Ana-Physio 1

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ANATOMY ANDANATOMY AND

PHYSIOLOGYPHYSIOLOGYArni A. Magdamo, MD, MHA, FPCPArni A. Magdamo, MD, MHA, FPCP

University of the PhilippinesUniversity of the Philippines

College of MedicineCollege of Medicine


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INTRODUCTION


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Basic DefinitionsBasic Definitions

ANATOMYANATOMYis the dynamic scientific discipline thatis the dynamic scientific discipline that

investigates the bodys structure.investigates the bodys structure.

Systemic AnatomySystemic Anatomy is the study of the body by organis the study of the body by organsystems.systems.

Regional AnatomyRegional Anatomy is the study of the bodys organizationis the study of the bodys organization

by areas.by areas.

Surface AnatomySurface Anatomy is the study of the external features tois the study of the external features tolocate deeper structures.locate deeper structures.

PHYSIOLOGYPHYSIOLOGYis the scientific discipline that deals with theis the scientific discipline that deals with the

processes or functions of living things.processes or functions of living things.


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Structural and FunctionalStructural and Functional

OrganizationsOrganizations CHEMICALCHEMICAL level of organization involves interactionslevel of organization involves interactions

between atoms and their combinations into molecules and howbetween atoms and their combinations into molecules and how

they are intimately related.they are intimately related.

ORGANELLEORGANELLE level of organization deals with thelevel of organization deals with the

structures contained within a cell that performs one or morestructures contained within a cell that performs one or more

specific functions.specific functions.

CELLULARCELLULARlevel of organization deals with the basiclevel of organization deals with the basicliving units of the human body.living units of the human body.


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Structural and FunctionalStructural and Functional

OrganizationsOrganizations TISSUETISSUE level involves the organization of cells based onlevel involves the organization of cells based on

similarity in structure and functions.similarity in structure and functions.

ORGANORGAN level of organization studies the arrangement oflevel of organization studies the arrangement oftissues into structures that together perform one or moretissues into structures that together perform one or more

common functions.common functions.

ORGAN SYSTEMSORGAN SYSTEMS are groups of organs classified as aare groups of organs classified as a

unit because of a common function or set of functions.unit because of a common function or set of functions. ORGANISMORGANISM is a complex of mutually dependent organis a complex of mutually dependent organ

systems functioning in a coordinated manner.systems functioning in a coordinated manner.


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Organ SystemsOrgan Systems

ENDOCRINEENDOCRINE system participates in the regulation ofsystem participates in the regulation of

metabolism, reproduction and many other functions.metabolism, reproduction and many other functions.

CARDIOVASCULARCARDIOVASCULARsystem transports nutrients,system transports nutrients,waste products, gases, and hormones and plays a role in thewaste products, gases, and hormones and plays a role in the

immune response and the regulation of body temperature.immune response and the regulation of body temperature.

LYMPHATICLYMPHATIC system removes foreign substances from thesystem removes foreign substances from the

blood and lymph, combats disease, maintains tissue fluidblood and lymph, combats disease, maintains tissue fluidbalance, and absorbs fats.balance, and absorbs fats.


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Organ SystemsOrgan Systems

RESPIRATORYRESPIRATORYsystem exchanges gases between thesystem exchanges gases between the

blood and the air and regulates blood pH.blood and the air and regulates blood pH.

DIGESTIVEDIGESTIVE system performs the mechanical andsystem performs the mechanical andchemical processes of digestion, absorption of nutrients, andchemical processes of digestion, absorption of nutrients, and

elimination of wastes.elimination of wastes.

URINARYURINARYsystem removes waste products from thesystem removes waste products from the

circulatory system and regulates blood pH, ion balance andcirculatory system and regulates blood pH, ion balance andwater balance.water balance.

REPRODUCTIVEREPRODUCTIVE system performs the processes ofsystem performs the processes of

reproduction and controls sexual functions and behaviors.reproduction and controls sexual functions and behaviors.


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Negative FeedbackNegative Feedback

NegativeNegative feedback means that any deviation from afeedback means that any deviation from a

normal value is resisted or negated. Negativenormal value is resisted or negated. Negativefeedback does not prevent variation, but maintainsfeedback does not prevent variation, but maintains

that variation within a normal range.that variation within a normal range.


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Negative FeedbackNegative Feedback

BLOOD

PRESSURE

DECREASED HEART

RATE

INCREASED BLOOD

VESSEL DIAMETER

INCREASED HEART

RATE

DECREASED BLOOD

VESSEL DIAMETER

Receptors detect

increase in

blood pressure

Receptors detect

decrease in

blood pressure

Regulatory MechanismsIncrease

Decrease

Decrease

Increase

RETURN TO NORMAL STATE DEVIATION FROM NORMAL VALUE


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Positive FeedbackPositive Feedback

PositivePositive feedback implies that when a deviation fromfeedback implies that when a deviation from

a normal value occurs, the response of the system is toa normal value occurs, the response of the system is tomake the deviation larger.make the deviation larger.

Positive feedback usually creates avicious cycle leadingPositive feedback usually creates avicious cycle leading

away from homeostasis and, in some cases, resultingaway from homeostasis and, in some cases, resultingin death.in death.


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A fewA few positive feedbackpositive feedback mechanisms do operate in themechanisms do operate in the

body under normal conditions, but in all cases, theybody under normal conditions, but in all cases, theyare eventually limited in some way (e.g., labor andare eventually limited in some way (e.g., labor and

childbirth).childbirth).


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CONTRACTION

FORCE ANDFREQUENCY

The fetus is pushed

against the uterine

opening causing the

inferior uterus to

stretch.

Receptors

detect

increased

stretch.

Increased

contractions

Increased

stimulation

DEVIATION FROM NORMAL

VALUE

CONTINUED DEVIATION

FROM NORMAL VALUE


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Directional TermsDirectional Terms

INFERIORINFERIOR(L., lower)(L., lower) a structure lower than another.a structure lower than another.

SUPERIORSUPERIOR(L., higher)(L., higher) a structure higher thana structure higher thananother.another.

ANTERIORANTERIOR(L., to go before)(L., to go before) toward the front of thetoward the front of thebody.body.

POSTERIORPOSTERIOR(L., posterus, following)(L., posterus, following) toward the backtoward the backof the body.of the body.

DORSALDORSAL (L., dorsum, back)(L., dorsum, back) synonymous with posteriorsynonymous with posterior

VENTRALVENTRAL (L, ventrum, belly)(L, ventrum, belly) synonymous withsynonymous withanterior.anterior.


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PROXIMALPROXIMAL (L., proximus, nearest)(L., proximus, nearest) closer to the pointcloser to the point

of attachment to the body than another structure.of attachment to the body than another structure.

DISTALDISTAL (L., di+sto, to be distant)(L., di+sto, to be distant) farther from thefarther from thepoint of attachment to the body than another structure.point of attachment to the body than another structure.

LATERALLATERAL (L., latus, side)(L., latus, side) away from the midline ofaway from the midline of

the body.the body.

MEDIALMEDIAL (L., medialis, middle)(L., medialis, middle) toward the midline oftoward the midline ofthe body.the body.

SUPERFICIALSUPERFICIAL (L., superficialis)(L., superficialis) toward or on thetoward or on the

surface.surface.


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DEEPDEEP (Old English, deop, deep)(Old English, deop, deep) away from the surface,away from the surface,

internal.internal.


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PlanesPlanes

SAGITTALSAGITTAL ( flight of an arrow)( flight of an arrow) runs verticallyruns vertically

through the body and separates it into right and left portions.through the body and separates it into right and left portions.

MidsagittalMidsagittal divides the body into equal right and leftdivides the body into equal right and lefthalves.halves.

ParasagittalParasagittal towards the side of the midline, divides thetowards the side of the midline, divides the

body in unequal right and left portions.body in unequal right and left portions.

