An environmental assessment method for cleaner production technologies

Journal of Cleaner Production 15 (2007) 914e919www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

An environmental assessment method for cleaner productiontechnologies

Tadeusz Fija1

Department of Technology and Ecology of Products, Cracow University of Economics, Rakowicka 27, 31-510 Krakow, Poland

Received 4 February 2004; accepted 11 November 2005

Available online 4 January 2006

Abstract

An environmental assessment method for cleaner production technologies enabling quantitative analysis of environmental impact is pre-sented.

The proposed method is based on material and energy flows and uses a set of profile indices, including raw material, energy, waste, productand packaging profiles that describe all material and energy flows related to the technology under investigation. The indices are used as a basisfor determining an integrated index for overall environmental assessment of cleaner production technologies.

The presented method can be employed to evaluate environmental nuisance of implemented, modernised and modified technological pro-cesses and products as well to perform comparative analyses of alternative technologies.� 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Cleaner production; Technology environmental assessment; Profile unit indices; Integrated index for environmental assessment of cleaner production

technologies

1. Introduction

An environmental assessment, in particular a valuation ofenvironmental impact of technical facilities, is a relativelynew research subject. Previously, the related research studieson pollutant emission levels, volume of generated wastes ordischarged effluents, documented relationships between themanufacturing activity and deterioration of environmentalquality. As a result, increasingly pressures are being broughton companies and industrial regions to make dramatic im-provements in their environmental and economic performance,at the same time.

Currently, there is an increasing awareness and acceptanceof environmental problems caused by human activities andtherefore, the urgent need to reduce the adverse environmentalimpacts of manufacturing processes and products. In order toassist corporate and regional leaders to make further progresswith implementing preventative approaches such as the

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cleaner production strategy, to reduce such negative impacts,the author believes that an overall assessment of technologicalprocesses for their harmfulness to the environment to findrelationships between indices describing environmental nui-sance of industrial activities and the manufacturing processesis of great importance.

Therefore, to improve implementation of the concepts andapproaches of Cleaner Production, i.e. application of the over-all preventive environmental management strategy for pro-cesses and products, it is necessary to develop tools thatenable one to quantitatively analyse relative environmentalimpacts for proecological measures to be taken to replace cur-rent practices.

Several methods [1e13] are employed to perform such as-sessments, mainly those using the following procedures:

e Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) to evaluateplanned projects (including technological process);

e Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), i.e. environmental impactassessment related to the whole life cycle of product (facil-ity), including all life cycle steps.

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915T. Fija1 / Journal of Cleaner Production 15 (2007) 914e919

Both methods are based on assessment of predicted envi-ronmental impacts related to the evaluated product (facility).

Regardless of facility to be assessed, both methods use thesame or similar tools, including, for example, checklists, ma-trix methods, networks, histograms or multi-criteria decision-making models [12,14].

In both methods an assessment includes important compo-nents such as:

e environmental characteristics of the technology, ande environmental characteristics of the product.

These procedures are most often used separately and con-sist of individual assessments of hazards of the analysed tech-nological process or manufactured product.

The concept of the new method for environmental assess-ment of cleaner production technologies enabling overall eval-uation of environmental hazards related to implementation oftechnological processes and impact of manufactured product ispresented in this paper.

2. Assumption of the method for environmentalassessment of cleaner production technologies

The proposed method for environmental assessment ofcleaner production technologies consists of evaluations of en-vironmental hazards while enabling quantitative analysis ofenvironmental loading expressed by material and energy flowsexchanged between the technological processes under investi-gation (including manufactured product) and the environment.The technological process is considered as a sequence of unitprocesses and operations required to manufacture the productunder consideration.

The method is based on analysis of materials and energyflows and uses a set of profile indices describing quantitatively,all materials and energy flows related to the analysed technol-ogy. A flow chart of such technological process including pro-files of analysed material and energy flows is presented inFig. 1.

