b. superior (cranial)/inferior (caudal)

c. medial/lateral reference to midline of the body

d. proximal/distalreference to the point of attachment

e. parietal/visceral parietal = pertains to the

outer layer or wallvisceral

= covering of an organ

2. Planes of Sections

a. sagittal = any verticle plane making left and right portions

Coronal = Frontal

b. midsagittal = midline plane making equal right and left portions

c. frontal (coronal) = division of the body into anterior/posterior sections.

d. transverse = division of the body into superior and inferior sections.

3. Cavitiesa. dorsal cavity

- brain and spinal cordb. ventral

cavity

1) thoracic = lungs and the heart

2) abdominal = the viscera (guts) = digestive organs, kidneys and spleen

a) pelvic cavity = bladder, reproductive organs

III. An introduction to scientific terminology.

A. Word roots: In the word "speaker", speak- is the word root. In the word "cytology", cyt- is the word root.

B. Combining vowel: We combine speed and meter but we call it speedometer. The vowel, "o" combines the two roots. This was done to help pronunciation.

C. Combining form- the root and combining vowel

Assignment: Word origins - Introduction

Word + Combining = Combining root form vowel speed- o speed-otherm- o therm-ophon- o phon-o

D. The suffix: a syllable or syllables added at the end of the word root or combining form to change the meaning of the root, give it grammatical function, or to form a new word.

cyt- ology = the study of cells (verb) cyt- olog ist = one who specializes in the study of cells

E. The prefix: a syllable or syllables placed before the word to alter its meaning or create a new word. side, out-side, in-side

Examples of the above elements combined:

autobiographicalauto-bi-o-graph-ic-al

auto: prefixbi: word rooto: combining vowelgraph: word rootic: suffix al: suffix

IV. Cells, the basic unit of life. Cytology. (Chapter 3, Wingerd)

A. Functions (in addition to basic process of life)

1. Special functions discussed later ( nerve cells, muscle, etc.)

 2. Transportation

through cell membranes.a. Physical

Processes - Movement from high concentration to low

1) Diffusion = the spreading out of particles by random molecular motion.

a) examples: v Oxygen and

Carbon dioxide between air and blood

 v molecules between

blood and extracellular areas in tissues

v molcules between the cells and extracellular areas

b) rate of diffusionv drops

dramatically as the distance increases (10 m in 15 ms, size of basketball in 256 days for oxygen)

 v varies with material

min 3.5 sec. for glucose)

 v varies with

membrane permeability (ability of membrane to allow materials to pass through it)

 2) Osmosis =

diffusion of a solvent through a selectively permeable membrane. One that does not let all solute in the solvent through it.

 a) The driving

force is the difference in solvent concentrations.This difference creates osmotic pressure.

 b) Solution

concentrations determine osmotic pressure.

c) Terminology in reference to cells

 

isotonic solution = same osmotic pressure as cell

hypotonic solution = less than the cell

hypertonic solution = more than the cell

3) Filtration = movement through a membrane due to mechanical pressure gradient. (occurrs in the kidney)

4) Facilitated diffusion = movement on proteins that have chemical binding sites.

b. Physiological Processes

1) Active transport - movement against a concentration gradient

a) requires the use of energy

b) membrane is more one-directional otherwise diffusion would occur. c) sodium and potassium ions

 Na = 144 mmol/liter  

K = 4.4 mmol/l

3. Metabolic functions = All the chemical reactions inside the body.

a. Background - basics of chemistry

 1) atom = the smallest

unit of an element able to exist alone

2) phases of matter = solid, liquid, and gas

3) chemical compounds = made up of molecules, have various proportions of atoms.

4) organic compounds = carbon-containing compounds

a) carbohydrates = sugars and starches

b) lipids = fats, oils, waxes, and steroids

c) proteins = long chains of amino acids

d) nucleic acids = DNA (double strand) and RNA (singlestrand)

4) mixture = The physical combination of substances where the substances do not lose their identity.

5) catalyst = speeds the rate of a reaction without being part of it

6) enzyme = an organic catalyst

7) solute, solvent, solution

 b. Energy Exchange

(absorption or release) 1) synthesis = two

or more substances combine to make a new substance

A + B ----> AB1)) Biological

synthesis = anabolism

2) decomposition = breakdown of complex substances

AB -----> A + B

a) hydrolysis = water breaking

b) Biological decomposition = catabolism

3) homeostasis = the tendency of the body to maintain constant conditions . a) feedback systems

1)) positive = disturbance causes increased disturbance ( blood clotting is one)

2)) negative = increased output results in decrease in input

Thermostat example

c. Steps of metabolism (in the cell = intracellular)

 step 1:

absorption of organic substances into the cell

step 2: catabolism, breakdown of the molecules to release energy glucose + oxygen with enzymes break down to CO2, water, and energy

cellular respiration in the

mitochondria

step 3: ATP (adenosine triphosphate) transfers energy as ATP then released when broken down energy is in bonds

 1)) Cell structures:

asters, spindle= fibers on which chromosomes move, centrioles, chromatin = genetic material which stains easily

step 4: DNA code transfered by RNA

step 5: Anabolism - Protein synthesis on ribosomes.

d. Cell growth and reproduction -

1) Cell division - whole body growth

a) Mitosis

2)) Phases - IPMAT

 C. Specialization and

Organization - Tissues

1. Epithelial = covering tissue which usuallly secretes, creates movement, and can repair itself very quickly.

a. simple squamousb. stratified squamous c. simple cuboidald. simple columnar e. ciliated

2. Connective = cells, fibers and proteinsa. Loose b. Adipose (fat) c. Cartilaged. Fibrouse. Liquid (blood, lymph) f.

Bone

3. Nervousa. neuron = nerve

cell1) Types

a) sensoryb) motorc) associative

4. Muscle Striated vs.

smooth and voluntary vs. involuntary.