TRANSVERSETRANSVERSE (horizontal)(horizontal) runs parallel to theruns parallel to theground and divides the body into superior and inferior parts.ground and divides the body into superior and inferior parts.

CORONALCORONAL (frontal)(frontal) -- runs vertically from right to leftruns vertically from right to left

and divides the body into anterior and posterior portions.and divides the body into anterior and posterior portions.


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SectionsSections

LONGITUDINALLONGITUDINAL a cut through the longitudinala cut through the longitudinal

axis of an organ.axis of an organ.

TRANSVERSETRANSVERSE a cut at a right angle to thea cut at a right angle to thelongitudinal axis.longitudinal axis.

OBLIQUEOBLIQUE a cut made across the longitudinal axis ata cut made across the longitudinal axis at

angle other than a right angle.angle other than a right angle.


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Body RegionsBody Regions

APPENDICULARAPPENDICULAR includes the limbs and their girdlesincludes the limbs and their girdles

Upper limbUpper limb arm, forearm, wrist, and hand; attached toarm, forearm, wrist, and hand; attached to

the body by the shoulder or pectoral girdle.the body by the shoulder or pectoral girdle. Lower limbLower limb thigh, leg, ankle, and foot; attached to thethigh, leg, ankle, and foot; attached to the

body by the hip or pelvic girdle.body by the hip or pelvic girdle.

AXIALAXIAL consists of the head, neck and trunk.consists of the head, neck and trunk.

TrunkTrunk divided into the trunk (chest), abdomen, anddivided into the trunk (chest), abdomen, and

pelvis.pelvis.


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Abdominal QuadrantsAbdominal Quadrants

RIGHT

UPPER

QUADRANT

LEFT

UPPER

QUADRANT

RIGHT

LOWER

QUADRANT

RIGHT

LOWER

QUADRANT


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Body CavitiesBody Cavities

THORACIC CAVITYTHORACIC CAVITY bounded by the ribs and thebounded by the ribs and the

diaphragm. The mediastinum divides the thoracic cavity intodiaphragm. The mediastinum divides the thoracic cavity into

two parts.two parts.

ABDOMINAL CAVITYABDOMINAL CAVITY bounded by the diaphragmbounded by the diaphragm

and the abdominal muscles.and the abdominal muscles.

PELVIC CAVITYPELVIC CAVITY surrounded by the pelvic bones.surrounded by the pelvic bones.


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Serous MembranesSerous Membranes

The trunk cavities are lined by serous membranes.The trunk cavities are lined by serous membranes.

PARIETAL MEMBRANEPARIETAL MEMBRANE lines the wall of the cavity.lines the wall of the cavity.

VISCERAL MEMBRANEVISCERAL MEMBRANE covers the internal organs.covers the internal organs.

TheThe parietalparietal andand visceralvisceral membranes are continuous with eachmembranes are continuous with each

other. Serous membranes secrete fluid that fills the spaceother. Serous membranes secrete fluid that fills the space

between the parietal and visceral membranes. The serousbetween the parietal and visceral membranes. The serous

membranes protect organs from friction.membranes protect organs from friction.


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Serous MembranesSerous Membranes

PLEURAPLEURAis the serous membrane that lines the organs andis the serous membrane that lines the organs andwalls of the thoracic cavity.walls of the thoracic cavity.

PERITONEUMPERITONEUM is the serous membrane that lines theis the serous membrane that lines the

organs and walls of the abdominal (peritoneal) cavity.organs and walls of the abdominal (peritoneal) cavity.

PERICARDIUMPERICARDIUM surrounds the heart and the pericardialsurrounds the heart and the pericardialcavity.cavity.

MESENTERIESMESENTERIES are parts of the peritoneum that holdare parts of the peritoneum that holdthe abdominal organs in place and provide a passageway forthe abdominal organs in place and provide a passageway forblood vessels and nerves to organs.blood vessels and nerves to organs.

OMENTAOMENTAconnect abdominal organs to the greater orconnect abdominal organs to the greater orlesser curvatures of the stomach.lesser curvatures of the stomach.


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CELL BIOLOGY


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Plasma MembranePlasma Membrane

TheThe cell membranecell membrane oror plasma membraneplasma membrane is the outermostis the outermost

component of the cell. It encloses the cytoplasm and forms acomponent of the cell. It encloses the cytoplasm and forms a

boundary between the intracellular and extracellularboundary between the intracellular and extracellular

compartments.compartments.

The major molecules that make up the cell membrane areThe major molecules that make up the cell membrane are

phospholipidsphospholipids andand proteinsproteins. In addition, the membrane. In addition, the membrane

contains other molecules such ascontains other molecules such as cholesterol, carbohydrates,cholesterol, carbohydrates,waterwater andand ionsions..


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Plasma MembranePlasma Membrane

PHOSPHATE GROUP (POLAR, HYDROPHILIC)

LIPID GROUP (NONPOLAR, LIPOPHILIC)

PROTEIN

CHOLESTEROL

FLUID MOSAIC MODEL


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Movement Through The PlasmaMovement Through The Plasma

MembraneMembraneThe plasma membrane isThe plasma membrane is selectively permeableselectively permeable, allowing some, allowing some

substances to pass through it but not others. Intracellularsubstances to pass through it but not others. Intracellular

material has a different composition from extracellularmaterial has a different composition from extracellular

material, and the survival of cells depends on maintaining thematerial, and the survival of cells depends on maintaining the

difference.difference.

Cellular transport provides for the movement of substances acrossCellular transport provides for the movement of substances acrossthe cell membrane and may be classified as otherthe cell membrane and may be classified as other passivepassive oror

activeactive transport.transport.


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Passive TransportPassive Transport

DIFFUSIONDIFFUSION

OSMOSISOSMOSIS

FILTRATIONFILTRATION FACILITATED DIFFUSIONFACILITATED DIFFUSION

Channel proteinChannel protein--mediatedmediated

Carrier proteinCarrier protein--mediatedmediated


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DiffusionDiffusion

DiffusionDiffusion is the movement of a substance from an area of highis the movement of a substance from an area of high

concentration to an area of low concentration, until there is aconcentration to an area of low concentration, until there is a

uniform distribution of molecules.uniform distribution of molecules.

For a given distance, a concentration gradient is equal to theFor a given distance, a concentration gradient is equal to the

higher concentration minus the lower concentration of a solutehigher concentration minus the lower concentration of a solute

in a solution.in a solution.

The rate of diffusion increases with an increase in theThe rate of diffusion increases with an increase in theconcentration gradient, an increase in temperature, or aconcentration gradient, an increase in temperature, or a

decrease in molecule size.decrease in molecule size.


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DiffusionDiffusion


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OsmosisOsmosis

OsmosisOsmosis is the diffusion of water (a solvent) across ais the diffusion of water (a solvent) across a selectivelyselectivelypermeable membranepermeable membrane, such as the cell membrane, from a, such as the cell membrane, from aregion of high concentration to a region of lower concentration.region of high concentration to a region of lower concentration.

AnAn isotonicisotonic solution is one which has the same concentrationsolution is one which has the same concentrationas that of the cytoplasm. No movement of water takes place.as that of the cytoplasm. No movement of water takes place.

AA hypertonichypertonic solution is more concentrated than plasma, andsolution is more concentrated than plasma, andwater moves towards the extracellular compartment.water moves towards the extracellular compartment.

AA hypotonichypotonic solution is less concentrated than plasma, andsolution is less concentrated than plasma, andwater moves towards the intracellular compartmentwater moves towards the intracellular compartment


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OsmosisOsmosis


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Filtration and FacilitatedFiltration and Facilitated

DiffusionDiffusion FiltrationFiltration is the passage of a solution through a membrane inis the passage of a solution through a membrane in

response to a mechanical pressure difference, such as bloodresponse to a mechanical pressure difference, such as blood

pressure, across a membrane.pressure, across a membrane.