To avoid any incorrect results of assessment, when prepar-ing the materials and energy characteristics (‘‘input’’ and‘‘output’’ balance), the materials and energy flows should

TECHNOLOGICALPROCESS

Raw MaterialFlows

(raw material profile)

Energy Flows(energy profile)

Waste Flows(waste profile)

Product Flows(product profile)

Packaging Used(packaging profile)

Fig. 1. Material and energy flows included into analysis of technological

processes.

not be expressed in absolute quantities and must be referredto the production volume in the analysed period. Thisprevents false conclusions to be drawn related, for instance,to considerable improvement in the environment, while de-creasing the production volume and reducing the pollutionlevel.

When preparing the environmental characteristics for thetechnology under investigation the following items weretaken into account (according to the flow chart presented inFig. 1):

e raw material profile;e energy profile;e waste profile;e product profile;e packaging profile.

The raw material profile comprises raw material character-istics, including quantitative data related to all raw materialflows (primary raw materials, auxiliary raw materials, materi-als) assigned to the technology under consideration.

The energy profile contains an energy assessment, includ-ing quantitative data related to consumption of all powerraw material flows (solid, liquid and gaseous fuels) and anykind of energy (heat, electricity) used in the process.

The waste profile consists of the characteristics of wastegeneration by the technology, including quantitative data relat-ed to all waste flows (solid, liquid and gaseous wastes) gener-ated in the process.

The product profile contains an environmental assessmentof products, including quantitative data related to productflows of adverse environmental impacts resulting from thetechnological process.

The packaging profile comprises environmental character-istics of packaging materials used in the technological process,including quantitative data related to any kind of packaging,while considering its negative environmental impact.

In each profile the analysed technology is described withprofile unit indices that determine the quantity of individualmass and energy flows per unit mass of manufactured products.

3. Profile unit indices

3.1. Raw material unit index

In raw material profile the raw material unit index (Ws), de-fined in Table 1, is used.

Index Ws includes all raw materials involved in the techno-logical process (except for energy raw materials and raw ma-terials recovered by recycling), including primary rawmaterials, auxiliary materials and water used for technologicalor cooling purposes.

3.2. Energy unit index

In energy profile the energy unit index (We), defined inTable 2, is used. Index We includes total consumption of direct

916 T. Fija1 / Journal of Cleaner Production 15 (2007) 914e919

energy (directly used in the technological process), being thesum of primary energy (fuel energy) and derivative energy(processed) e electricity and heat. The consumption of all en-ergy raw materials (solid, liquid and gaseous fuels) related tothe technological process as well as electric power and heatenergy used in the process is expressed in weight of standardfuel from the following formula:

1 t:p:u:¼ 1 Mt hard coalðQw ¼ 29;3076 MJ=kgÞ; ð1Þ

where:

t.p.u. e ton of standard fuel,Mt e metric ton¼ 1000 kg,Qw e calorific value of hard coal (standard fuel).

The total consumption of energy (heat, electricity) used inthe technological process to manufacture product flows e ex-pressed in weight of standard fuel e is reduced by amount ofsecondary energy (wew), recovered and used in the process.

3.3. Waste generation unit index

In waste profile the waste generation unit index (Wo), in-cluding all types of wastes generated in the technological pro-cess, is defined in Table 3.

Gaseous wastes include all dust and gas pollutants emittedinto the atmosphere containing dusts and gases such as: SO2,

Table 1

Set of formulas and factors taken into account when computing the raw mate-

rial unit index

Raw material unit index (Ws)

Ws ¼Pni¼1

wsi;

wsi ¼msi

mcp

;

where:

wsi e partial raw material unit index for i-th primary raw material,

msi e weight of i-th primary raw material used in the technological process,

mcp e total weight of all products manufactured in the technological process.