Facilitated diffusionFacilitated diffusion is a mediated transport process thatis a mediated transport process that

moves substances into or out of cells from a high to a lowmoves substances into or out of cells from a high to a low

concentration by means of channel proteins or carrier proteins.concentration by means of channel proteins or carrier proteins.

CarriersCarriers are protein molecules which bind with materials to beare protein molecules which bind with materials to betransported, whiletransported, while channelschannels are proteins that span the width ofare proteins that span the width of

the plasma membrane and are equipped with small conduitsthe plasma membrane and are equipped with small conduits

at the center to allow passage of molecules.at the center to allow passage of molecules.


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Active TransportActive Transport

Active transportActive transport can move substances from a low to a highcan move substances from a low to a high

concentration, and requires adenosine triphosphate (ATP).concentration, and requires adenosine triphosphate (ATP).

AnAn exchange pumpexchange pump is an active transport mechanism thatis an active transport mechanism thatsimultaneously moves two substances in opposite directionssimultaneously moves two substances in opposite directions

across the cell membrane.across the cell membrane.


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Endocytosis and ExocytosisEndocytosis and Exocytosis

EndocytosisEndocytosis is the movement of materials into cells by theis the movement of materials into cells by the

formations of a vesicle.formations of a vesicle.

P

hagocytosisP

hagocytosis is the movement of solid material intois the movement of solid material intocells by the formation of a vesicle.cells by the formation of a vesicle.

PinocytosisPinocytosis is similar to phagocytosis, except that theis similar to phagocytosis, except that the

material ingested is much smaller and is in solution.material ingested is much smaller and is in solution.

ExocytosisExocytosis is the secretion of materials from cells by vesicleis the secretion of materials from cells by vesicleformation.formation.


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Organelles and Cell FunctionsOrganelles and Cell Functions

NUCLEUSNUCLEUS is surrounded by a nuclear envelope which isis surrounded by a nuclear envelope which is

bilayered and equipped with nuclear pores. DNA andbilayered and equipped with nuclear pores. DNA and

associated proteins are found inside the nucleus.associated proteins are found inside the nucleus.

NUCLEOLINUCLEOLI consist of RNA and proteins and are theconsist of RNA and proteins and are the

sites of ribosomal unit assembly. Ribosomes are the sites ofsites of ribosomal unit assembly. Ribosomes are the sites of

protein synthesisprotein synthesis

ROUGH ERROUGH ER is endoplasmic reticulum with ribosomesis endoplasmic reticulum with ribosomesattached. It is a major site of protein synthesis.attached. It is a major site of protein synthesis.

SMOOTH ERSMOOTH ER does not have ribosomes attached and is adoes not have ribosomes attached and is a

site for lipid synthesissite for lipid synthesis


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GOLGI APPARATUSGOLGI APPARATUS is a series of closely packedis a series of closely packedmembrane sacs that function to concentrate and package intomembrane sacs that function to concentrate and package intosecretory vesicles the lipids and proteins produced by the ER.secretory vesicles the lipids and proteins produced by the ER.

SECRETORY VESICLESSECRETORY VESICLES are membraneare membrane--bound sacsbound sacsthat carry substances from theGolgi apparatus to the plasmathat carry substances from theGolgi apparatus to the plasmamembrane, where the vesicle contents are released bymembrane, where the vesicle contents are released byexocytosis.exocytosis.

LYSOSOMESLYSOSOMES are membraneare membrane--bound sacs containingbound sacs containingenzymes for digestion of phagocytized material.enzymes for digestion of phagocytized material.

MITOCHONDRIAMITOCHONDRIA are the major sites of ATPare the major sites of ATPproduction.production.


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MICROTUBULESMICROTUBULES are hollow tubes that support theare hollow tubes that support the

cytoplasm and are components of cilia and flagella.cytoplasm and are components of cilia and flagella.

CILIACILIA move substances over the surface of cells.move substances over the surface of cells.

FLAGELLAFLAGELLA are much longer than cilia and propel cells toare much longer than cilia and propel cells to

allow for cellular locomotion.allow for cellular locomotion.

MICROVILLIMICROVILLI increase the surface area of cells and aid inincrease the surface area of cells and aid in

absorption. They are non motile cellular projections.absorption. They are non motile cellular projections.


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CELL DIVISIONCELL DIVISION

Cell division occurs byCell division occurs by MITOSISMITOSIS in all tissues except those thatin all tissues except those thatproduce reproductive cells; mitosis produces new cells forproduce reproductive cells; mitosis produces new cells forgrowth and tissue repair.growth and tissue repair.

DNA replicates duringDNA replicates during interphaseinterphase, the time between cell, the time between celldivisions.divisions.

Mitosis is divided into four stages:Mitosis is divided into four stages:

ProphaseProphase

MetaphaseMetaphase

AnaphaseAnaphase

TelophaseTelophase


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ProphaseProphase

DuringDuring prophaseprophase, each chromosome consists of two chromatids joined, each chromosome consists of two chromatids joined

at the centromere.at the centromere.


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MetaphaseMetaphase

AtAt metaphasemetaphase, the chromosomes align at the center of the cell as the, the chromosomes align at the center of the cell as the

nuclear membrane disintegrates and the spindle fibers begin tonuclear membrane disintegrates and the spindle fibers begin to

form.form.


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AnaphaseAnaphase

The chromatids separate at the centromere as the spindle fibers formThe chromatids separate at the centromere as the spindle fibers form

duringduring anaphaseanaphase. The chromatids start to migrate to the opposite. The chromatids start to migrate to the opposite

poles.poles.


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TelophaseTelophase

DuringDuring telophasetelophase, the two nuclei assume their normal structure and, the two nuclei assume their normal structure and

cell division is completed with the formation of the cleavage furrowcell division is completed with the formation of the cleavage furrow

as two new daughter cells are produced.as two new daughter cells are produced.


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CELL DIFFERENTIATIONCELL DIFFERENTIATION

DifferentiationDifferentiation, the process by which cells develop, the process by which cells develop

specialized structures and functions, results from thespecialized structures and functions, results from theselective activation and inactivation of the DNA.selective activation and inactivation of the DNA.


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HISTOLOGY


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TissuesTissues

AA tissuetissue is a group of cells with similar structure andis a group of cells with similar structure and

function, plus the extracellular substances located between thefunction, plus the extracellular substances located between the

cells.cells.

HistologyHistology is the study of tissues.is the study of tissues.

Tissues generally fall into one of four categories:Tissues generally fall into one of four categories:

EpithelialEpithelial

ConnectiveConnective

MuscularMuscular

NervousNervous


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Epithelial TissueEpithelial Tissue

EpithelialEpithelial tissues cover surfaces, usually have a basementtissues cover surfaces, usually have a basement

membrane, little extracellular material, and no blood vessels.membrane, little extracellular material, and no blood vessels.

Simple epitheliumSimple epithelium has one layer of cells and is involved withhas one layer of cells and is involved with

diffusion, secretion or absorption.diffusion, secretion or absorption.

Stratified epitheliumStratified epithelium has more than one layer of cells andhas more than one layer of cells and

serves a protective role.serves a protective role.

Pseudostratified epitheliumPseudostratified epithelium is simple epithelium that appearsis simple epithelium that appearsto have two or more cell layers.to have two or more cell layers.

TransitionalTransitional epitheliumepithelium is stratified epithelium that can beis stratified epithelium that can be

greatly stretched.greatly stretched.


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Squamous epitheliumSquamous epithelium is composed of flat cells.is composed of flat cells.

Cuboidal epitheliumCuboidal epithelium is composed of cubeis composed of cube--like cells which arelike cells which are

as tall as they are wide.as tall as they are wide.

Columnar epitheliumColumnar epithelium is composed of cells that are tall andis composed of cells that are tall and

thin.thin.


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TYPE FUNCTION LOCATION

Simple Squamous Diffusion, filtration, protection

against friction.

Lining of blood vessels,

heart, lymph vessels, and

serous membranes, alveoli

of lungs and kidney tubules.

Simple Cuboidal Secretion and absorption bycells of the kidney tubules;

secretion by cells of glands

and choroid plexus;

movement of mucus-

containing particles.

Kidney tubules, glands and

their ducts, choroid plexusof the brain, terminal

bronchioles of lungs, and

surface of the ovaries and

retina.

Simple Columnar Secretion by cells of thestomach, intestines, and

glands; absorption by cells of

the intestine; movement of

mucus by ciliated cells;

movement of egg through

fallopian tubes.

Stomach, intestines, glands,

some ducts, bronchioles of

lungs, auditory tubes,

uterus, and uterine tubes.


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Stratified

Squamous

Protection against abrasions

and infections.

Skin, mouth, throat,

esophagus, anus, vagina

and cornea.

Pseudostratified Movement of mucus (or fluid)

that contains foreignparticles.

Nasal cavity, paranasal

sinuses, auditory tubes,

pharynx, larynx, trachea andbronchi of the lungs.

Transitional Accomodation of fluid

fluctuations in an organ or

tube; protection against the

caustic effects of urine.

Urinary bladder, ureters and

superior urethra.


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Connective TissueConnective Tissue

ConnectiveConnective tissue holds cells and tissues together.tissue holds cells and tissues together.

General components of connective tissues includeGeneral components of connective tissues include cellscells andand

extracellular matrixextracellular matrix..

The extracellular matrix consists ofThe extracellular matrix consists of protein fibers, groundprotein fibers, ground

substancesubstance, and, and fluidfluid..

The cellular components of connective tissues are generallyThe cellular components of connective tissues are generally

classified asclassified as blast cellsblast cells (form the matrix),(form the matrix), cytescytes (maintain the(maintain thematrix), andmatrix), and clast cellsclast cells (break down the matrix).(break down the matrix).


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Connective Tissue ClassificationsConnective Tissue Classifications

Protein Fibers as thePrimary Feature of the ExtracellularProtein Fibers as thePrimary Feature of the Extracellular

MatrixMatrix

Dense connective tissueDense connective tissue

Loose connective tissueLoose connective tissue

Adipose tissueAdipose tissue

Protein Fibers andGround Substance as thePrimaryProtein Fibers andGround Substance as thePrimary

Features of the Extracellular MatrixFeatures of the Extracellular Matrix

CartilageCartilage

BoneBone


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Connective Tissue ClassificationsConnective Tissue Classifications

Fluid as the Extracellular MatrixFluid as the Extracellular Matrix

BloodBlood


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Dense Connective Able to withstand great

pulling forces in the direction

of fiber orientation.

Tendons (attach muscle to

bone), ligaments (attach

bone to bones), dermis of

the skin, and organ capsule.

Loose, or Areolar Loose packing, support, andnourishment for the

structures with which it is

associated.

Widely distributed

throughout the body, it is

the substance on which

most epithelial tissue rests.

It is the packing between

glands, muscles, and nerves

and attaches the skin

(dermis) to the underlying

tissues.

Adipose Tissue Energy storage, packingmaterial that provides

protection and heat insulator.

Under the skin, aroundorgans such as the heart

and kidneys, in the breasts

and in bones.


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Cartilage Hyaline cartilage forms

smooth surfaces in joints, a

site of bone growth, and the

embryonic skeleton.

Fibrocartilage can withstand

great pressure. Elastic

cartilage returns to original

shape when bent.

Hyaline cartilage is found in

the costal cartilages of ribs,

cartilage rings of the

respiratory tract, nasal

cartilages, covering the ends

of bones, epiphyseal plates

of bones, the the embryonic

skeleton. Fibrocartilage is

found in intervertebral disks,

symphysis pubis, and

articular disks (menisci of

knees). Elastic cartilage is

found in the external ear.

Bone Provides great strength and

support and protects internal

organs such as the brain.

Bones.

Blood Transports oxygen, carbon

dioxide, hormones, nutrients,

waste products and other

substances.

Within the blood vessels

and heart.


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MembranesMembranes

Mucous membranesMucous membranes line cavities that open to the outside of theline cavities that open to the outside of the

body (digestive, respiratory, excretory, and reproductive tracts).body (digestive, respiratory, excretory, and reproductive tracts).

They contain glands and secrete mucus.They contain glands and secrete mucus.

SerousSerous membranesmembranes link trunk cavities that do not open to thelink trunk cavities that do not open to the

outside of the body (pleural, pericardial and peritonealoutside of the body (pleural, pericardial and peritoneal

cavities). They do not contain glands, but do secrete serouscavities). They do not contain glands, but do secrete serous

fluid.fluid.

Other membranes include theOther membranes include the cutaneouscutaneous (skin),(skin), synovialsynovial

(joints), and(joints), and periosteumperiosteum (around bones).(around bones).


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Muscle TissueMuscle Tissue

MUSCLE

TYPE

STRIATED? VOLUNTARY? INTERCALATED

DISKS?

NUCLEUS

Skeletal

muscle

Yes Yes No Multi

Cardiac

muscle

Yes No Yes One

Smooth

muscle

No No No One


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Nervous TissueNervous Tissue

NervousNervous tissue forms the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. It istissue forms the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. It isresponsible for coordinating and controlling many of the bodysresponsible for coordinating and controlling many of the bodysactivities.activities.

Consists ofConsists of neuronsneurons, which are responsible for the action, which are responsible for the actionpotential conduction, and support cells.potential conduction, and support cells. NeurogliaNeuroglia are theare thesupport cells of the nervous system, and they function tosupport cells of the nervous system, and they function tonourish, protect, and insulate the neurons.nourish, protect, and insulate the neurons.

The neuron is composed of theThe neuron is composed of the cell bodycell body which is the site ofwhich is the site ofgeneral cell functions,general cell functions, dendritesdendrites which usually receive actionwhich usually receive actionpotentials, andpotentials, and axonsaxons which usually conducts action potentialswhich usually conducts action potentialsaway from the cell body.away from the cell body.


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InflammationInflammation

The function of the inflammatory response is toThe function of the inflammatory response is to isolate andisolate and

destroydestroy harmful agents.harmful agents.

The inflammatory response produces five symptoms:The inflammatory response produces five symptoms: ruborrubor

(redness),(redness), dolordolor (pain),(pain), calorcalor (heat),(heat), tumortumor (swelling), and(swelling), and

disturbance of functiondisturbance of function..


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Tissue RepairTissue Repair

Tissue repairTissue repair is the substitution of viable cells for dead cells.is the substitution of viable cells for dead cells.

Tissue repair occurs byTissue repair occurs by regenerationregeneration oror replacementreplacement..

LabileLabile cells divide throughout life and can undergocells divide throughout life and can undergo

regeneration.regeneration.

StableStable cells do not ordinarily divide but can regenerate ifcells do not ordinarily divide but can regenerate if

necessary.necessary.

PermanentPermanent cells do not divide, and if killed, repair is bycells do not divide, and if killed, repair is byreplacement.replacement.


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Tissue RepairTissue Repair

Repair byRepair by primary unionprimary union occurs when the edges of a woundoccurs when the edges of a wound

are close together. Healing is fast and is mostly accomplishedare close together. Healing is fast and is mostly accomplished

by the regeneration of dead or injured cells.by the regeneration of dead or injured cells.

Repair byRepair by secondary unionsecondary union occurs when the edges are fartheroccurs when the edges are farther

apart. Healing is usually slow and retarded and is mainlyapart. Healing is usually slow and retarded and is mainly

accomplished by a combination of regeneration andaccomplished by a combination of regeneration and

replacement. The resulting tissue is usually of a differentreplacement. The resulting tissue is usually of a different

structural appearance and of lesser stability compared to thestructural appearance and of lesser stability compared to the

original tissue.original tissue.


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THEINTEGUMENTARY

SYSTEM


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The HypodermisThe Hypodermis

TheThe hypodermishypodermis is loose connective tissue that contains aboutis loose connective tissue that contains about

half the bodys stored fat, although the amount and locationhalf the bodys stored fat, although the amount and location

vary with age, sex, and diet.vary with age, sex, and diet.