Table 2

Set of formulas and factors taken into account when computing the energy unit

index

Energy unit index (We)

We ¼Pni¼1

wei � wew;

wei ¼zei

mcp

;

wew ¼zew

mcp

;

where:

wei e partial energy unit index for i-th power raw material,

wew e secondary energy unit index for energy recovered in the process,

zei e consumption of i-th power raw material expressed in weight of standard

fuel,

zew e amount of secondary energy expressed in weight of standard fuel,


NOx, CO, CO2, hydrocarbons and other hazardous gaseoussubstances.

The partial indices wosi, wocj and wogk are computed forweight of wastes discharged directly into the environment, af-ter considering waste neutralisation methods employed in theanalysed technological process.

When computing Wo all types of wastes are taken into ac-count, including:

e wastes generated in the technological process to manufac-ture product flows;

e unprocessed raw materials and unused products;e auxiliary materials used, not designed for recycling;e energy wastes;e sewages.

The relative toxicity indices for solid (kosi), liquid (kocj) andgaseous wastes (kogk), are derived from toxicity indices (k)based on charges for storage, discharge or emission of 1 Mtof pollutant (waste), defined and computed (for all groups,subgroups and kinds of pollutants listed in the catalogue ofwastes), presented as Appendices in Ref. [6].

The relative toxicity indices for wastes are defined as theratio of toxicity index (k) for the given substance dischargedinto the environment to the maximum value of this index(kmax) obtained for three waste groups (air pollutants, waterpollutants and deposited solid wastes).

3.4. Product unit index

In product profile the product unit index (Wp), includingflows of manufactured products of adverse environmental im-pact (environmental unfriendly), is defined in Table 4.

Index kpi used in formula defining the product unit indexexpresses an estimated hazard load related to the manufac-tured product and its environmental impact. It can determine

Table 3

Set of formulas and factors taken into account when computing the waste gen-

eration unit index

Waste generation unit index (Wo)

Wo ¼Pni¼1

ðwosi � kosiÞ þPmj¼1

�wocj � kocj

�þPl

k¼1

�wogk � kogk

� �kosi; kocj; kogk � 1

�;

wosi ¼mosi

mcp

;

wocj ¼mocj

mcp

;

wogk ¼mogk

mcp

;

where:

wosi e partial waste generation unit index for i-th solid waste,

wocj e partial waste generation unit index for j-th liquid waste,

wogk e partial waste generation unit index for k-th gaseous waste,

kosi e relative toxicity index for i-th solid waste,

kocj e relative toxicity index for j-th liquid waste,

kogk e relative toxicity index for k-th gaseous waste,

mosi e weight of i-th solid waste generated in the technological process,

mocj e weight of j-th liquid waste generated in the technological process,

mogk e weight of k-th gaseous waste generated in the technological process,



percentage by weight for hazardous substances contained inthe manufactured product or percentage of weight for noxious,environmental unfriendly components (details) included intothe product.

When computing index Wp all primary products and by-products manufactured in the technological process are takeninto account (except for by-products used in regeneration ofauxiliary raw materials or recycling) of adverse environmentalimpact (for safe, environmental friendly products kpi¼ 0).

The products of particular hazard to the environment and hu-man health contain a hazardous substance that, according to theact on chemical substances and preparations [15], includesexplosives, oxidants, highly flammable, toxicants, noxious sub-stances, caustics, irritants, allergens, carcinogens, mutagens,harmful to reproductive system and ecotoxic substances.

In addition, there are following environmental unfriendlyproducts:

e products that during its life cycle (use) turn into environ-mentally noxious wastes, and

e products containing implemented technical solutions thathinder repairs and disassembling for extracting worn partsor recovery of worn parts and reuse for other uses after theproduct lost its useful properties.

The list of environmental friendly products that should notbe taken into account when determining Wp includes amongother things:

e products free of hazardous substances and reusable by re-cycling or regeneration after being completely useless;

e products generating no secondary wastes;e products of extended service life, designed for long-term

use due to enhanced durability or renewal;e reusable products (multiple use);e refillable products (multiple fill);e compostable products; ande degradable products.