Fat in the hypodermis functions as padding and insulation,Fat in the hypodermis functions as padding and insulation,

and it is responsible for some of the structural differencesand it is responsible for some of the structural differences

between men and women.between men and women.

The hypodermis can be used to estimate total body fat. TheThe hypodermis can be used to estimate total body fat. Theskin and hypodermis are pinched at selected locations, and theskin and hypodermis are pinched at selected locations, and the

thickness of the fold is measured. Clinically, the hypodermisthickness of the fold is measured. Clinically, the hypodermis

is the site of subcutaneous injections.is the site of subcutaneous injections.


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The SkinThe Skin


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The EpidermisThe Epidermis

TheThe epidermisepidermis is stratified squamous epithelium separatedis stratified squamous epithelium separatedfrom the dermis by a basement membrane.from the dermis by a basement membrane.

Cells are produced in the deepest layers of the epidermis byCells are produced in the deepest layers of the epidermis by

mitosis. As new cells are formed, they push older cells to themitosis. As new cells are formed, they push older cells to thesurface where they slough or flake off.surface where they slough or flake off.

The outermost cells protect the cells underneath, and theThe outermost cells protect the cells underneath, and thedeeper replicating cells replace cells lost from the surface.deeper replicating cells replace cells lost from the surface.

During the movement, the cells undergoDuring the movement, the cells undergo keratinizationkeratinization, a, aprocess that changes the cells shape and chemical compositionprocess that changes the cells shape and chemical compositionand cells eventually die where they produce an outer layer thatand cells eventually die where they produce an outer layer thatresists abrasion and forms a permeability barrier.resists abrasion and forms a permeability barrier.


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TheThe stratum basalestratum basale is the deepest stratum consisting ofis the deepest stratum consisting of

columnar cells that undergo mitotic divisions approximatelycolumnar cells that undergo mitotic divisions approximately

every 10 days. One daughter call can divide again whileevery 10 days. One daughter call can divide again while

pushing the older cell toward the surface, a journey that takespushing the older cell toward the surface, a journey that takesabout 40 to 56 days.about 40 to 56 days.

TheThe stratum spinosumstratum spinosum lies one top of the basal cell layer andlies one top of the basal cell layer and

is composed of spindly shaped older cells.is composed of spindly shaped older cells.

TheThe stratum granulosumstratum granulosum has a granular cytoplasmhas a granular cytoplasm

corresponding to keratin proteins that initiate the process ofcorresponding to keratin proteins that initiate the process of

keratinization.keratinization.


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TheThe stratum lucidumstratum lucidum is a clear layer of cells that have begunis a clear layer of cells that have begun

to die.to die.

TheThe stratum corneumstratum corneum is the outermost layer that consists ofis the outermost layer that consists of

dead, squamous cornified cells that have undergonedead, squamous cornified cells that have undergone

keratinization. These cells are filled with the hard proteinkeratinization. These cells are filled with the hard protein

keratin, which gives the stratum corneum its structuralkeratin, which gives the stratum corneum its structural

strength. The cornified cells are also coated and surroundedstrength. The cornified cells are also coated and surrounded

by lipids that help prevent fluid loss through the skin.by lipids that help prevent fluid loss through the skin.


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The DermisThe Dermis

TheThe dermisdermis is dense connective tissue with fibroblasts, a fewis dense connective tissue with fibroblasts, a fewfat cells, and macrophages.fat cells, and macrophages.

It is divided into two indistinct layers: the deeperIt is divided into two indistinct layers: the deeper reticularreticular

layer, and the more superficiallayer, and the more superficial papillarypapillary layer.layer. TheThe reticularreticular is the main fibrous layer of the dermis andis the main fibrous layer of the dermis and

consists of collagen and elastic fibers and is responsible forconsists of collagen and elastic fibers and is responsible formost of the structural strength of the skin. It also producesmost of the structural strength of the skin. It also produces

thethe cleavagecleavage oror tensiontension lines, and the skin is most resistant tolines, and the skin is most resistant tostretch along the cleavage lines.stretch along the cleavage lines. StretchStretch marks are alsomarks are alsoproduced as a result of stretching of the dermis withproduced as a result of stretching of the dermis withrearrangement of the collagen and elastic fibers.rearrangement of the collagen and elastic fibers.


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The DermisThe Dermis

TheThe papillarypapillary layer derives its name from projections calledlayer derives its name from projections called

papillae that extend into the epidermis. The papillae of thepapillae that extend into the epidermis. The papillae of the

hands, the soles of the feet, the tips of the digits are in parallelhands, the soles of the feet, the tips of the digits are in parallel

curving ridges that shape the overlying epidermis intocurving ridges that shape the overlying epidermis intofingerprints and footprints. The ridges increase friction andfingerprints and footprints. The ridges increase friction and

improve the grip of the hands and feet.improve the grip of the hands and feet.

TheThe papillarypapillary layer contains many blood vessels that supplylayer contains many blood vessels that supply

the overlying avascular epidermis with nutrients, remove wastethe overlying avascular epidermis with nutrients, remove waste

products, and aid in regulating temperature.products, and aid in regulating temperature.


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Skin ColorSkin Color

Skin color is determined by: (1)Skin color is determined by: (1) pigmentspigments in the skin, (2)in the skin, (2)

bloodblood circulating through the skin, and (3)circulating through the skin, and (3) thicknessthickness of theof the

stratum corneum.stratum corneum.

MelaninMelanin is a brown to black pigment, responsible for mostis a brown to black pigment, responsible for most

skin color. It is produced byskin color. It is produced by melanocytesmelanocytes in the stratumin the stratum

basale.basale.

Melanin production is determined by: (1)Melanin production is determined by: (1) genetic factorsgenetic factors, (2), (2)hormoneshormones, and (3), and (3) exposure to lightexposure to light..

The location of pigments and other substances in the skin alsoThe location of pigments and other substances in the skin also

affects the color produced.affects the color produced.


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Skin ColorSkin Color

CaroteneCarotene is a yellow pigment found in plants such as squashis a yellow pigment found in plants such as squashand carrots. It is lipid soluble, and when consumed, itand carrots. It is lipid soluble, and when consumed, itaccumulates in the skin. This gives the skin a slight yellowishaccumulates in the skin. This gives the skin a slight yellowish

tint.tint. Blood flowing through the skin imparts a reddish hue, andBlood flowing through the skin imparts a reddish hue, and

when blood flow increases, the red color intensifies.when blood flow increases, the red color intensifies.

A decrease in blood flow can make the skin appear pale.A decrease in blood flow can make the skin appear pale.

CyanosisCyanosis is produced by decreased oxygen content in the blood.is produced by decreased oxygen content in the blood. BirthmarksBirthmarks are also variations in skin color produced by aare also variations in skin color produced by a

combination of any of the aforementioned factors.combination of any of the aforementioned factors.


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HairHair

HairsHairs are columns of dead, keratinized epithelial cells. Eachare columns of dead, keratinized epithelial cells. Each

hair consists of ahair consists of a shaftshaft (above the skin),(above the skin), rootroot (below the skin),(below the skin),

andand hair bulbhair bulb (site of hair cell formation).(site of hair cell formation).

Hairs have a growth phase and a resting phase which varyHairs have a growth phase and a resting phase which vary

depending on the location of the hair. Eyelashes have adepending on the location of the hair. Eyelashes have a

growth phase of 30 days and a resting phase of 105 days.growth phase of 30 days and a resting phase of 105 days.

Hairs in the scalp, on the other hand, have a growth phase ofHairs in the scalp, on the other hand, have a growth phase of

3 years and a resting phase of 1 to 2 years.3 years and a resting phase of 1 to 2 years.


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HairHair


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MusclesMuscles

Associated with each hair follicle are smooth muscle cells, theAssociated with each hair follicle are smooth muscle cells, the

arrector piliarrector pili..

Contraction of the arrector pili causes the hair to stand onContraction of the arrector pili causes the hair to stand on

end and also produces a raised area of skin calledgooseend and also produces a raised area of skin calledgoose

flesh orgoose bumps.flesh orgoose bumps.

This is a vestigial structure in humans and serves noThis is a vestigial structure in humans and serves no

significant function.significant function.


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MusclesMuscles


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GlandsGlands

The major glands of the skin are theThe major glands of the skin are the sebaceous glandssebaceous glands and theand the

sweat glandssweat glands..

MostMost sebaceous glandssebaceous glands are connected by a duct to the upperare connected by a duct to the upper

part of a hair follicle. They produce sebum, an oily, whitepart of a hair follicle. They produce sebum, an oily, white

substance rich in liquids which lubricate the hair and thesubstance rich in liquids which lubricate the hair and the

surface of the skin and prevent drying and protect againstsurface of the skin and prevent drying and protect against

some bacteria.some bacteria.


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GlandsGlands


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GlandsGlands

There are two kinds ofThere are two kinds of sweat glandssweat glands..

MerocrineMerocrine sweat glands are located in almost every part of thesweat glands are located in almost every part of theskin, most numerous in the palms and soles, produce askin, most numerous in the palms and soles, produce a

secretion that is mostly water with a few salts, and have asecretion that is mostly water with a few salts, and have aduct that opens onto the surface of the skin through sweatduct that opens onto the surface of the skin through sweatpores.pores.

ApocrineApocrine sweat glands produce thick secretion rich in organicsweat glands produce thick secretion rich in organic

substances, open into hair follicles in the axillae and genitalia,substances, open into hair follicles in the axillae and genitalia,become active at puberty under the influence of sex hormones,become active at puberty under the influence of sex hormones,and with secretions that are broken down by bacteria, thusand with secretions that are broken down by bacteria, thusproducing the typical body odor.producing the typical body odor.


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GlandsGlands


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NailsNails

TheThe nailsnails are evolutionary equivalents of the avian talons,are evolutionary equivalents of the avian talons,

mammalian claws, and equine hooves.mammalian claws, and equine hooves.

They are extension of the skin and are similar in nature toThey are extension of the skin and are similar in nature to

the hairs.the hairs.

The nail consists of the nail body and nail root.The nail consists of the nail body and nail root.

The nail matrix produces the nail, which is stratum corneumThe nail matrix produces the nail, which is stratum corneum

containing hard keratin.containing hard keratin.


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Functions of the SkinFunctions of the Skin

PROTECTIONPROTECTION

Prevents the entry of microorganismsPrevents the entry of microorganisms

Acts as a permeability barrierActs as a permeability barrier

Provides protection against abrasion and ultraviolet light.Provides protection against abrasion and ultraviolet light.

TEMPERATURE REGULATIONTEMPERATURE REGULATION

Dilation and constriction of blood vesselsDilation and constriction of blood vessels

Evaporation of sweat glandsEvaporation of sweat glands VITAMIND PRODUCTIONVITAMIND PRODUCTION

SENSATIONSENSATION

EXCRETIONEXCRETION


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Functions of the SkinFunctions of the Skin

DIAGNOSTIC AIDDIAGNOSTIC AID

The integumentary system is easily observed and oftenThe integumentary system is easily observed and often

reflects events occurring in other parts of the body (forreflects events occurring in other parts of the body (for

example, cyanosis, jaundice, rashes).example, cyanosis, jaundice, rashes).


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Effects of Aging on the SkinEffects of Aging on the Skin

Blood flow to the skin is reduced, making the skin thinnerBlood flow to the skin is reduced, making the skin thinner

and more transparent.and more transparent.

Skin is more easily damaged and repairs more slowly becauseSkin is more easily damaged and repairs more slowly because

of decreased amounts of collagen in the dermis.of decreased amounts of collagen in the dermis.

Loss of elastic fibers and fat from the hypodermis cause theLoss of elastic fibers and fat from the hypodermis cause the

skin to sag and wrinkle.skin to sag and wrinkle.

Skin becomes dry because of the decreased activity of sebaceousSkin becomes dry because of the decreased activity of sebaceousand sweat glands.and sweat glands.

The number of melanocytes generally decreases, but in someThe number of melanocytes generally decreases, but in some

areas, the number increases producing age spots.areas, the number increases producing age spots.


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THE SKELETALSYSTEM


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The Skeletal SystemThe Skeletal System

TheThe skeletal systemskeletal system consists of bones and their associatedconsists of bones and their associatedconnective tissues, including cartilage, tendons and ligaments.connective tissues, including cartilage, tendons and ligaments.

It helps maintain the shape of the body, protects, organs, andIt helps maintain the shape of the body, protects, organs, and

provides a system of levers upon which muscles act to produceprovides a system of levers upon which muscles act to producebody movements.body movements.

Bone also functions as a site for mineral storage and blood cellBone also functions as a site for mineral storage and blood cellformation.formation.

CartilageCartilage is rigid but more flexible than bone and isis rigid but more flexible than bone and isabundant in the embryo and fetus where it provides a modelabundant in the embryo and fetus where it provides a modelfor most of the adult bones and a major site for skeletalfor most of the adult bones and a major site for skeletalgrowth in the embryo.growth in the embryo.


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The Skeletal SystemThe Skeletal System

Cartilage also provides a firm yet flexible support withinCartilage also provides a firm yet flexible support within

certain structures such as the nose, external ear, ribs andcertain structures such as the nose, external ear, ribs and

trachea.trachea.

TendonsTendons andand ligamentsligaments are strong bands of fibrous connectiveare strong bands of fibrous connective

tissue: tendons attach muscles to bones, and ligaments attachtissue: tendons attach muscles to bones, and ligaments attach

bones to bones.bones to bones.


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Bone Connective TissueBone Connective Tissue

Bone connective tissue consists of cells separated from eachBone connective tissue consists of cells separated from eachother by an extracellular matrix.other by an extracellular matrix.

OsteoblastsOsteoblasts (bone) and(bone) and chondroblastschondroblasts (cartilage) produce the(cartilage) produce the

matrix,matrix, osteocytesosteocytes (bone) and(bone) and chondrocyteschondrocytes (cartilage)(cartilage)maintain the matrix, andmaintain the matrix, and osteoclastsosteoclasts (bone) and(bone) and chondroclastschondroclasts(cartilage) destroy and remodel and matrix.(cartilage) destroy and remodel and matrix.

Bone matrix is mineralized and reinforced by calcium andBone matrix is mineralized and reinforced by calcium and

phosphate deposits. Cartilage matrix, on the other hand isphosphate deposits. Cartilage matrix, on the other hand isnot mineralized but is rich in collagen fibers that lend flexiblenot mineralized but is rich in collagen fibers that lend flexiblestrength to the matrix.strength to the matrix.


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General Features ofBonesGeneral Features ofBones

There are four types of bones, described by their shape asThere are four types of bones, described by their shape as long,long,short, flatshort, flat andand irregularirregular..

Each long bone consists of a shaft called theEach long bone consists of a shaft called the diaphysisdiaphysis, and an, and an

epiphysisepiphysis at each end of the bone. During growth of a longat each end of the bone. During growth of a longbone, a cartilaginousbone, a cartilaginous epiphyseal plateepiphyseal plate or growth plate is theor growth plate is thesite of growth in length. When bone growth stops, thesite of growth in length. When bone growth stops, theepiphyseal plate is replaced by bone and is called theepiphyseal plate is replaced by bone and is called the

epiphyseal lineepiphyseal line.. Bones contain cavities such as the largeBones contain cavities such as the large medullary cavitymedullary cavity inin

the diaphysis, and the smaller cavities in the epiphyses of longthe diaphysis, and the smaller cavities in the epiphyses of longbones and in the interior of other bones.bones and in the interior of other bones.