Table 4

Set of formulas and factors taken into account when computing the product

unit index

Product unit index (Wp)

Wp ¼Pni¼1

�wpi � kpi

� �kpi ¼ 0;.; 1

�;

wpi ¼mpi

mcp

;

kpi ¼msui

mpji

;

where:

wpi e partial product unit index for i-th product,

kpi e environmental nuisance index for i-th product,

mpi e weight of i-th kind of products manufactured in the technological

process,

mcp e total weight of all products manufactured in the technological process,

msui e weight of environmentally noxious (hazardous) components in i-th unit

product,

mpji e weight of i-th unit product manufactured in the technological process.

3.5. Packaging unit index

In packaging profile the packaging unit index (Wv), includ-ing adverse environmental impact of packaging materials usedin the technological process, is defined in Table 5.

The index kvi used in formula defining the packaging unitindex indicates an estimated relative environmental loading re-lated to packaging materials used in the technological process.

The value of relative environmental loading index (kvi) forcommon packaging materials is based on the results of envi-ronmental assessment of packaging materials presented inRefs. [16e19].

The determination of relative environmental loading index(kvi) is based on a scale presented in Ref. [17] obtained by us-ing the environmental assessment method for packaging mate-rials based on subjective expert’s evaluations and enabling thegeneral environmental impact of packaging materials to be de-fined while using basic criteria of environmental assessmentand a scale proposed by the Friends of the Earth Netherlands.

Based on the results presented in Refs. [16e19], a newclassification scheme was developed for packaging materialassessment allowing relative environmental loading (kvi) tobe determined for packaging materials being commonly used.

By using the basic criteria for environmental assessment,including environmental degradation, consumption of naturalresources and energy, emissions, production of solid wastesand effects on human health, the following scale of 0e3 wasadopted for 9 most frequently used packaging materials underconsideration:

e insignificant environmental impact: 0,e low environmental impact: 1,e harmful environmental impact: 2,e highly harmful environmental impact: 3.

The total score for given packaging material derived fromindividual criteria of environmental assessment was consid-ered as the total environmental loading index (kvs).

Table 5

Set of formulas and factors taken into account when computing the packaging

unit index

Packaging unit index (Wv)

Wv ¼Pni¼1

ðwvi � kviÞ ðkvi � 1Þ;

wvi ¼mvi

mcp

;

kvi ¼kvs

kvs max

;

where:

wvi e partial packaging unit index for i-th packaging material,

kvi e relative environmental loading index for i-th packaging material,

mvi e weight of i-th kind of packaging material used in the technological

process,

mcp e total weight of all products manufactured in the technological process,

kvs e total environmental loading index for given packaging material,

kvs max e maximum value of total environmental loading index for packaging

materials under consideration.

918 T. Fija1 / Journal of Cleaner Production 15 (2007) 914e919

When considering the value of this index obtained for pack-aging materials under investigation and the maximum value

determined for aluminium packaging (kvs max¼ 13), the rela-tive environmental loading index for i-th packaging material(kvi) was used.

The results of environmental assessment for principal pack-aging materials are listed in Table 6.

When determining index Wv all types of packaging materi-als being used are taken into account (for products manufac-tured without packaging Wv¼ 0).

4. Integrated environmental assessment indexfor cleaner production technologies

The above profile indices Ws, We, Wo, Wp and Wv based onanalysis of material and energy flows are used for determiningthe integrated environmental assessment index for cleanerproduction technologies, as proposed by the author. The inte-grated index is a mathematical expression describing thedeveloped model for overall environmental assessment ofthe technological process, while considering environmentalquality of the manufactured products.