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The medullary cavities of bones are filled with eitherThe medullary cavities of bones are filled with either yellowyellow ororred marrowred marrow..

The outer surface of bone is covered by a connective tissue layerThe outer surface of bone is covered by a connective tissue layer

called thecalled the periosteumperiosteum which contains blood vessels and nerves.which contains blood vessels and nerves. The surface of the medullary cavity is lined with a thinnerThe surface of the medullary cavity is lined with a thinner

connective tissue membrane, theconnective tissue membrane, the endosteumendosteum..

There are two major types of bones:There are two major types of bones: compact bonecompact bone which iswhich is

mostly solid matrix and cells with few spaces, andmostly solid matrix and cells with few spaces, and cancellouscancellousbonebone which has many spaces within a lacy network of bone.which has many spaces within a lacy network of bone.


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Compact boneCompact bone tissue consists of Haversian systems which aretissue consists of Haversian systems which are

actually osteocytes organized into lamellae surroundingactually osteocytes organized into lamellae surrounding

Haversian canals.Haversian canals.

Cancellous boneCancellous bone tissue consists of trabeculae withouttissue consists of trabeculae without

Haversian canals.Haversian canals.


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Bone OssificationBone Ossification

INTRAMEMBRANOUSINTRAMEMBRANOUS

This is bone formation that occurs within connectiveThis is bone formation that occurs within connectivetissue membranes. It occurs when osteoblasts begin to producetissue membranes. It occurs when osteoblasts begin to produce

bone on the surface of connective tissue fibers and deposit bonebone on the surface of connective tissue fibers and deposit bonematrix to form trabeculae. This occurs primarily in the bonesmatrix to form trabeculae. This occurs primarily in the bonesof the skull.of the skull.

ENDOCHONRALENDOCHONRAL

This is bone formation that occurs within cartilage and isThis is bone formation that occurs within cartilage and isobserved in the base of the skull and most of the remainingobserved in the base of the skull and most of the remainingskeletal system. Cartilage cells proliferate, enlarge and dieskeletal system. Cartilage cells proliferate, enlarge and diewhile osteoblasts invade the spaces left by the dying cartilages.while osteoblasts invade the spaces left by the dying cartilages.


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Bone GrowthBone Growth

APPOSITIONALAPPOSITIONAL

This is growth of new bone on the surface of existingThis is growth of new bone on the surface of existing

bone. It results as the osteoblasts deposit bone matrix on thebone. It results as the osteoblasts deposit bone matrix on the

surface of bones between the periosteum and the existing bone.surface of bones between the periosteum and the existing bone.

ENDOCHONDRALENDOCHONDRAL

This occurs in the epiphyseal plate. Cartilage cellsThis occurs in the epiphyseal plate. Cartilage cells

proliferate in the epiphyseal plate, line up in columns parallelproliferate in the epiphyseal plate, line up in columns parallelto the long axis of the bone, causing elongation of the bone,to the long axis of the bone, causing elongation of the bone,

and then enlarge and die. The dying cartilage is replaced byand then enlarge and die. The dying cartilage is replaced by

osteoblasts, which start forming bone.osteoblasts, which start forming bone.


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Bone RemodelingBone Remodeling

Bone remodelingBone remodeling involves the removal of old bone by cellsinvolves the removal of old bone by cells

called thecalled the osteoclastsosteoclasts and the deposition of new bone byand the deposition of new bone by

osteoblastsosteoblasts..

Bone is the major storage site for calcium in the body. BloodBone is the major storage site for calcium in the body. Bloodcalcium levels depend on the release or storage of the mineralcalcium levels depend on the release or storage of the mineral

within the bone matrix.within the bone matrix.


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Bone RepairBone Repair

BONE INJURY

Blood vessels

bleed with

formation ofclot

Cells produce a

fibrous network

between the

broken bones

Cartilage is

produced within

the fibrous

network

Osteoblasts

enter the callus

and form

cancellous bone

Cancellous

bone is

replaced by

compact bone

BONE REPAIR


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Bone FracturesBone Fractures

BASED ON INTACTNESS OF SKINBASED ON INTACTNESS OF SKIN

Open (bone protrudes through an open wound)Open (bone protrudes through an open wound)

Closed (intact skin)Closed (intact skin)

BASED ONTRANSECTIONOFBONEBASED ONTRANSECTIONOFBONE

Complete (fracture complete separates the fragments)Complete (fracture complete separates the fragments)

Incomplete (fracture does not completely separate the bone)Incomplete (fracture does not completely separate the bone)

Hairline (fracture occurs within the substance of bone)Hairline (fracture occurs within the substance of bone) BASED ONNUMBER OF FRAGMENTSBASED ONNUMBER OF FRAGMENTS

Simple (bone separates cleanly in two fragments)Simple (bone separates cleanly in two fragments)

Comminuted (shattered fragments)Comminuted (shattered fragments)


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Bone FracturesBone Fractures

BASED ONSHAPE OF FRACTUREBASED ONSHAPE OF FRACTURE

Linear (parallel to the long axis)Linear (parallel to the long axis)

Transverse (at right angles to the long axisTransverse (at right angles to the long axis

Oblique (at an angle other than a right angle to the longOblique (at an angle other than a right angle to the long

axis)axis)


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Bone AnatomyBone Anatomy

There areThere are 206206 bones, which can be classified by shape and location.bones, which can be classified by shape and location.


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AXIAL SKELETONAXIAL SKELETON

SkullSkull

Vertebral columnVertebral column

Thoracic cageThoracic cage

APPENDICULAR SKELETONAPPENDICULAR SKELETON

Pectoral girdlePectoral girdle

Upper limbUpper limb

Pelvic girdlePelvic girdle

Lower limbLower limb


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ARTICULATIONSARTICULATIONS

Fibrous jointsFibrous joints

Cartilaginous jointsCartilaginous joints

Synovial jointsSynovial joints


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SkullSkull

TheThe skullskull consists of 22 bones, divided between the cranialconsists of 22 bones, divided between the cranial

vault and face.vault and face.

From a lateral view, the parietal, temporal, and sphenoidFrom a lateral view, the parietal, temporal, and sphenoid

bones can be seen.bones can be seen.

From a coronal view, the orbits, nasal cavity can be seen, asFrom a coronal view, the orbits, nasal cavity can be seen, as

well as associated bones and structures, such as the frontalwell as associated bones and structures, such as the frontal

bone, zygomatic bone, maxilla, and mandible.bone, zygomatic bone, maxilla, and mandible.

The interior of the cranial vault contains fossae.The interior of the cranial vault contains fossae.

From below, the base reveals numerous foramina andFrom below, the base reveals numerous foramina and

processes for muscle attachment.processes for muscle attachment.

Sk llSk ll (L l )(L l )


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SkullSkull (Lateral view)(Lateral view)

Mandible

Temporal

bone

Occipitalbone

Frontal

bone

Sphenoidbone

Zygomatic

bone

Zygomatic

arch

Parietal

bone

Sk llSk ll (F l i )(F l i )


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SkullSkull (Frontal view)(Frontal view)

Frontal

bone

Nasal

bone

Nasal

septum

Zygomatic

bone

Orbit

Lacrimal

bone

Maxilla

Mandible

V b l C lV b l C l


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Vertebral ColumnVertebral Column

TheThe vertebral columnvertebral column containscontains 7 cervical, 12 thoracic,7 cervical, 12 thoracic, andand 55

lumbarlumbar vertebrae, plusvertebrae, plus 1 sacral1 sacral andand 1 coccygeal1 coccygeal bone.bone.

Each vertebra consists of a body and an arch.Each vertebra consists of a body and an arch.

V b l C lV b l C l


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Cervical vertebraeCervical vertebrae have transverse foramina. With thehave transverse foramina. With the

exception of one vertebra, all cervical vertebrae have a body.exception of one vertebra, all cervical vertebrae have a body.

V b l C lV b l C l


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Thoracic vertebraeThoracic vertebrae have long spinous processes and attachmenthave long spinous processes and attachment

sites for ribs.sites for ribs.

V b l C lV b l C l


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Lumbar vertebraeLumbar vertebrae have square transverse processes andhave square transverse processes and

spinous processes.spinous processes.

V b l C lV b l C l


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TheThe sacrumsacrum is a single fused bone,is a single fused bone, while thewhile the coccyxcoccyx is theis the

vestigial tail bone in humans.vestigial tail bone in humans.

Th i CTh i C


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Thoracic CageThoracic Cage

TheThe thoracic cagethoracic cage consists of thoracic vertebrae, ribs, andconsists of thoracic vertebrae, ribs, and

sternum. There are 12sternum. There are 12 ribsribs: 7 true and 5 false ribs.: 7 true and 5 false ribs.

Th STh S


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The SternumThe Sternum

TheThe sternumsternum consists of theconsists of the manubrium, bodymanubrium, body andand xiphoidxiphoid

processprocess..

Th A di l Sk l tTh A di l Sk l t


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The Appendicular SkeletonThe Appendicular Skeleton

TheThe appendicularappendicular skeleton consists of the bones of theskeleton consists of the bones of the upperupper

andand lowerlower limbs, and theirlimbs, and their girdles.girdles.

TheThe pectoral girdlepectoral girdle includes theincludes the scapulascapula and theand the clavicleclavicle..

TheThe upper limbupper limb contains thecontains the humerushumerus, the, the radioradio--ulnaulna, the, the

carpal bonescarpal bones, the, the metacarpalsmetacarpals, and the, and the phalangesphalanges..

TheThe pelvic girdlepelvic girdle is made up of theis made up of the sacrumsacrum, and the, and the coxaecoxae

(ischium, ilium, pubis)(ischium, ilium, pubis)..

Th A di l Sk l tTh A di l Sk l t


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The Appendicular SkeletonThe Appendicular Skeleton

TheThe lower limblower limb includes theincludes the femurfemur, the, the tibiotibio--fibulafibula, the, the

tarsalstarsals, the, the metatarsalsmetatarsals, and the, and the phalangesphalanges..

A ti l tiA ti l ti


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ArticulationsArticulations

AnAn articulationarticulation oror jointjoint is a place where two bones comeis a place where two bones come

together. A joint is usually considered movable, but that istogether. A joint is usually considered movable, but that is

not always the case. Many joints exhibit limited movement,not always the case. Many joints exhibit limited movement,

and others are completely, or almost completely immovable.and others are completely, or almost completely immovable. Joints are classified according to the major connective tissueJoints are classified according to the major connective tissue

type that binds the bones together and whether there is a fluidtype that binds the bones together and whether there is a fluid--

filled joint capsule.filled joint capsule.

The three major classes of joints areThe three major classes of joints are fibrous, cartilaginousfibrous, cartilaginous,,

andand synovialsynovial..

Fibr J intFibr J int


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Fibrous JointsFibrous Joints

Fibrous jointsFibrous joints consist of bones united by cartilage, and theyconsist of bones united by cartilage, and they

exhibit slight movement.exhibit slight movement.

SuturesSutures are fibrous joints between the bones of the skull.are fibrous joints between the bones of the skull.

SyndesmosesSyndesmoses are fibrous joints where the bones are separatedare fibrous joints where the bones are separated

by some distance and are held together by ligaments.by some distance and are held together by ligaments.

GomphosesGomphoses consist of pegs fitted into sockets and held in placeconsist of pegs fitted into sockets and held in place

by ligaments.by ligaments.

C rtil ino s JointsC rtil ino s Joints


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Cartilaginous JointsCartilaginous Joints

Cartilaginous jointsCartilaginous joints unite two bones by means of cartilage.unite two bones by means of cartilage.

Only slight movement can occur at these joints. The cartilagesOnly slight movement can occur at these joints. The cartilages

between the ribs and sternum are examples.between the ribs and sternum are examples.

Synovial JointsSynovial Joints


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Synovial jointsSynovial joints are freely movable joints that containare freely movable joints that contain synovialsynovial

fluidfluid in a cavity surrounding the ends of articulating bones.in a cavity surrounding the ends of articulating bones.

The articular surfaces of bones within synovial joints areThe articular surfaces of bones within synovial joints are

covered with a thin layer ofcovered with a thin layer of articular cartilagearticular cartilage,which provides,which providesa smooth surface where the bones meet.a smooth surface where the bones meet.

TheThe joint cavityjoint cavity is filled with synovial fluid.is filled with synovial fluid.

The cavity is enclosed by aThe cavity is enclosed by a joint capsulejoint capsule which helps to holdwhich helps to holdthe bones together and, at the same time, allows for movement.the bones together and, at the same time, allows for movement.



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AA synovial membranesynovial membrane lines the joint cartilage everywherelines the joint cartilage everywhere

except over the articular cartilage. The membrane producesexcept over the articular cartilage. The membrane produces

the synovial fluid which is a complex mixture ofthe synovial fluid which is a complex mixture of

polysaccharides, proteins, fats, and cells.polysaccharides, proteins, fats, and cells. In certain synovial joints, the synovial membrane may extendIn certain synovial joints, the synovial membrane may extend

as a pocket or sac, called aas a pocket or sac, called a bursabursa which functions to reducewhich functions to reduce

friction in areas where structures rub together, such as where afriction in areas where structures rub together, such as where a

tendon crosses a bone.tendon crosses a bone.



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PlanePlane oror glidinggliding joints consist of two opposed flat surfaces thatjoints consist of two opposed flat surfaces that

glide over each other (intervertebral joints).glide over each other (intervertebral joints).



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HingeHinge joints permit movement in one plane only. They consistjoints permit movement in one plane only. They consist

of a convex cylinder of one bone applied to a correspondingof a convex cylinder of one bone applied to a corresponding

concavity on the other bone (knee and elbow).concavity on the other bone (knee and elbow).



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SaddleSaddle joints consist of two saddlejoints consist of two saddle--shaped articulating surfacesshaped articulating surfaces

oriented at right angles to one another. Movement can occuroriented at right angles to one another. Movement can occur

in two planes (base of the thumb).in two planes (base of the thumb).



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PivotPivot joints restrict movement to rotation around a singlejoints restrict movement to rotation around a single

axis. Each pivot joint consists of a cylindrical bony processaxis. Each pivot joint consists of a cylindrical bony process

that rotates within a ring composed partly of bone and partlythat rotates within a ring composed partly of bone and partly

ligament (atlas and axis).ligament (atlas and axis).



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BallBall--andand--socketsocket joints consist of a ball (head) at the end ofjoints consist of a ball (head) at the end of

one bone, and a socket in an adjacent bone into which aone bone, and a socket in an adjacent bone into which a

portion of the ball fits. This allows for a wide range of motionportion of the ball fits. This allows for a wide range of motion

in almost any direction (shoulder and hip joints).in almost any direction (shoulder and hip joints).

Types of MovementTypes of Movement


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FlexionFlexion means to bend a joint.means to bend a joint.

ExtensionExtension refers to straightening of a joint.refers to straightening of a joint.

AbductionAbduction of most joints if movement away from the midline.of most joints if movement away from the midline.

AdductionAdduction is movement toward the midline.is movement toward the midline.

PronationPronation is rotation of the forearm so that the palm facesis rotation of the forearm so that the palm faces

posteriorly.posteriorly.

SupinationSupination is rotation of the forearm so that the palm facesis rotation of the forearm so that the palm facesanteriorly.anteriorly.



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RotationRotation is the turning of a structure around its long axis.is the turning of a structure around its long axis.

CircumductionCircumduction occurs at freely movable joints such as theoccurs at freely movable joints such as the

shoulder. In circumduction, the arm moves so that it describesshoulder. In circumduction, the arm moves so that it describes

a cone with the shoulder joint at the apex.a cone with the shoulder joint at the apex.

Documents

Ana-Physio 1