The proposed integrated environmental assessment indexfor cleaner production technologies (Wz) is equal to the squareroot of the sum of squares of profile indices (Ws, We, Wo, Wp

and Wv) and can be written as follows:

Wz ¼ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiðWsÞ2þðWeÞ2þðWoÞ2þ

�Wp

�2þðWvÞ2q

ð2Þ

Wz¼

ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi Xn

i¼1

wsi

!2

þ Xn

i¼1

wei�wew

!2

þ Xn

i¼1

ðwosi�kosiÞþXm

j¼1

�wocj�k

vuut

When using partial unit indices defined in equations pre-sented in Tables 1e5, the above formula takes the following form:

The integrated environmental assessment index (Wz) forcleaner production technologies is a direct measure of environ-mental quality of the technological process, thus enabling theintensity of environmental impact to be estimated quantitative-ly for the analysed technology, while considering consumptionof raw materials and energy carriers, flows of manufacturedproducts and generated wastes and the use of specified pack-aging types.

The value of integrated environmental assessment index(Wz) for cleaner production technologies indicates an overallhazard created by the technological process under investiga-tion. The smaller the value of this index the lower environmen-tal nuisance of the analysed technology.

For final assessment of the obtained results a five point clas-sification scheme for determining the degree of environmentalnuisance of technological processes under investigation basedon the values of (Wz) is proposed. The environmental nuisanceclassification scheme is presented in Table 7.

The proposed model for environmental assessment ofcleaner production technologies has been verified on selectedtechnological processes and checked for sensitivity and usabil-ity limitations in the context of competitive methods used forenvironmental assessment of technological processes [20].

The developed model for complex environmental assess-ment of technological processes, including also environmentalassessment of manufactured products and its packaging isbased on a set of profile unit indices computed by using partialindices and introduced correction coefficients describing

ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiocj

�þXl

k¼1

�wogk�kogk

�!2

þ Xn

i¼1

�wpi�kpi

�!2

þ Xn

i¼1

ðwvi�kviÞ!2

ð3Þ

Table 6

A scale for environmental impact assessment of common packaging materials

Assessment criteria Packaging material type

Glass Paper (board) PE PVC PP PS PET Steel sheet Aluminium

Environmental degradation 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2

Consumption of natural

resources

0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 2

Consumption of energy 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3

Emissions 1 1 0 3 1 2 2 2 3

Solid wastes generated 1 1 1 3 1 2 1 2 3

Effect on human health 0 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 0

Environmental loading

indicesTotal environmental loading

index (kvs)

4 5 5 12 6 8 7 8 13

Maximum value kvs (kvs max) e e e e e e e e 13

Relative environmental

loading index (kvi)

0.3 0.4 0.4 0.9 0.5 0.6 0.5 0.6 1.0

Source: Ref. [17].


quantitatively material and energy flows related to the technol-ogy under investigation. In addition, the model includes basicsources of environmental hazards related to the analysed tech-nology. The model can be extended to include additional com-ponents (partial indices), depending on specific features of thetechnology under consideration and to cover other environ-mental impacts such as acoustic nuisance, vibrations or elec-tromagnetic fields.

5. Conclusions

The proposed method for environmental assessment ofcleaner production technologies allows:

e overall evaluation of environmental hazards resulting fromthe technological process and manufactured products;

e quantitative analysis of environmental loading relatedto material and energy flows used in the process aswell to flows of environmental unfriendly products andwastes;

e recovery of secondary materials from wastes and recyclingto be taken into account;

e consumption of any power raw materials and use of energyrecovered in the process to be considered;

e any flows of industrial wastes (solid, liquid and gaseous) tobe taken into account;

e any flows of manufactured environmentally noxious prod-ucts to be included;

e environmental loading resulting from packages used in theprocess to be included in the environmental assessment.

The proposed method can be employed, for example, toassess:

e environmental nuisance of implemented technologicalprocesses and manufactured products;

e modernisation or modification of the technologicalprocess;

e to carry out comparative analyses of alternative technolo-gies (or designs) leading to the manufacture of the sameproduct or of a modified product.

Table 7

Environmental nuisance classification scheme for analysed technological

processes

Degree of environmental

nuisance related to the

technological process

Integrated environmental

assessment index for cleaner

production technologies (Wz)

Very low (insignificant) Below 25

Low 25e50

Medium 51e100

High 101e200

Very high Above 200

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